The History of IndonesiaYear Era

100 - 1500 Ancient Kingdoms and the Coming of Islam1500 - 1670 Great Kings and Trade Empires 1670 - 1800 Court Intrigues and the Dutch 1800 - 1830 Chaos and Resistance 1830 - 1910 Dutch Imperialisme1910 - 1940 New Nationalism 1940 - 1945 Perang Dunia II 1945 - 1950 War of Independence 1950 - 1965 The Sukarno years 1965 - 1998 The Suharto years

100 - 1500 (Ancient Kingdoms and the Coming of Islam)

about 100

"Dvipantara" or "Jawa Dwipa" kingdom is reported by Indian scholars to be in Java and Sumatra.

Prince Aji Saka introduces writing system to Java based on scripts of southern India.

Hindu kings rule the area around Kutai on Kalimantan.

"Langasuka" kingdom founded around Kedah in Malaya.

Hinduism, one of Indonesia's five religions.

Early civilization in Java and Sumatra was heavily influenced by India. Today's cultures in Indonesia, and even the language, still show influences from the Sanskrit language and literature.

(The first thousand years or so of this timeline are not well-documented. Dates are approximate.)

about 400

Taruma kingdom flourishes in West Java. In these early days, many new plants were introduced into Indonesia, including pepper and teak. about 425

Buddhism reaches Sumatra.

Records from these days in Indonesia are scarce, but we do know that sophisticated cultures already existed. The kings and cities of Sumatra and Java are mentioned in records from China, because ambassadors were sent there. Arabs and Persians knew about the area from traders, and even the Greeks and Romans had very distant reports.

Records from inside Indonesia are very few, though, since writing was done on palm leaves and other materials that did not survive well. Much of our knowledge comes from stone buildings and inscriptions. By the time we start to get a clear history of Java and Sumatra, there are already great buildings in stone, fine sculptures, classical music and dance, much as we know them today.

about 500

Beginning of Srivijaya kingdom near Palembang, in Sumatra.

about 600

Settlers from India arrive in the area of Prambanan in central Java.

Melayu kingdom flourishes around present-day Jambi on Sumatra.

about 650

Taruma kingdom in West Java is taken by Srivijaya.

about 670

Chinese traveller I Ching visits Palembang, capital of Srivijaya.

Hindu temples built in the high Dieng plateau of central Java.

686

Srivijaya sends expedition against kingdoms in Java.

By now, Srivijaya had also conquered Kedah, on the Malay peninsula.

about 700

Suwawa kingdom flourishes in North Sulawesi.

about 770

Sailendra King Vishnu begins building Borobudur.

Beginning of building activity on the plain of Prambanan. Buddhism, one of Indonesia's five religions.

about 790

Sailendra kingdom attacks and defeats Chenla (today Cambodia); rules over Chenla for about 12 years.

The Sailendra kings remembered that their ancestors came from what is now Thailand or Cambodia.

about 825

Sailendra King Samaratunga, grandson of Vishnu, finishes Borobudur.

BorobudurBorobudur is a huge Buddhist monument covering a volcanic hill a few miles between present-day Magelang and Yogyakarta. It is in levels representing the stages to enlightenment. The large central stupa is empty. The many beautiful relief sculptures may have been used to educate young monks.

about 835

Patapan of Sanjaya takes Sailendra throne, replaces Buddhism on Java with Hinduism.

King Balitung rules in central Java.

By this time, Buddhist culture had spread as far east as Lombok.

about 850

Balaputra, claimant to Sailendra throne, takes power in Srivijaya.

New Sanjaya king Daksa in central Java begins building Hindu temples at Prambanan.

King Warmadewa rules on Bali.

From about this time we have a version of the Ramayana epic in the Old Javanese language. The work is sophisticated, and there were probably many earlier such works in Old Javanese that have not survived.

929

Sanjaya King Mpu Sindok moves court from Mataram to East Java (near Jombang).

A major eruption of Mount Merapi in 928 or 929 may have been the reason that the king of Mataram and many of his subjects moved east.

about 947

Sri Isana Tunggawijaya, daughter of Mpu Sindok, succeeds Mpu Sindok as ruler in East Java.

about 975

King Udayana of Bali, father of Airlangga, is born.

985

Dharmavamsa becomes king of Mataram. He conquers Bali and founds a settlement in western Kalimantan.

Dharmavamsa is also remembered for ordering the translation of the Mahabharata into Javanese.

990

Dharmavamsa and Mataram send an army overseas to attack Srivijaya and take Palembang, but fail.

1006

Srivijaya attacks and destroys the capital of Mataram. The palace is burned, and Dharmavamsa is killed. Airlangga (then 15 years old) escapes the destruction.

1017

Rajendra Chola, king of Coromandel in India, attacks Srivijaya.

1019

Airlangga takes rule in eastern Java, founds Kahuripan kingdom, makes peace with Srivijaya, protects both Hindus and Buddhists. He extends his rule over central Java, eastern Java, and Bali.

Airlangga is remembered in today's Indonesia as a model of religious tolerance. He spent his early years living in the forests as an ascetic.

1025

Rajendra Chola of southern India takes Malay peninsula from Srivijaya for twenty years.

Airlangga extends the power and influence of Kahuripan as Srivijaya is weakened.

Around this time, Tumasik was a small kingdom on the site of today's Singapore. It may have been influenced by the newcomers from southern India.

Also around this time, the Panai kingdom was flourishing in the Batak areas of northern Sumatra.

1045

Airlangga divides Kahuripan into two kingdoms, Janggala (around today's Malang) and Kediri, for his two sons, and abdicates to live the life of an ascetic. He passes away a year later.

1068

Vira Rajendra, king of Coromandel, conquers Kedah from Srivijaya.

1135

King Joyoboyo takes rule in Kediri until 1157.

Joyoboyo is remembered for a prophecy that Indonesia would be ruled by a white race for a long time, then a yellow race for a short time, then be independent.

1221

Ken Angrok, local ruler of Tumapel, defeats the forces of Kediri (Battle of Genter).

1222

Ken Angrok founds the Singhasari kingdom.

Putri Dedes was the wife of Ken Angrok. She was the daughter of a Buddhist priest who was stolen away by the governor of Tumapel on Java. Ken Angrok himself stole Putri Dedes away from her first husband to be his wife, but she was already pregnant, and her son (later King Anusapati) was actually the son of the governor, Tunggul Ametung. Eventually Ken Angrok conspired to have Tunggul Ametung killed so that he could become ruler of Tumapel.

Tumapel paid tribute to Kediri until Ken Angrok became powerful enough to conquer Kediri for himself in 1222. The last ruler of Kediri, Kertajaya, was considered cruel and overbearing.

Putri Dedes was long remembered as the mother of the royal line of Singhasari, and later Majapahit, Mataram, Yogya and Solo.

1227

Ken Angrok dies, and is succeeded by Anusapati.

By now, Jambi was an independent kingdom on Sumatra.

1247

Anusapati dies after a peaceful 20-year reign. Tohjaya, son of Ken Angrok by a concubine, becomes king of Singhasari.

Tradition says that the kings of Singhasari during this period were all murdered by their successors, as part of the feud arising from Ken Angrok stealing away Putri Dedes.

1250

Tohjaya is killed in a rebellion and replaced as king by by Wisnuwardhana, son of Anusapati.

1268

King Wisnuwardhana of Singhasari dies, and is succeeded by Kertanegara. Kertanegara promotes a mixture of Hinduism and Buddhism.

1275

Kertanegara conquers the Melayu kingdom around Jambi on Sumatra.

1280

A group of Javanese from Kediri, unhappy with Kertanegara, settle around Kutai in Kalimantan.

1281

Muslims from Jambi send an embassy to Kublai Khan.

1284

Kertanegara takes Bali for Singhasari.

1289

Kublai Khan sends messengers to Singhasari to demand tribute; Kertanegara slashes their faces and sends them home.

1290

Kertanegara conquers Srivijaya.

1292

Marco Polo visits Sumatra and Java.

Kublai Khan prepares invasion fleet of 1000 ships to take Java.

Kertanegara killed in court rebellion; son-in-law Vijaya retreats and founds new court at Majapahit (today Trowulan), with the help of Arya Wiraraja, local ruler of Madura.

Bali breaks away from Singhasari under Pejeng kings at Ubud.

November Mongol fleet leaves for Java; lands at Tuban.

Majapahit was one of the few countries of that time to defeat a Mongol invasion, along with Japan and Egypt. However, the Mongol fleet was hit by a typhoon along the way, and was refused permission to land in Champa (in today's Vietnam) to take on supplies. By the time the fleet reached Tuban, the army was sickened and weak.

1293

Vijaya forms alliance with Mongol forces against remainder of Singhasari in Kediri, led by Jayakatwang.

March Combined force of Mongol/Chinese soldiers and Majapahit takes Kediri.

Vijaya returns to Trowulan, then attacks Mongols in a surprise attack. Mongols retreat and leave Java.

November Vijaya is enthroned as king Kertarajasa Jayawardhana of new Majapahit.

Vijaya being crowned the king of Majapahit, in a sculpture from that time.

Vijaya married all four daughters of the former king Kertanegara.

1297

Pasai in Sumatra converts to Islam. Sultan Malek Saleh is the first Muslim ruler in what is now Indonesia.

1309

Jayanegara becomes king of Majapahit.

1328

Jayanegara is assassinated, possibly with the help of Gajah Mada. Tribhuwana Wijayatungga Dewi (or Queen Suhita), daughter of Vijaya, is titular head until 1350.

