UNLV Retrospective Theses & Dissertations

1-1-1986

The impact of Herzberg's motivational theory on elementary The impact of Herzberg's motivational theory on elementary

school teachers' performance evaluations school teachers' performance evaluations

Janice L Stromberg University of Nevada, Las Vegas

Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalscholarship.unlv.edu/rtds

Repository Citation Repository Citation Stromberg, Janice L, "The impact of Herzberg's motivational theory on elementary school teachers' performance evaluations" (1986). UNLV Retrospective Theses & Dissertations. 2933. http://dx.doi.org/10.25669/9eba-1f7l

This Dissertation is protected by copyright and/or related rights. It has been brought to you by Digital Scholarship@UNLV with permission from the rights-holder(s). You are free to use this Dissertation in any way that is permitted by the copyright and related rights legislation that applies to your use. For other uses you need to obtain permission from the rights-holder(s) directly, unless additional rights are indicated by a Creative Commons license in the record and/or on the work itself. This Dissertation has been accepted for inclusion in UNLV Retrospective Theses & Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Digital Scholarship@UNLV. For more information, please contact digitalscholarship@unlv.edu.

INFORMATION TO USERS

The m ost advanced technology has been used to photo­graph and reproduce this manuscript from the microfilm master. UMI film s the text directly from the original or copy submitted. Thus, some thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from any type of computer printer.

The quality of th is reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleedthrough, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction.

In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete manuscript and there are m issing pages, these w ill be noted. Also, i f unauthorized copyright m aterial had to be removed, a note w ill indicate the deletion.

Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are re­produced by sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand corner and continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. Each original is also photographed in one exposure and is included in reduced form at the back of the book. These are also available as one exposure on a standard 35mm slide or as a 17" x 23" black and w h ite photographic prin t for an additional charge.

Photographs included in the original m anuscript have been reproduced xerographically in th is copy. H igher quality 6" x 9" black and w hite photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations appearing in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly to order.

University Microfilms International A Bell & Howell Information Company

300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 USA 313/761-4700 800/521-0600

Order Number 9000410

The im pact o f H erzberg’s m otivational theory on elem entary school teachers’ perform ance evaluations

Stromberg, Janice L., Ph.D.

University of Nevada, Las Vegas, 1989

UMI300 N. Zeeb Rd.Ann Arbor, MI 48106

THE IMPACT OF HERZBERG'S MOTIVATIONAL THEORY ON ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

TEACHERS' PERFORMANCE EVALUATIONS

byJanice L. Stromberg

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Education

in

Department of Educational Administration University of Nevada, Las Vegas

April, 19 89

The dissertation of Janice L. Stromberg for the degree of Doctor of Education in Educational Administration and Higher Education is approved.

oi/,Chairpersoqf, Georfe Kavina, EcTTD.K,

Examining Committee M^iriber,George Samson, Ph.D

rfl' A _L_Examining ̂ Committee Member, John R. Dettre, Ph.D./ /

Graduate Faculty Representative, Reuben Neumann, Ph.D

- . /c* ~ ______________________Graduate Dean, Ronald W. Smith, Ph.D.

University of Nevada, Las Vegas April, 1989

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to determine if elementary school principals used the motivators of Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene Theory in the written performance evaluation of teachers, if any specific types of motivational factors were used, and the frequency of such factors. The study was conducted in a large Western school district and the methodology of content analysis was applied to 200 teacher evaluations, using the motivators of the Motivation-Hygiene Theory as the categories. It was determined that elementary principals do use constructs of motivational theory in written performance evaluations and in this study, the category of work itself was the most often used.

vi'ii

112

34

46

6

242933484848484961

Table of Contents

Tables .............................Figures ............................

The Problem ......................Introduction ..................Statement of the Problem ....Significance of the Problem ..Hypotheses Tested ............Assumptions, Limitations and

Definitions ...............Review of Related Literature

Motivational Theories ........Motivation in Organizations ..Teacher Performance EvaluationTeacher Evaluation Instruments

Design of the Study .............Introduction ..................Source of Data ...............Selection of Data ............Instrumentation ..............Research Procedures ..........

iv

PageChapter

4. Findings of the Study ..................... 63Summary ................................. 63

5. Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendationsfor Further Research ................... 74Summary ................................. 7 4Conclusions ............................. 75Recommendations for Further Research .. 7 8

Reference List ....................................... 79

v

List of Tables

Table Page1. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs ............. 122. Theory X/Theory Y ........................ 193. Content Analysis Research Designs ...... 51

vi

List of Figures

Figure Page1. The Managerial Grid .......................... 112. ERG Theory Relationships among Frustration,

Importance, and Satisfaction of Needs ... 143. Expectancy Theory ............................ 174. Classic Profile of Motivators and Hygiene

Factors in an Organization .............. 2 25. Comparison of Satisfiers and Dissatisfiers

for Teachers .............................. 256. Historical Development of the Supervisory

Position .................................. 307. Pairing of Observations ..................... 3 68. Sample Matrix (Flanders) .................... 379. An Example of Coded Pupil Behavior Using

Kounin System ............... 4110. An Example of Coded Teacher Behavior Using

Kounin System ............................. 4211. Clinical Supervision Cycle .................. 4412. Percentage of Performance Evaluations Which

Contained Motivational Constructs ....... 6413. Frequency of Herzberg's Motivators ......... 6614. Herzberg's Motivator by Type: Work

Itself ..................................... 6815. Herzberg's Motivator by Type: Growth ...... 6916. Herzberg's Motivator by Type: Recognition.. 70

vii

Figure Page17. Herzberg's Motivator by Type:

Responsibility .......................... 7118. Herzberg's Motivator by Type:

Achievement ............................. 7219. Herzberg's Motivator by Type:

Advancement ............................. 7 320. Total Percentage of All Category

Occurrences ............................. 7 6

Acknowledgements

A doctoral program tends to consume one's life and the successful completion of it requires patience and support from family and friends. I would like to thank my mother, Ester Stromberg, for always encouraging me toward higher goals and my husband, Dr. Michael Signorelli, for helping me achieve these goals.