Around this time, Odoric of Pordonone, a Franciscan monk from Italy, visited Java, Sumatra, and Kalimantan.

1331

Gajah Madah becomes patih or chief minister of Majapahit, rules as regent.

1333

Kingdom of Pajajaran is founded, with its capital at Pakuan near today's Bogor.

One of the few areas that were not conquered by Majapahit was the Sundanese area of West Java, the Kingdom of Pajajaran. It occasionally paid tribute to Majapahit, but was known for its independent behavior.

1334

Hayam Wuruk is born to Tribhuwana Wijayatungga Dewi; heir to line of Majapahit.

1343

Force under Gajah Madah defeats the Pejeng king of Bali, Daiem Bedaulu, and takes Bali for Majapahit.

Gajah Madah in a statue from the 1300s.

With Gajah Madah as chief minister, the kingdom of Majapahit gained control or collected tribute from most of what is now Indonesia. He is remembered for the "Palapa Oath", saying that he would refuse to eat spices in his food (palapa) until all the islands around were united under one rule. Today in Yogyakarta, the university is named for him.

1344

Arab traveller and writer Ibn Battuta visits Pasai on Sumatra.

1347

Adityavarman, king of Melayu or Jambi, rules Minangkabau for Majapahit.

Adityavarman had been kept at the court of Majapahit as a boy. When he came of age, he ruled over Melayu as a vassal of Majapahit, and extended the influence of Majapahit into the Minangkabau areas of Sumatra.

1350

Rajasanegara becomes King of Majapahit.

Majapahit conquers the Islamic kingdoms of Pasai and Aru (later Deli, near Medan) in northern Sumatra.

The poet Mpu Tantular of Majapahit, who lived about this time, is remembered for coining the motto "Bhinneka Tunggal Eka", which is Indonesia's national motto today. (The meaning is very similar to the United States' "E Pluribus Unum": "Unity in

Diversity".) 1364

Gajah Madah passes away. The many responsibilities that he handled are considered to be too burdensome for one normal person, so his duties are divided between four new government posts.

Hayam Wuruk becomes King of Majapahit.

1377

Majapahit sends a navy against Palembang, a remnant of Srivijaya, and conquers it.

The King of Palembang sent a courier to China, offering his kingdom to the emperor in exchange for protection. The Emperor of China accepted the offer, and sent officials in return, but by the time the officials got to Palembang, it had already been conquered by Majapahit, and they were executed.

1387

Empu Jamatka founds Banjarmasin.

1389

Hayam Wuruk passes away; beginning of decline of Majapahit.

1400

Aceh converts to Islam.

1401

War of succession begins in Majapahit, lasting four years. The power of Majapahit begins to lessen.

About this time, the kings of Gelgel began to rule as "dewa agung", or chief king, in Bali.

1402

Melaka founded by Parameshwara, rebel prince from Palembang.

1404

Parameshwara sends an embassy to Beijing, receives promise of protection from China.

1405

Chinese Admiral Cheng Ho visits Semarang.

1409

Cheng Ho visits Melaka.

1411

Parameshwara visits Beijing on a state visit.

1414

Parameshwara converts to Islam, takes name Iskandar Syah. Melaka is now an Islamic sultanate.

Islam, one of Indonesia's five religions.

The Islamic religion had been common among traders in Sumatra and Java for some time. The Singhasari and Majapahit kingdoms probably had a few Muslims involved in their courts. Large-scale conversions to Islam began when local kings adopted the new religion. Aceh and Melaka were among the first. Most of Java did not become Muslims until the early 1500s.

(Today, over 85% of Indonesians are Muslims.)

See also Notes on Islam in Modern Indonesia. 1414

First masjid founded on Ambon island.

1427

Queen Suhita inherits the Majapahit kingdom from Wikramawardhana.

1445

Hindu revolt in Melaka against Islam is suppressed.

Thai attack on Melaka is driven back.

1447

Kertawijaya, brother of Suhita, becomes King of Majapahit. He converts to Islam on the advice of his wife, Darawati, a princess of Champa (in what is now Vietnam).

Sunan Ampel, nephew of Kertawijaya, works to spread Islam around Surabaya.

Sunan Ampel in a traditional portrait. Sunan Ampel was the first notable member of the Nine Walis or Walisongo, Islamic teachers who worked to spread Islam around Java in the late 1400s and early 1500s. See also the separate page on the Walisongo.

1451

King Kertawijaya is murdered and replaced by Rajasawardhana, who hinders the spread of Islam in Majapahit.

1456

Thai attack on Melaka by sea is driven back.

Bhre Wengker becomes king of Majapahit after three years of chaos.

Around this time, Palembang converted to Islam.

1459

Raja Abdullah of Melaka conquers Kedah and Pahang from the Thais.

1460

Kingdom of Aru (near Deli) on Sumatra becomes independent.

1466

Suraprabhawa becomes king of Majapahit.

Kyai Demung founds Sumenep on Madura; breaks away from Majapahit control.

1468

Court rebellion in Majapahit: Bhre Kertabhumi drives Suraprabhawa out of his court at Tumapel. Suraprabhawa moves his seat to Daha, near Kediri.

Around this time, many Hindus from Majapahit left Java for Bali.

1475

Ternate and Tidore convert to Islam.

1478

Daha region under Girindrawardhana, a great-grandson of Kertawijaya, revolts. Majapahit kingdom falls into chaos. Bhre Kertabumi, King of Majapahit at Tumapel, flees to Demak. Girindrawardhana sets himself up as ruler in Majapahit.

Islamic Kingdom of Demak founded by Raden Patah (or Fattah), a prince of Majapahit (son of King Kertawijaya by a Chinese wife). Masjid founded at Demak.

Islamic Sultanate founded at Cirebon, formerly a possession of the Pajajaran King Siliwangi.

By the 1490s, the Portuguese had sailed around the southern tip of Africa and had landed in India.

1486

Zainal Abidin becomes Sultan of Ternate (until 1500).

Court of Majapahit moves to Kediri.

1500 - 1670 (Great Kings and Trade Empires)

1500

Palembang converts to Islam.

1505

Trenggono, grandson of Raden Patah, becomes prince of Demak.

Local powers on Java around 1500 included:

Demak which was the chief power in Java in the early 1500s. Nearby Jepara participated in many naval expeditions.

Surabaya. Some powers that later came under Surabaya include Gresik, home of Sunan Giri, and Pasuruan.

Banten, which was a Hindu power under Pajajaran until the arrival of Sunan Gunungjati.

1509

Portuguese visit Melaka for the first time.

The goal of the Portuguese was to take control of trade. Later trade empires would include Gowa, Banten, and the Dutch VOC or East India Company. The original goal of all of them was money before political power, but they did not always stick to their original goal.

1511

April Portuguese Admiral Albuquerque sets sail from Goa to Melaka.

August 10 Albuquerque's forces take Melaka.

Sultan of Melaka escapes to Riau.

Portuguese in Melaka destroy a "Javanese" fleet. Their ship sinks with treasure on way back to Goa.

December Albuquerque sends three ships under da Breu from Melaka to explore eastwards.

The gate to the Portuguese fortress at Melaka. Melaka was the center of the Portuguese trade empire in the Indies in the 1500s. The Portuguese in Melaka were attacked every few years by the Sultans of Malaya and Sumatra, especially Aceh and Johore. Sometimes alliances would be formed with powers on Java to attack the Portuguese.

1512

Da Breu expedition travels from Melaka to Madura, Bali, Lombok, Aru and Banda. Two ships are wrecked at Banda. Da Breu returns to Melaka; Francisco Serro repairs ship and continues to Ambon, Ternate, and Tidore. Serro offers support to Ternate in a dispute with Tidore--his men build a Portuguese post at Ternate.

Serro wrote to Magellan at this time (who formerly served under Albuquerque, but pledged allegiance to Spain after being refused a promotion) telling Magellan about the riches of the Indies.

1513

A force from Jepara and Palembang attacks the Portuguese in Melaka, but is repulsed.

March Portuguese send an envoy to King of Pajajaran. Portuguese are allowed to build a fort at

Powers on Sumatra included:

Aceh, the first major Islamic power in what is now Indonesia. It was founded by local rulers of Lamuri, around today's Banda Aceh, after they

Sunda Kelapa (now Jakarta).

Portuguese make contact with King Udara, son of Girindrawardhana and ruler over the remnant of Majapahit.

Portuguese build factories at Ternate and Bacan.

Udara attacks Demak with the help of the King of Klungkung on Bali. Majapahit forces are driven back, but Sunan Ngudung falls in battle. Many more supporters of Majapahit flee to Bali.

were expelled from Pedir (around today's Sigli). After the fall of Melaka to the Portuguese, many Muslim merchants moved their business operations to Aceh, and this caused Aceh to grow as a trading power.

Palembang where sultans still ruled long after the fall of Srivijaya.

1514

Ali Mughayat Syah is first Sultan of Aceh. On Bali the King of Gelgel (near today's Klungkung) was the most powerful king in the 1500s.

1515

First Portuguese visit Timor.

1518

Sultan Mahmud of Melaka takes power at Johore.

Raden Patah passes away; Yunus becomes Sultan of Demak.

The Sultanate of Johore was attacked by the Portuguese all through the 1520s.

1520

Aceh begins taking northeast coast of Sumatra.

Balinese attack on Lombok.

Portuguese traders begin visiting Flores and Solor.

Banjar on Kalimantan converts to Islam.

1521

Yunus leads fleet from Demak and Cirebon against the Portuguese in Melaka. Yunus is killed in battle. Trenggono becomes Sultan of Demak.

Portuguese take Pasai in Sumatra; Gunungjati leaves Pasai for Mecca.

Last ship of Magellan expedition around the world sails between Lembata and Pantar islands in Nusa Tenggara.

Sultan Trenggono is remembered as a ruler who did much to spread Islam throughout East and Central Java.

1522

February Portuguese expedition under De Brito arrives on Banda.

May De Brito expedition arrives at Ternate, builds a Portuguese fort.

Banten, still Hindu, asks for Portuguese help against Muslim Demak.

Survivors of Magellan's expedition around the world visit Timor.

Only 18 men survived Magellan's expedition, but they returned to Spain with about a ton of cloves, enough to make them wealthy for life.

The arrival of Spanish ships was worrisome to the Portuguese, however, who now had to deal with a European competitor in the heart of the Spice Islands.

Portuguese build fort at Hitu on Ambon.

1523

Gunungjati returns from Mecca and settles at Demak, marries sister of Sultan Trenggono.

1524

Gunungjati and son Hasanuddin do both covert and overt missionary work in West Java to weaken the kingdom of Pajajaran and its alliance with the Portuguese. Local ruler of Banten, formerly dependent on Pajajaran, converts to Islam and joins Demak's side.

Aceh takes Pasai and Pedir in northern Sumatra.

About this time much of Java began to convert to Islam, including Banten, Mataram and Central Java, and Surabaya.

1526

Portuguese build first fort on Timor.

1527

Demak conquers Kediri, Hindu remnant of Majapahit state; Sultans of Demak claims to be successors to Majapahit claims; Sunan Kudus takes part.

Demark takes Tuban.

Demak, with help from Banten, takes Sunda Kelapa from Pajajaran; renames it Jayakerta. (Credit is given to a "Fatahillah"--or after the Portuguese mispronounciation, "Falatehan"-- but this might be a name given to Sunan Gunungjati.) Pajajaran Kingdom is pushed away from the sea.

Kingdom of Palakaran on Madura, based at Arosbaya (now Bangkalan), converts to Islam under Kyai Pratanu.

Expeditions from Spain and Mexico try to drive the Portuguese from Maluku.

Masjid at Kudus, from the early 1500s.

Among the notable figures of this period are the Wali Songo or Nine Walis.

See also Notes on Islam in Modern Indonesia.

1529

Demak conquers Madiun.

Kings of Spain and Portugal agree that Maluku should belong to Portugal, and the Philippines should belong to Spain.

Spain and Portugal had divided the entire world between themselves in 1494. They continued to argue for years over the exact position of the dividing circle. A 1524 conference sponsored by the Pope did not settle matters.

1530

Salahuddin is Sultan of Aceh.

Surabaya and Pasuruan submit to Demak. Demak takes Balambangan, the last Hindu state in easternmost Java.

Gowa begins expanding from Makassar.

Banten extends influence over Lampung.

1536

Major Portuguese attack on Johore.

Antonio da Galvo becomes governor of Portuguese post at Ternate; founds Portuguese post at Ambon.

Portuguese take Sultan Tabariji of Ternate to Goa due to suspicions of anti-Portuguese activity, replace him with his brother.

1537

Acehnese attack on Melaka fails. Salahuddin of Aceh is replaced by Alaudin Riayat Syah I.

1539

Aceh attacks the Bataks to their south.

1540

Portuguese in contact with Gowa.

Sultanate of Butung founded.

1545

Demak conquers Malang.

Gowa builds fort at Ujung Pandang.

1546

Demak invades Balambangan without success.

Trenggono of Demak dies and is succeeded by Prawata. His son-in-law Joko Tingkir expands power from Pajang (near present Sukoharjo).

St. Francis Xavier travels to Morotai, Ambon, and Ternate.

Catholicism (Katolik), one of Indonesia's five religions.

Around this time Portuguese missionaries began to spread the Catholic religion in Indonesia, especially in the east. Today Catholicism is one of Indonesia's recognized religions.

1547

Aceh attacks Melaka.

1550

Portuguese begin building forts on Flores.

1551

Johore attacks Portuguese Melaka with help from Jepara.

Force from Ternate takes control of Sultanate of Jailolo on Halmahera with Portuguese help.

1552

Hasanuddin breaks away from Demak and founds Sultanate of Banten, then takes Lampung for the new Sultanate.

Aceh sends embassy to the Ottoman sultan in Istanbul.

1558

Leiliato leads a force from Ternate to attack the Portuguese at Hitu.

Portuguese build a fortress on Bacan.

Ki Ageng Pemanahan receives Mataram district from Joko Tinggir, ruling at Pajang.

Smallpox epidemic at Ternate.

1559

Portuguese missionaries land at Timor.

Khairun becomes Sultan of Ternate.

Sultan Khairun was friendly to St. Francis Xavier, and was known to be a skillful politician who manipulated the Portuguese into doing what he wanted while claiming to be a Portuguese ally. However, in the end the Portuguese threw him in prison and tried to poison him when he would not yield lands to them.

1560

Portuguese found mission and trading post at Panarukan, in easternmost Java.

Spanish establish a presence at Manado.

1561

Sultan Prawata of Demak passes away.

Portuguese Dominican mission founded on Solor.

1564

Smallpox epidemic at Ambon.

1565

Aceh sacks Johore.

Kutai on Kalimantan converts to Islam.

1566

Portuguese Dominican mission on Solor builds a stone fortress.

1568

Unsuccessful attack by Aceh on Portuguese Melaka.

1569

Portuguese build wooden fortress on Ambon island.

1570

Aceh attacks Johore again, but fails.

Sultan Khairun of Ternate signs a treaty of

friendship with the Portuguese, but is found poisoned the next day. Portuguese agents are suspected. Babullah becomes Sultan (until 1583), and vows to drive the Portuguese out of their fortress.

Maulana Yusup becomes Sultan of Banten.

1571

Alaudin Riayet Shah dies, disorder in Aceh until 1607.

1574

Jepara leads unsuccessful attack on Melaka.

1575

Sultan Babullah expels the Portuguese from Ternate. Portuguese build a fort on Tidore instead.

The Portuguese in Ternate were under siege in their fortress for five years, and never received help from Melaka or Goa in India.

1576

Portuguese build fort at the present site of the city of Ambon.

1577

Ki Ageng Pemanahan founds Kota Gede (near today's Yogya).

1579

Banten takes the remaining part of Pajajaran, converts it to Islam.

November Sir Francis Drake of England, after raiding Spanish ships and ports in America, arrives at Ternate. Sultan Babullah, who also hated the Spanish, pledges friendship to England.

A Portuguese map from the late 1500s showing the Indies in rough outlines. This information was kept secret by the Spanish and Portuguese until Dutch and English ships started to make trips to the Indies just before 1600.

1580

Maulana Muhammad becomes Sultan of Banten.

Portugal falls under Spanish crown; Portuguese colonial enterprises are disregarded.

Drake visits Sulawesi and Java, on the way back to England.

Ternate takes control of Butung.

In the 1500s, the Netherlands were an important business center for Europe, where products from Russia, Scandinavia, Africa, Asia and America were bought and sold. The Netherlands during that time was ruled by Spain. By 1581, the Netherlands had rebelled against the King of Spain and had begun to govern themselves. But since Spain now had control of the Portuguese colonies, the Spanish could prevent Dutch businessmen from easy access to spices from the Indies. This was one reason that Dutch ships began to make their own voyages direct to the Indies in the 1590s.

1581

About this time, Kyai Ageng Pemanahan takes over

Mataram district (which had been promised to him by Joko Tingkir, who delayed until Sunan Kalijaga of the Nine Walis pressed him), changes name to Kyai Gedhe Mataram.

1584

Sutawijaya succeeds his father Kyai Gedhe Mataram as local ruler of Mataram, ruling from Kota Gede.

1585

Sultan of Aceh sends a letter to Elizabeth I of England.

1587

Sutawijaya defeats Pajang and Joko Tingkir dies; lineage passes definitely to Sutawijaya. Mount Merapi erupts.

Portuguese in Melaka attack Johore.

Portuguese sign a truce with the Sultan of Aceh.

Sir Thomas Cavendish of England visits Java.

1588

Sutawijaya changes name to Senopati; takes Pajang and Demak.

Senopati in a traditional portrait.

From Senopati one can easily trace the lineage of today's Sultan of Yogya and Susuhunan of Surakarta. Traditionally, the line is traced back all the way to the kings of Majapahit.

After this point, the power in central Java was definitely in the Mataram district, around today's Yogyakarta and Surakarta, rather than around Demak.

1590

Original village of Medan founded.

1591

Senopati takes Madiun, then Kediri.

Sir James Lancaster of England reaches Aceh and Penang, but his mission is a failure.

Ternate attacks Portuguese in Ambon.

1593

Ternate lays siege to the Portuguese in Ambon again.

1595

April 2 Dutch expedition under De Houtman leaves Many Dutch sailors had worked on Spanish and

for Indies.

Suriansyah makes Banjar on Kalimantan a Sultanate (later Banjarmasin).

Portuguese build fort at Ende, Flores.

Portuguese ships. When De Houtman's Dutch expedition set sail, there were experienced crewmen available to guide them to the Indies.

1596

June 5 De Houtman expedition reaches Sumatra.

June 23 De Houtman expedition reaches Banten. The initial reception is friendly, but after some rough behavior by the Dutch, the Sultan of Banten, along with the Portuguese stationed in Banten, shell the Dutch ships.

The De Houtman expedition continues along north coast of Java. A ship is lost to pirates. More bad behavior leads to misunderstandings and violence on Madura.

Abul Mufakir becomes Sultan of Banten.

1597

Some members of De Houtman expedition settle on Bali and refuse to leave.

A Portuguese fleet under Lourenzo de Brito decides, contrary to instructions, to seek retribution from the Sultan of Banten for doing business with Dutch traders. The fleet is defeated by Banten and forced to retreat.

Remnants of the De Houtman expedition (89 of an original 248 sailors) return to Holland with spices.

Senopati attacks Banten, but is driven back.

Title page from the published account of the de Houtman expedition. The Spanish and Portuguese had maintained secrecy about the results of their explorations. The Dutch broke their monopoly on information.

1598

22 Dutch ships in five expeditions set out for the east. The Netherlands States-General suggests that competing companies should merge. De Houtman's second expedition includes John Davis, an English spy. Van Noort sets off to sail around the southern tip of America to the Indies.

Senopati attacks western territories of Surabaya.

The De Houtman voyage was actually not profitable, (partly due to de Houtman's own poor judgment and general recklessness) but the businessmen of the Netherlands could see the future potential in the spice trade, and dozens of new voyages were planned to follow its path. This period of is sometimes called the "wilde vaart".

1599

Dutch expedition under Van Neck reaches Maluku, begins successful trading on Banda, Ambon and Ternate.

June De Houtman is killed in conflict with Sultan of Aceh.

Dutch churches begin calls for missionary work in the Indies.

1600

Van Noort expedition attacks Spanish at Guam.

Portuguese establish trading post at Jepara.

September Dutch Admiral Van den Haghen makes an alliance with the Hitu against the Portuguese in Ambon.

December 31 Elizabeth I of England charters East India Company.

1601

Senopati succeeded by Krapyak in Mataram.

Portuguese send a fleet from Goa, India, to drive the Dutch from the Indies.

English set up fort at Banda.

Aceh sends two ambassadors to Europe to observe and report on the situation to the Sultan.

December 25-27 Five Dutch ships defeat the Portuguese fleet of 30 ships in battle in Banten harbor.

1602

March 20 Dutch companies combine to form Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie (VOC); led by Heeren XVII representing different regions of the Netherlands; States-General gives VOC power to raise armies, build forts, negotiate treaties and wage war in Asia.

VOC begins sending large, well-armed ships to the Indies (38 in the first three years).

VOC establishes post at Gresik.

Sir James Lancaster leads an (English) East India Company expedition, reaches Aceh, and builds a trading post at Banten.

The Dutch East India Company was given most of the powers of a sovereign state, partly because communication between the Netherlands and Asia was so slow that colonial activities simply could not be directed from Amsterdam.

(Until 1800 in this time-line, Dutch activities are marked with a VOC for East India Company.)

1603

Official VOC trading post founded at Banten.

1604

English East India Company expedition under Sir Henry Middleton visits Ternate, Tidore, Ambon, and Banda.

1605

Portuguese at Ambon surrender to ships under VOC.

King of Gowa converts to Islam, but other kings of the area refuse invitation to convert. Gowa attacks its neighbors and converts them to Islam.

VOC sends expeditions to Banda, Irian Jaya, northern Australia.

The chief minister to the King of Gowa in these days was named Matoaya. Besides presiding over the conversion of Gowa and Makassar to Islam, he encouraged the establishment of Makassar as a free port opposed to Portuguese or Dutch control, and started a local industry to manufacture firearms, to maintain Gowa's strength against outside forces.

1606

Spanish take Ternate and Tidore.

VOC makes unsuccessful attack on Portuguese Melaka.

VOC begins trading at Banjarmasin.

1607

Iskandar Muda is Sultan of Aceh.

May Sultan of Ternate appeals to the VOC for help against the Spanish.

Aceh under Iskandar Muda and his successor, Iskandar Thani, was a center of Islamic scholarship and debate.

1608

Gowa begins three years of war against the neighboring Kingdom of Bone.

1609

Portuguese fortress on Bacan falls to VOC.

1610

Krapyak of Mataram starts period of heavy attacks on Surabaya.

Post of Governor-General is created for VOC in Asia, advised by Raad van Indie (Council of the Indies).

1611

English begin setting up many posts in the Indies, including at Makassar, Jepara, Aceh and Jambi.

Dutch set up post at Jayakerta.

Gowa conquers Bone, converts it to Islam.

1613

April 18 Dutch take Solor from Portuguese. Portuguese Dominicans move headquarters to Larantuka, Flores.

Iskandar Muda of Aceh defeats Johore, burns down the city, carries away the Sultan of Johore and VOC representatives.

Mataram forces burn down Gresik; Krapyak asks VOC in Maluku for help against Surabaya.

VOC sets up post at Jepara.

VOC sets up first post on Timor.

Krapyak succeeded by Sultan Agung.

1614

Johore throws out Aceh forces, creates alliance Palembang, Jambi, and other Sultanates against Aceh

Aceh wins naval battle against Portuguese at Bintan, continues on to attack Melaka.

Agung attacks Surabayan territories.

VOC sends ambassador to Agung.

Bandung founded.

Sultan Agung in a traditional portrait.Agung was the greatest ruler of Mataram. At one point, all of Java except for Banten and Batavia was under his rule.

1615

VOC closes post at Gowa, hostilities drag on for years.

First Dutch Reformed church in the east founded at Ambon.

English build warehouse at Jayakerta.

Dutch abandon Solor after just two years.

Protestantism (Kristen), one of Indonesia's five religions.

The Dutch introduced the fifth of Indonesia's recognized religions: Protestant Christianity. Beside the missionary work on Java, there were soon many "orang Kristen" around Manado on Sulawesi, in Ambon, and around Kupang on Timor and nearby Roti.

The VOC, being mostly a business, had very little interest in spreading religion. However, it banned to practice of Catholicism wherever it could.

1616

VOC military expedition against Banda.

1617

Aceh takes Pahang.

Agung defeats Surabaya at Pasuruan, defeats Surabayan expedition to his rear; Pajang rebels, Agung destroys Pajang and moves inhabitants to Mataram.

Gowa extends control over Sumbawa.

"Monopolies" and "smuggling" in these days were sometimes defined by contracts and treaties, but at other times a "monopoly" was simply declared unilaterally. Some of the "smuggling" that occurred would just be called "competition" today.

In 1615-1616, the Schouten expedition became the first to sail around Cape Horn at the the southern tip of South America, then made the first visit by Europeans to many south Pacific islands. By the time they arrived in Batavia (Jakarta), Coen had them jailed for violating the V.O.C.'s monopoly, and confiscated their ships.

(Years later, in 1722, the Dutch explorer Roggeveen would run into the same trouble after discovering Easter Island.)

1618

Jan Pieterzoon Coen becomes Governor-General of VOC.

English merchants attack Chinese ships in Banten in a dispute over the price of pepper. Coen begins secretly fortifying the VOC warehouses at Jayakerta to the east.

December Sultan of Banten encourages English to

drive Dutch out of Jayakerta. Coen leaves for Maluku to muster ships and soldiers.

Agung bans sale of rice to VOC. Agung's governor of Jepara attacks VOC post there; Dutch burn down much of Jepara in retaliation.

Dutch reoccupy Solor.

1619

January English force Dutch surrender at Jayakerta, but Banten forces take over from English in surprise move. The English and the Pangeran of Jayakerta retreat.

March 12 Dutch rename post at Jayakerta to Batavia (today's Jakarta).

May Coen passes through Jepara, and burns down the city again, including the English trading post.

May 28 Coen arrives at Jayakerta, and burns down the original town of Jayakerta, leaving only the Dutch post of Batavia remaining to become VOC headquarters.

Agung takes Tuban from Surabaya, destroying the city.

Agung was not pleased with the Dutch taking Jayakerta, since he had intended to take it himself. Likewise, the Sultan of Banten did not want the English to take it, for the same reason.

1620

VOC under Coen almost exterminates population of Banda to prevent "smuggling". Survivors settle on small islands near Seram.

Aceh takes Kedah.

Gowa extends influence over Sumbawa.

Rahmatullah becomes Sultan of Banjar on Kalimantan.

Jan Pieterszoon CoenThe most aggressive Governor-General of the V.O.C.

One of Coen's goals was to make the VOC strong enough on its own that it did not have to depend on the goodwill of neighboring rulers. He intended to do this by changing the VOC from a trade empire to an empire that ruled actual territories, then settling those territories with colonists from the Netherlands. Military strength was important, both for maintaining a position of power among the local kings and sultans, and for keeping the Spanish, Portuguese and English away.

For Coen, the VOC was more than a business, but for neighboring rulers, such as Sultan Agung, and even for government officials in China, the VOC were mere merchants, and they refused to give VOC officials the same standing in protocol that they gave the representatives of other kings or sultans.

1621

British found trading post at Ambon.

1622

Mataram navy defeats Sukadana (an ally of Surabaya in West Kalimantan), and destroy the city.

Agung and VOC make overtures to each other.

1623

VOC agents in Ambon arrest, torture and execute English agents on charges of conspiracy.

Aceh sacks Johore.

Carstenz expedition for VOC explores southern coast of Irian Jaya.

Coen returns to the Netherlands. Carpentier is new Governor-General of the VOC.

VOC takes nominal claim to Aru Islands.

1624

Aceh takes Nias.

Sultan Agung conquers Madura, and takes 40,000 prisoners. Raden Praseno, a grandson of Pratanu, is named Pangeran Cakraningrat I of Madura by Agung.

1625

Agung dams Brantas River to cut off water supply from Surabaya, which finally surrenders.

Cirebon is an ally of Agung.

Epidemics and ruin of war spread through Java.

Abul Fath becomes Sultan of Banten.

In 1625 the first "hongi" raids took place in Maluku. These were attacks, usually by local allies of the VOC, against anyone who was growing cloves without authorization of the VOC.

By this time, the VOC was probably the largest business enterprise anywhere in the world, with tens of thousands of employees. The territories controlled by the VOC were not only in Indonesia: in the mid-1600s, they also included Sri Lanka, Taiwan, and the Cape area in what is now South Africa. The VOC also had "factories", warehouses and offices in Thailand, Japan, Iran, Yemen, and Canton in China.

1627

Coen returns from the Netherlands to serve as Governor-General of the V.O.C. again.

December 25 Soldiers from Banten infiltrate the fortress of Batavia, kill some guards, and escape, but do little damage.

Around this time, Sultan Agung forced the removal of the entire population of many villages in the Priangan (around today's Bandung) for disobedience. Around 1200 men were sent back to Mataram from these villages, and executed.

1628

Agung sends army against VOC in Batavia; dams Ciliwung River in attempt to deny fresh water to the VOC. He fails to oust the Dutch, who prevent his army from receiving supplies by sea. Commanders of the Mataram army are executed for failure.

Last of the English leave Banda.

1629

Agung attacks Batavia again. He is defeated, although Coen dies during the siege.

Banten, fearing Agung now more than the VOC, pleads for peace with the VOC.

Iskandar Muda sends navy of Aceh against Portuguese Melaka, but the Aceh navy is destroyed.

September 20 Coen passes away.

Introduction of sugar cultivation in Banten.

1630

Dutch abandon Solor, which is retaken by the Portuguese.

1631

Agung suppresses rebellion at Sumedang.

1633

Agung raids east Java; the Hindu kingdom of Balambangan asks for VOC help and is refused. Balambangan then asks the King of Gelgel in Bali for help.

War between VOC and Banten.

Aceh takes the Indrapura area of Minangkabau.

1634

Dutch arrest Kakiali, leader of Hitu in Maluku, on charges of smuggling.

This was the "mercantilist" age of trade empires. There were many powers that wanted to create trade empires: the Dutch through the VOC, the English, Banten, and Gowa were among them. There was no such thing as "free trade" under these empires. The VOC especially wanted total control of trade, and any selling to anyone outside the VOC was considered "smuggling".

1635

Agung tries to take Balambangan, but is defeated by Balinese forces.

VOC signs treaty with Kutai on Kalimantan.

1636

Iskandar Thani becomes Sultan of Aceh; supports Islamic learning.

Agung begins conquest of easternmost Java.

Agung suppresses a revolt in Giri.

Agung, realizing that he cannot defeat Dutch, makes overtures towards VOC.

Van Diemen becomes Governor-General of VOC.

Portuguese abandon posts on Solor after six years.

VOC bans all private correspondence (until 1701).

1637

VOC attacks Ternate.

VOC releases Kakiali, who pledges friendship to VOC but makes anti-Dutch alliance between Hitu, Ternate, and Gowa.

Local Muslims overcome Portuguese fortress at Ende on Flores.

Agung gives permission for Portuguese and Catholic refugees from Batavia to settle around Jepara.

Agung finally takes Balambangan in easternmost Java. The area is devastated by warfare.

Palembang and Banjarmasin send ambassadors to make homage to Agung.

Ar-Raniri arrives in Aceh from Gujarat in India.

Around this time the VOC started pushing the Portuguese out of many of their posts in Nusa Tenggara.

Ar-Raniri was a great writer and scholar in Aceh's golden age. Among other things, he wrote "Garden of Kings", a book about Islam and the scientific knowledge of the day. However, he was also a controversial figure in Aceh, and he returned to India in 1644.

1639

Chief minister Matoaya of Gowa is succeeded by his son Pattingalloang.

Unlike his father, Pattingalloang did not maintain good relations with the Bugis. The bad feeling would eventually lead some Bugis to side with the VOC against Gowa and Makassar.

1640

Bima on Sumbawa converts to Islam and becomes a Sultanate.

Portugal regains independent crown from Spain.

Portuguese abandon trading post at Jepara.

Cirebon becomes a dependency of Mataram

1641

Taj ul-Alam becomes Sultana of Aceh, starts period of female rulers; Johore and Aceh settle differences.

January 14 VOC takes Melaka from Portuguese, with help from the Sultan of Johore.

Sultan of Johore opens ports in Riau to all traders.

Kakiali and Hitu attack VOC on Ambon.

The VOC takeover of Melaka was the real end of Portuguese importance in the region. But after losing Melaka, some Portuguese started trading with Gowa on Sulawesi.

After Taj ul-Alam became ruler of Aceh, the centralized power in Aceh lessened, regional ruler gained more power, and Aceh's tributaries began to show their independence.

With the English and Portuguese almost gone, and Batavia and Ambon relatively secure from neighboring rulers, this was the most profitable time for the VOC.

1642

VOC gets monopoly on trade with Palembang by treaty.

Hidayatullah becomes Sultan of Banjar on Kalimantan.

Tasman explores coasts of Irian Jaya for VOC on voyage back from New Zealand.

"Statutes of Batavia", based on Roman law, are introduced as a legal code for VOC territories.

1643

VOC has Kakiali murdered, continue drive to take Hitu.

1645

Agung begins building royal tombs at Imogiri, (near today's Yogya).

Mandarsyah becomes Sultan of Ternate with VOC help.

VOC established outpost at Perak.

1646

Sultan Agung dies, and is succeeded by Susuhunan Amangkurat I. Mataram controls all Java, more or less, except Banten and Batavia. Relations between Amangkurat I and the VOC are good in the beginning.

VOC finally takes Hitu.

Dutch arrive again on Solor, abandoned by the Portuguese ten years earlier.

Portuguese begin building settlement at the present site of Kupang on western Timor.

VOC builds trading post in the Tanimbar Islands.

1647

Amangkurat I moves court to Plered near Karta.

Mataram kingdom loses Balambangan in easternmost Java to Balinese forces.

1648

Cakraningrat II takes power in Madura, under Mataram.

1650

VOC intervenes in uprising against Sultan Mandarsyah of Ternate, sparking civil war.

Amangkurat I orders Cirebon to attack Banten.

Musta'in Billah becomes Sultan of Banjar on Kalimantan.

1651

VOC reopens post at Jepara; Amangkurat I begins interfering in coastal trade.

Sultan Ageng begins rule at Banten (not to be confused with Sultan Agung of Mataram).

VOC takes Kupang on western Timor; Portuguese move to Lifau, in what is now East Timor.

VOC outpost at Perak is destroyed.

1652

VOC takes Sultan Mandarsyah of Ternate to Batavia, makes him sign agreement not to grow cloves, starts military moves against opposing faction in Ternate.

Amangkurat I bans the export of rice or timber.

Hongi raids destroy clove cultivation on Buru.

Tensions grow between the VOC and Gowa.

1655

Amangkurat I orders that no boats of any kind shall set sail from his ports.

1656

VOC deports population of Hoamoal near Ternate to Ambon.

1657

Amangkurat I attacks Banten again.

VOC forces population of Buru to relocate to Kaleji Bay.

1658

VOC sets up post at Manado.

War between VOC and Palembang.

1659

VOC forces burn down Palembang, and reestablish the VOC post.

Amangkurat I has several family members murdered, including the mother of the future Amangkurat II.

VOC builds fort in the Aru Islands, but soon abandons it.

1660

VOC attacks Gowa, destroys Portuguese ships in harbor, and forces peace treaty on Sultan Hasanuddin of Gowa.

Formerly Bali had answered to the King at Gelgel. Around this time, the kingdom split into nine states:

Arung Palakka of Bone rebels against Gowa; retreats with supporters to Butung.

Buleleng begins drive to become power on Bali; King of Klungkung remains as "Dewa Agung" or chief king.

Amangkurat I closes ports again; VOC leaves Jepara.

BadungBangliBulelengGianyarJembranaKarangasemKlungkungMengwiTabanan

1661

Court rebellion against Amangkurat I.

Banten takes diamond-bearing area of Landak on Kalimantan.

Amangkurat I had a reputation for being cruel and unpredictable. Besides his disastrous interference in the economy, at one time he had many of the Islamic scholars in Mataram killed, then took their former judicial powers for himself, turning himself into an absolute ruler.

1662

Portuguese headquarters in the east is moved from Larantuka, Flores to Lifau (today Oecussi or Pantemakassar) in what is now East Timor.

VOC signs treaty with chiefs on Roti.

1663

Spanish abandon post at Tidore.

VOC allows Arung Palakka and followers to settle at Batavia.

Banten begins direct trade with Manila.

July 6 Treaty of Painan: coastal areas of Minangkabau, including Padang, become a protectorate of the VOC, which guarantees them security against raids from Aceh.

By the end of the 1660s, Banten was trading directly with China, Japan, Thailand, India and Arabia, using its own ships to compete with English, French, Danish and VOC traders. Sultan Ageng of Banten was a strong opponent of the VOC monopoly who insisted on promoting trade with other European, Arab and Asian traders as he pleased.

1666

VOC sends out a fleet under Admiral Cornelis Speelman, with Bugis soldiers under Arung Palakka and Ambonese soldiers under "Captain Jonker", to settle issues in Gowa and Maluku.

1667

VOC expedition under Speelman lands at Butung, and clears the island of Gowa forces.

Speelman expedition forces the Sultan of Tidore (now free of Spanish presence) to submit to the VOC. A peace treaty is signed between Ternate and Tidore, now both under VOC control.

The future Amangkurat II begins seeking VOC help against his father.

English give up claims to Banda in exchange for Manhattan Island in America.

1668

Arung Palakka returns to Bone, sparking a popular revolt against the Sultan of Gowa.

Speelman expedition finally defeats Gowa.

November 18 Treaty of Bungaya: Gowa submits to VOC control, and Sultan Hasanuddin has no influence outside the general area of the city of Makassar.

VOC extends claims to Sumbawa and Flores after the defeat of Gowa.

Bugis leaving the confusion on Sulawesi found Samarinda on Kalimantan.

VOC builds a fort at Menggala in Lampung.

By this time, the Portuguese in Makassar and Gowa had fled to Flores, or even to Macao or Thailand.

1669

Sultan Hasanuddin of Gowa passes away; continuing troubles against the VOC in Gowa finally end.

VOC traders at Banjarmasin are massacred.

1670 - 1800 (Court Intrigues and the Dutch)

1670

VOC establishes outposts at Bengkalis (across the straits from Melaka) and Perak, both for controlling the trade in tin.

Balambangan in easternmost Java becomes independent of Balinese rule.

1671

Trunojoyo unites Madura under his control, drives out Mataram forces.

(Note: throughout this page, VOC stands for Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie, or the Dutch East India Company. The VOC had been granted many of the powers of a sovereign state by the government of the Netherlands.)

1672

Gunung Merapi erupts in Mataram.

VOC recognizes Arung Palakka as King of Bone.

In 1672, Louis XIV of France invaded the Netherlands with 100,000 soldiers. The Dutch had to open the dikes and flood the fields to prevent Amsterdam from falling to the French. However, since travel and communication were so slow in the 1600s and 1700s, these events had little effect on the activities of the VOC, which had the power to govern itself in any case.

1674

Famine in Mataram.

Bugis under Arung Palakka attack Toraja.

Makassarese unhappy with Arung Palakka settle in East Java.

1675

Rebellion in Mataram, with help from Trunojoyo. Makassarese exiles attack ports on north coast of Java. Trunojoyo of Madura takes Surabaya. Rebels appeal to Islamic sentiments among the common people against both the court of Mataram and the VOC.

1676

Trunojoyo defeats Mataram army at Gogodog.

1677

February VOC promises help to Amangkurat I.

May VOC pushes Trunojoyo out of Surabaya, but Trunojoyo moves on to loot the court of Mataram at Plered. Both loyal and rebellious members of the family of Amangkurat I flee. Trunojoyo takes the

royal treasury and retreats to Kediri.

Banten forces occupy Cirebon and the Priangan.

July Amangkurat I dies. The crown of Mataram (which was recovered by a VOC officer) goes to Amangkurat II. Amangkurat II seeks VOC help against the rebels.

Balinese from Karangasem drive Makassarese off of Lombok.

VOC occupies Sangir islands.

1678

Amangkurat II, without money to pay his debts to the VOC, promises to give up Semarang, his claims to the Priangan, and fees from coastal ports until debts are paid.

VOC and Amangkurat II march on Kediri and destroy Trunojoyo. Arung Palakka and his supporters fight for the BOC as mercenaries.

Inayatullah becomes Sultan of Banjar on Kalimantan.

Throughout this period, the rulers of Mataram borrowed money from the VOC, which turned out to be a bad deal for both. The rulers of Mataram lost power and sovereignty, but the debts to the VOC were never fully repaid, and the VOC lost money year after year.

1679

Trunojoyo is captured and executed.

VOC and Arung Palakka drive the remaining Makassarese out of East Java.

Banten retreats from Cirebon and the Priangan.

VOC makes an alliance with Minahasans at Manado.

1680

VOC forces attack rebel areas in Mataram.

Pangeran Puger continues to run a court at Plered against Amangkurat II. Amangkurat II founds a new court at Kartasura (guarded by VOC troops), then drives Puger out of Plered.

Banten declares war on VOC. Sultan Ageng is replaced in coup by his son, Sultan Haji, who seeks help from the VOC.

VOC forces invade Madura, supposedly on behalf of Mataram. Cakraningrat II, uncle of Trunojoyo, takes power in West Madura. VOC retains control of East Madura.

1681

Pangeran Puger builds new force and retakes center of Mataram, but not Kartasura. VOC forces push him back and defeat him.

VOC intervenes in Roti, puts allies in power.

Karangasem begins trying to take Lombok.

1682

Sultan Ageng's supporters, including much of the population, retake Banten against his son. VOC reacts by taking Banten with superior firepower. VOC expels English and other European traders from Banten, and begins to control Cirebon, the Priangan, and Lampung. Syekh Waliyullah, Islamic scholar and enemy of the Dutch, is exiled to the VOC post in Ceylon.

1684

Surapati, a former slave and outlaw, now employed as a VOC soldier, attacks a VOC column, escapes, and is given refuge by anti-VOC members of the court of Mataram at Kartasura.

VOC takes monopoly on pepper from Lampung.

1685

Post is founded at Bengkulu by English traders who had been forced to leave Banten.

VOC forces treaty on Sultan of Riau.

Sa'dillah becomes Sultan of Banjar.

1686

VOC sends an embassy to the Mataram court at Kartasura. Amangkurat II stages a fake attack on Surapati's residence, then turns to cut down VOC representatives and soldiers. The remaining VOC presence at court leaves for Jepara.

Surapati leaves Kartasura for Pasuruan; begins building new kingdom.

Amangkurat II sends secret letters to Johore, Minangkabau, English East India Co, even Siam trying to find help against VOC.

1688

Local leader on Bangka (claimed by Palembang) asks for VOC protection.

1689

Plot against VOC in Batavia fails; rebels flee to Kartasura.

1690

Amangkurat II attacks Surapati, but fails.

VOC abandons outpost at Perak.

1694

VOC begins contacts with Bataks around Lake Toba, Sumatra.

1695

Sultanate of Asahan is founded on Sumatra, as a dependency of Siak.

1696

Arung Palakka, King of Bone, passes away.

Sultan Muhammad Syah of Indrapura abdicates. VOC gains influence in the absence of a ruler there.

1697

King of Buleleng in Bali takes Balambangan on Java and returns it to Balinese rule.

1699

Surapati takes areas around Madiun.

VOC introduces coffee cultivation to Java.

VOC increases influence around Kutai on Kalimantan.

Sultan Mahmud II of Riau is assassinated; civil war breaks out.

1700

Tahlilillah becomes Sultan of Banjar.

1701

Three years of confusion in the VOC ensue over the post of Governor-General.

Sultan of Banjar tries to eject the British post there by force, but fails.

1702

Amangkurat II sends secret representative to VOC, hoping for help in the face of court intrigues.

Antonio Coelho Guerreiro arrives as the first official governor of Portuguese Timor.

During the 1700s, the Portuguese on Timor were limited to outposts along the northern coast only.

1703

Amangkurat II dies. Amangkurat III faces opposition from Pangeran Puger.

1704

Puger leaves the court of Mataram at Kartasura for Semarang, seeking VOC help. Puger gets support from Cakraningrat II of Madura. VOC accepts Puger as Susuhunan Pakubuwono I; their army takes Demak, other coastal areas.

1705

October 5 Pakubuwono I makes deal with VOC:

Mataram debts to VOC are wiped out; East Madura goes to VOC control; Semarang is officially a VOC city after years of occupation; Cirebon is officially a VOC protectorate; VOC gets extensive trade rights; Javanese sailors must stick to their home waters; Mataram must deliver rice on demand to the VOC at a price set by the VOC.

Army of Pakubuwono I with VOC help takes the court of Mataram at Kartasura. Amangkurat III flees to Surapati with the pusaka (emblems or heirlooms of the house of Mataram). Four years of warfare begin.

VOC warehouse and docks in the Netherlands, from an old engraving.

1706

Surapati is killed, but the war on Java continues.

Muhammad Mansur Jayo Ing Lago becomes Sultan of Palembang.

1707

VOC and Pakubuwono I of Mataram take Pasuruan; Amangkurat III flees to Malang.

Cakraningrat III takes power in West Madura.

Banjar finally throws out the British.

1708

Amangkurat III surrenders and is sent into exile by Dutch.

1710

Dewa Agung (high king) on Bali moves court from Gelgel to Klungkung.

VOC opens tin mines on Bangka.

Around this time, many Bugis, who had been wandering as mercenaries or refugees due to the wars involving Makassar and Bone, began to settle on and around the Malay peninsula.

1714

British begin building Fort Marlborough at Bengkulu.

Sultan of Tidore cedes claim on Irian Jaya to VOC.

Komaruddin becomes Sultan of Palembang.

After this time (especially after the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, which ended 13 years of war between the European powers and their colonies) the Dutch and the VOC began to lose prominence, and Britain became the dominant colonial and naval power in the world.

1717

King of Mengwi becomes most powerful king on Bali.

Surabaya rebels against Mataram with help from Bali.

1718

VOC takes Surabaya from rebels. Some rebellions continue in east Java.

Cakraningrat III of Madura is killed by VOC soldiers while travelling to talks; Cakraningrat IV takes

power.

1719

Amangkurat IV takes rule in Mataram. Court rebellion breaks out almost immediately; rebel princes flee eastward. Several more years of war continue.

1721

Rumors of a conspiracy against the VOC spread. Peter Erberfelt and several others are tried and executed.

1722

Bugis take over Riau and the entire Sultanate of Johore. Johore remains under Bugis influence for many years.

VOC receives a monopoly on tin from Bangka and Belitung from the Sultan of Palembang.

1723

Rebel princes and Surapati's descendants in East Java are subdued by VOC forces.

VOC begins compulsory coffee production in Priangan.

For the next century, coffee from Java would dominate the world market.

1724

Badaruddin becomes Sultan of Palembang.

1726

Pakubuwono II takes power in Mataram.

Bugis prince Arung Singkang takes Pasir and Kutai in Kalimantan.

1728

Court intrigues in Kartasura result in Pangeran Mangkunegara being sent into exile by Dutch.

1729

King of Roti becomes a Christian.

1731

Gov.-Gen. Durven and several other high officials are ordered to return to the Netherlands by the Heeren XVII for financial misdeeds.

1732

Malaria epidemic sweeps Batavia.

1733

Arung Singkang attacks Banjar.

Mengwi defeats forces of Buleleng on Bali.

Pakubuwono II agrees to heavier debt service payments to VOC; has minister Danureja sent into Dutch exile.

1734

Pakubuwono II transfers his claim to Balambangan to VOC. Balambangan, however, remains under Balinese influence.

Official VOC archives in Batavia are founded.

1735

Plague in Batavia.

Official VOC archives in Batavia are founded.

1738

VOC tells Pakubuwono II to exile Pangeran Purbaya.

1739

Arung Singkang attacks Bone and Makassar, but VOC drives him back.

1740

VOC begins a campaign to have "superfluous Chinese" deported to Sri Lanka or South Africa. Rumors spread that the Chinese, once aboard ship, will be killed at sea. Some Chinese begin arming themselves to resist. Anti-Chinese riots break out in Batavia in response to the perceived rebellion. 10,000 or more Chinese are killed, and the Chinese district is burnt down.

Kingdom of Karangasem on Bali takes Lombok.

1741

Escaping Chinese from Batavia attack Semarang and Rembang; the VOC leaves Demak.

Pakubuwono II changes sides, sends a force to attack VOC at Semarang, and destroys the VOC garrison at Kartasura.

Cakraningrat IV declares allegiance with the VOC, starts taking East Java.

Rival Governor-Generals of the VOC struggle in Batavia: Valckenier arrests Van Imhoff and sends him back to Europe. The Heeren XVII in the Netherlands names Van Imhoff as Governor-General. Valckenier is himself eventually arrested and jailed.

1742

Negotiations begin between VOC and Pakubuwono II as VOC and Cakraningrat IV spread their power. A

popular rebellion under Sunan Kuning against VOC and Mataram takes hold in the countryside, then takes Kartasura.

Cakraningrat IV retakes Kartasura from the rebels. VOC is suspicious, and orders Pakubuwono II to be put back on throne.

1743

Rebellion continues under Pangeran Mangkubumi, Pangeran Singasari, and Pangeran Mas Said.

November 11 Pakubuwono II gives VOC Surabaya, Rembang, Jepara and claims to easternmost Java and West Madura. VOC receives a say in court appointments.

Mixed-Portuguese locals attack VOC post at Kupang on Timor; VOC solidifies control of western part of Timor.

VOC takes Bawean island.

1745

February 17 Pakubuwono II moves into the Kraton Surakarta.

Cakraningrat IV wages war with the VOC and retakes much of Madura and East Java. He is eventually defeated by VOC, caught and exiled. Cakraningrat V takes title in West Madura.

Gov-Gen Van Imhoff founds Buitenzorg (today's Bogor).

Tamjidillah becomes Sultan of Banjar.

1746

Pangeran Mangkubumi, disgusted with capitulations to the VOC, announces full-scale rebellion. He is joined by Pangeran Mas Said.

August 26 First VOC Post Office opened in Jakarta.

VOC reestablishes presence in Perak.

VOC receives Siak (across the straits from Melaka) from the Sultan of Johore.

Bank van Leening founded by VOC to support trade.

1747

Bugis internal war begins over dissatisfaction with Arung Singkang.

VOC decress that native law ("adat") will be in force in areas under its control outside of Batavia.

1748

Mangkubumi's rebel forces attack Surakarta.

VOC sends Sultan of Banten into exile, makes his wife Ratu Sarifa regent but take direct control.

1749

December Pakubuwono II becomes sick, signs treaty giving full sovereignty in all Mataram to VOC. (Treaty is widely ignored.)

VOC declares Pakubuwono III as heir to throne. Mangkubumi claims title for himself, rules from Yogya.

Pakubuwono II dies.

1750

Mas Said attacks Surakarta for Mangkubumi.

Rebellion in Banten against Ratu Sarifa and VOC. The rebels threaten Batavia and Lampung.

Berau in east Kalimantan becomes independent.

1751

VOC forces destroy Banten rebellion; guerilla attacks continue against VOC plantations around Batavia.

VOC extends control over Lampung.

1754

Mangkubumi considers negotiating with VOC, worries about possible disloyalty from Mas Said.

Arung Singkang abdicates from power, continues guerilla attacks.

1755

Mangkubumi changes title from Susuhunan to Sultan, takes name Hamengkubuwono, is now Sultan Hamengkubuwono I.

February 13 Treaty of Gijanti: Sultan Hamengkubuwono gets VOC recognition of title and lands.

Hamengkubuwono I builds the Kraton at Yogyakarta.

Mas Said, now without allies, attacks VOC force.

Keraton NgayogyakartaThe famous Kraton of Yogya began construction in the 1750s.

1756

VOC signs treaty with chiefs on Savu.

Mas Said attacks the new court at Yogyakarta.

October Bugis begin a siege of VOC at Melaka.

October 7 Hamengkubuwono I officially moves into the Kraton Ngayogyakarta.

VOC sends a special ambassador to Banjarmasin. A trade agreement is reached.

VOC makes agreements with local chieftains on Timor.

1757

February Reinforcements from Batavia force Bugis to end siege of Melaka.

Mas Said agrees to negotiations. Overt hostilities end; Mas Said becomes Pangeran Mangkunegara I with his court also at Surakarta.

The Courts of central Java as they were founded in the mid-1700s have continued down to the present day. There is still a Sultan of Yogya today, a Susuhunan of Surakarta, and a Pangeran Mangkunegara. The Sultan of Yogya still has special powers within the Daerah Istimewa or Special Area of Yogyakarta; the others retain their palaces and titles, but no special powers.

1758

January 1 VOC signs treaty with the Bugis.

Najamuddin becomes Sultan of Palembang.

1759

VOC abandons fort at Linggi, near Melaka.

1765

VOC abandons fort at Siak.

Kingdom of Karangasem on Bali defeats Buleleng.

1768

VOC expedition to Malang against descendants of Surapati captures Pangeran Singasari, who dies in custody.

1769

French expedition steals clove and nutmeg plants from Ambon, breaking the VOC monopoly.

1770

Chinese laborers in the Sambas area of Kalimantan revolt against the local Sultan and their Dayak overseers.

English Captain James Cook visits Batavia.

1771

Last of Surapati's line is captured by VOC forces in Malang. Malang now falls under VOC control.

VOC forces work to push Balinese out of Balambangan.

Syarif Abdurrahman from Arabia founds Pontianak, becomes its first Sultan.

1773

Division of lands between Yogyakarta and Surakarta is formalized.

1776

Bahauddin becomes Sultan of Palembang.

1778

Tahmidillah becomes Sultan of Banjar.

Gunung Api on Banda erupts.

The Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen is founded. (Its collections would later form the basis of the National Museum and National Library.)

Sultan of Pontianak accepts VOC protectorate in exchange for recognition by the VOC as a Sultan.

1780

War breaks out between the Netherlands and Britain. Extra troops are sent to Java.

Plague in Batavia.

Smallpox epidemic on Sumatra.

Islamic reform movement grows in Minangkabau.

1781

British take the Dutch outpost at Perak.

1783

The VOC, short of cash, asks the Netherlands States-General for financial assistance.

1784

VOC attacks Riau to prevent the British from taking over.

October 29 VOC defeats Bugis forces in Riau. Sultan of Riau dies without a successor; VOC takes complete control of Johore and Riau by treaty. VOC builds fort on Bintan.

Treaty of Paris ends the war with Britain, and opens the VOC controlled Indies to free trade.

1785

Future Hamengkubuwono II of Yogya builds fortifications around the Kraton.

1786

British found Penang in Malaya.

Sultan of Banjar cedes sovereignty to VOC.

1788

Pakubuwono III is succeeded by Pakubuwono IV.

1790

Rumors spread that Pakubuwono IV is planning a massacre of Dutch in Java, and takeovers of the Yogya and Mangkunegara courts. Forces from Yogya and VOC surround Surakarta. Pakubuwono IV orders his advisors to leave court; VOC sends them into exile.

Gold rush begins in West Kalimantan.

1791

VOC withdraws from Pontianak.

1792

Hamengkubuwono I dies and is succeeded by Hamengkubuwono II.

VOC declares that Mangkunegara title and possessions are hereditary.

1795

January Dutch revolutionaries and French troops declare the Batavian Republic in the Netherlands. The Stadhouder of the Netherlands flees to London. The new Republic finds itself in a state of war with Britain.

February 7 The Prince of Orange, stadhouder-in-exile of the Netherlands, issues a letter to all colonial governors telling them to surrender to the British. (The VOC in Batavia do not comply.)

August VOC surrenders Melaka to the British East India Company.

First census on Java.

In 1795, the Netherlands were remade into the Batavian Republic under the control of revolutionary France. From this time, Britain started to take temporary or permanent control of many Dutch colonies.

1796

March 1 Heeren XVII transfer administration of the VOC to a government Committee for East Indian Affairs.

Mangkunegara II inherits court, but much of the treasury is stolen by the VOC resident at Surakarta.

British occupy Padang.

British occupy Ambon. Riots break out in Maluku between villages. VOC fortress at Ternate refuses to surrender.

1797

Nederlands Zendelinggenootschap or Dutch Missionary Society is founded.

This was the beginning of heavy activity by Dutch Protestant missionaries in Indonesia, not only to Java and Sumatra but also to very remote areas, eventually even to Irian Jaya.

1798

Napoleonic Dutch government revokes charter of VOC, assumes its debts and assets.

Sultan of Tidore sets up subsidiary Sultan of Jailolo on Halmahera.

The VOC was losing money to corruption and political intrigues. By the end of the 1700s, it was fully bankrupt. On January 1st, 1800, it ceased to exist.

1799

April 27 Committee for East Indian Affairs sends a letter of instructions to Batavia, stating that the revolutionary ideas of the Republic (liberty and equality) could not be applied to the Indies.

Dutch officers under siege at Ternate mutiny and surrender to the British.

By 1799, the British had taken all the former VOC possessions and protectorates in the area, except for Java, Banjarmasin, Palembang, western Timor and Makassar. Most of these were returned to the Dutch in 1802, only to be reconquered by the British a few years later.

1800 - 1830 (Chaos and Resistance)

1800

VOC formally dissolved on January 1; properties revert to Dutch government.

During these times, the Netherlands was allied to or occupied by Napoleon's France. Until Daendels arrived, not all Dutch officials in the Indies approved of the government in Amsterdam.

Around this time, many ports and markets that had been monopolized by the VOC were opened to free trade. This turned out to be profitable for the local government, which then allowed the Netherlands Indies officials to be more independent of the Napoleonic government in Amsterdam (until events of war reduced trade around 1807-1808).

1801

British take control of the Minahasa region, remaining until 1816.

1802

Melaka and Maluku are returned from British to Dutch control by the Treaty of Amiens.

Dutch begin sending military reinforcements to Java.

1803

Dutch government (Batavian Republic) issues colonial charter making the Netherlands Indies government responsible to the Netherlands (unlike the VOC).

Padri movement takes strength in Minangkabau area, promotes more orthodox Islam.

British surrender Ambon to the Dutch.

Badruddin becomes Sultan of Palembang.

The "Padri" advocates on Sumatra were heavily influenced by the Wahhabiyah in Arabia, a fundamentalist movement founded by Ibnu Wahhab in the middle 1700s. The movement is still favored in Saudi Arabia today.

1805

Pangeran Diponegoro experiences prophetic visions.

1806

British Navy skirmishes with French and Dutch forces off Java.

British seize Bangka.

Ministry of Colonies is founded for the Netherlands.

The "Batavian Republic" of the Netherlands, under French control, is converted into the "Kingdom of

Holland", with Louis, the brother of Napoleon, as king.

1807

Tondano leads a rebellion against the British in Minahasa.

British retake control of Melaka.

French-run government of the Netherlands appoints Daendels as Governor-General of the Indies.

1808

January 1 Daendels arrives.

Daendels moves his residence to Buitenzorg (now Bogor).

Daendels takes formal possession of Lampung for the Dutch.

Pakubuwono IV appeases Daendels; Hamengkubuwono II opposes him.

Mangkunegara II organizes "Mangkunegaran Legion" with Dutch financing.

August 18 Daendels reorganizes areas under Dutch control in Central and East Java. Bupatis and local rulers are made employees of the Dutch government.

Revolt in Banten is suppressed.

British decide to abandon Melaka; Stamford Raffles, then a clerk, writes urgent letter to India urging a reversal of the decision. The decision is reversed, and the British stay in Melaka.

Sulaiman becomes Sultan of Banjar.

Herman Willem DaendelsDaendels was a product of revolutionary Europe and a supporter of Napoleon, but he was also a colonialist. Daendels did not like the Sultans and Princes of Java at all, but he himself was sent to rule in their place. He thought he was ending oppression, but he was really bring in a newer, heavier rule from Europe. In particular, he took advantage of Dutch treaty rights over native rulers that had never before been exercised. He reorganized the legal system, but he himself governed through arbitrary decrees.

He faced problems from every side, especially a British naval blockade that choked off much economic activity.

1809

Daendels builds mountain route from Batavia to Cirebon (Jalan Raya Pos/Groote Postweg), orders town of Bandung to be relocated to the road (its current site). Pangeran Kornel, local ruler of Sumedang, refuses to cooperate due to the mistreatment of locals.

Daendels abandons Dutch presence at Banjarmasin in order to consolidate hold on Java.

While in Batavia, Daendels started a campaign to clean up the city's canals. His project to build a great highway through the Parahiyangan took the lives of many laborers.

1810

May British retake Ambon, Ternate and Tidore.

Raden Rangga, brother-in-law of the Sultan, starts failed revolt against Dutch in Yogya; Daendels marches on Yogya, forces Hamengkubuwono II to abdicate in favor of young Hamengkubuwono III.

Napoleon annexes the Netherlands to France. Daendels flies the French flag over Batavia.

Raffles visits Lord Minto, British Governor-General in India, in Calcutta, urging him to drive the French and Dutch from Java. Minto is convinced.

1811

January Daendels imposes new treaties on Yogya and Surakarta, including end to rent payments by the Dutch to the Sultans for the north coastal areas.

Hamengkubuwono III hands over Pangeran Natakusuma to Dutch on suspicion of being involved in 1810 rebellion.

May Daendels is replaced by Jan Willem Janssens. (Daendels soon served under Napoleon on his failed Moscow campaign.)

August 3 British forces land on Java.

August 26 British under Lord Minto take Batavia. The Dutch, having suffered heavy losses, retreat to Semarang.

September 18 Dutch surrender to British at Salatiga.

Thomas Stamford Raffles appointed Lt-Governor of Java.

Dutch resident at Palembang and company are killed, probably on orders of Sultan Badruddin; the British have Badruddin dethroned and replaced by his brother.

Hamengkubuwono II retakes title in Yogya.

December Raffles visits Yogya Kraton, generates much hostility.

Pakubuwono IV sends secret letters to Yogya offering assistance against the British, but hoping to make Yogya overextend themselves; British begin secret negotiations with Hamengkubuwono III; Natakusuma offers help to British.

Sir Thomas Stamford RafflesRaffles was known for his scientific interests as well as the work he did for the British East India Company: governing Java, governing the output at Bengkulu, Sumatra which was British at the time, and of course, for founding Singapore.

1812

June British shell, take, and loot Yogya. Pakubuwono IV of Surakarta offers little help. Hamengkubuwono II is removed by the British, sent to exile in Padang, and replaced again by Hamengkubuwono III.

Natakusuma becomes Pangeran Pakualam I, founding the house of Pakualam.

October British sign treaty with Sultan of Banjar.

British take Timor.

British seize Belitung as reparation for the "massacre" at Palembang the previous year.

Raffles had the same delusion as Daendels, that he was ending oppression, when in fact he was bringing in a tighter colonial rule. The nobility in Yogya considered the British to be horribly impolite.

In Raffles favor, it could be said that he liberalized the economy of Java with free-market reforms that helped farmers. He abolished forced labor and the compulsory cultivation of crops. He also tried to end the slave trade between Indonesians and foreigners.

On the other hand, while farmers under Raffles were free to grow whatever they wanted, they still

had to pay up to 40% of their crops to the government.

1813

Bahauddin becomes Sultan of Palembang.

Raffles abolishes the Sultanate of Banten.

November Revolt in the Netherlands against Napoleon.

1814

June Lord Minto, British Governor of India and Raffles' patron and promoter, dies. Charges of corruption are brought against Raffles, who is eventually found innocent.

June 21 Agreement between the nations that fought Napoleon to found a new "Kingdom of the Netherlands".

August 13 British agree on eventual return of possessions in the Indies to the Dutch.

British war with Balinese in Buleleng and Karangasem over the slave trade.

Bone attacks the British.

British residents are stationed in Banjarmasin and Pontianak.

Hamengkubuwono IV takes rule in Yogya. Diponegoro (his older brother, who had declined the succession) is appointed as guardian for the 13-year-old Sultan.

British expedition reports on Borobudur and Prambanan to Europe for the first time.

1815

Much of Minangkabau nobility killed by Padri supporters; Padri begin to expand promotion of Islam into Batak areas.

April-July Mount Tambora on Sumbawa erupts: 12,000 are dead from the eruption itself, later 50,000 die from related famine.

May Raffles visits Borobudur.

Raffles establishes direct rule over Cirebon, removing power from its Sultans.

Netherlands government establishes regulations for governing the Netherlands Indies. (These would serve as a sort of constitution for the Netherlands Indies, in one form or another, until 1942.)

The eruption of Tambora changed climate worldwide; in the northern United States, 1815 was called "the year without a summer", and snow fell in July.

1816

Bone attacks British again.

August 19 Dutch return to Batavia. Cornelis Elout continues Raffles' reform policies.

Dutch unsuccessfully try to get rajas of Bali to accept Dutch authority.

1817

Madura consolidated into single kabupaten.

Pattimura leads revolt against returning Dutch in Ambon; hanged in December.

Botanical Gardens founded at Bogor.

Gunung Ijen erupts in eastern Java.

1818

March Raffles is sent to govern British fort at Bengkulu.

Raffles sends a small force into Lampung to establish a British presence there; British East India Company officials in Calcutta tell him to turn back.

Raffles sends troops to Palembang to intervene in negotiations between the Sultan and the Dutch. They are arrested and sent to Batavia. British officials again tell Raffles to withdraw.

Dutch under Cornelis Elout end the slave trade on Java