Deep appreciation is also expressed to the professors of the Educational Administration Department, Dr. George Samson, Dr. John Dettre, Dr. Anthony Saville, and especially to my committee chairman, Dr. George Kavina, for their expert assistance and encouragement throughout the doctoral program.

ix

1

CHAPTER 1

The Problem

IntroductionEducational literature contained extensive material

on teacher evaluations. Some authors equated teacher evaluations with accountability, others believed evaluations to be a necessary evil, while still other authors contended that teacher evaluations should be discontinued. Latham and Wexley (1981) stated that "performance appraisal systems are a lot like seat belts. Most people believe they are necessary, but they don't like to use them" (p. 2).

Teacher evaluation was used to provide feedback onhow effective a teacher was in the classroom and toprovide directions for areas of improvement. Evaluationof one's performance was a personal experience, one thatcould be rewarding and challenging or painful anddisillusioning.

It is one of life's ironies that those experiences which can be most rewarding also have the potential to be most frustrating; teacher evaluation is like that. Done well, teacher evaluation can lead to improved personal growth and professional esteem. Done poorly, teacher evaluation can produce anxiety or ennui and drive talented teachers from the profession. (Duke & Stiggins, 1986, p. 9)

Teacher performance evaluations provided an opportunity to channel the energy and enthusiasm of teachers toward self-actualization. "Subordinates in wanting to know how well they are doing, really want to have their merits recognized and to know how to develop their own talents more fully" (Katz & Kahn, 1966, p. 441). Within the written performance document, tenets of moti­vation could be used toward the goal of teacher self- actualization. This study attempted to evaluate if principals utilized written performance evaluations to motivate teachers and if so, what motivational factors were frequently used.

Statement of the ProblemLiterature suggested that effectively written

performance evaluations could motivate teachers.First, from a motivational perspective, it is counterproductive to focus exclusively on poor subordinate performance while allowing instances of good performance to go unnoticed and unrewarded. Genuine positive feedback and praise for a job well done are excellent mechanisms for motivating continued good performance. (Hobson, Hobson & Hobson, 19 85, p. 25)

The purpose of this study was to identify whether elementary school principals used the concepts of motivation theory in written performance evaluations of elementary school teachers. Frederick Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene Theory provided the theoretical framework for this study.

Significance of the ProblemHerzberg developed the Motivation-Hygiene Theory from

the premise that employees today were different from employees of previous eras. In the book, The Managerial Choice, Herzberg (19 82) discussed the end of obligation by employees to remain in boring, meaningless jobs because of economic security. Our society had become more aware of the value of life. While the traditional amount of time spent working decreased over the years, employees had come to expect more from their working hours besides a paycheck. Morse and Weiss conducted national interviews of employed men and found that "to the typical man in a middle-class occupation, working means having a purpose, gaining a sense of accomplishment, expressing himself" (Vroom &Deci, 1974, p. 56).

Herzberg, Mausner and Snyderman (1959) stated that the supervisor's key role was "to learn discriminately to recognize good work, to reward this good work" (p. 136).In addition, "Elementary school principals are key factors in successful schools'and the degree to which they meet the challenges of the 1980's will determine the degree to which elementary schools can be effective" (Krajewski, Martin & Walden, 1983, n.p.). They must remember that "an important determinant of individual performance is motivation" (Gibson, Ivancevich & Donnelly, 1985, p. 99). Cummings and Schwab (1973) agreed that "performance is determined primarily by ability and motivation" (p. 2).

Hypotheses TestedThe hypotheses tested in this study, stated in null

form, were as follows:1. Elementary school principals did not include

constructs of motivational theory in the written evaluation of teachers.

2. There was no particular type of motivation conveyed in written teacher evaluations.

3. The constructs of motivational theory were not frequently used in elementary school teacher evaluations.

Assumptions, Limitations and DefinitionsAssumptions. In conducting this study several

assumptions were made. These assumptions included the following:

1. Elementary school principals were assumed to be concerned with the motivation of teachers' performance.

2. Improved teacher performance was assumed to be a goal of written teacher evaluations.

3. Elementary school teachers were assumed to be receptive to the written evaluation completed by the site principal.

Limitations. Limitations of the study were as follows:

1. Only teacher evaluations written by elementary

school principals (Kindergarten through sixth grade) were examined.

2. The motivators of Herzberg's Motivation- Hygiene Theory were applied to written performance evaluations.

3. Written performance evaluations for the school year 1987-88 were reviewed.

Definitions. The term "teacher evaluation" could be used interchangeably with the term "performance evalu­ation" and both referred to the actual written form produced by principals. Millman (1981) described teacher evaluation as "formative teacher evaluaton [which] helps teachers improve their performance by providing data, judgements, and suggestions that have implications for what to teach and how" (p. 13).

For this particular study, all evaluations were referred to as teacher performance evaluations. Motivation was defined by Steers and Porter (1975) as: "(1) whatenergizes human behavior; (2) what directs or channels such behavior; and (3) how this behavior is maintained or sustained" (p. 6).

6

CHAPTER 2

Review of Related Literature

Motivational TheoriesMotivational theorists attempted to explain

scientifically why humans behave as they do. "Motivationis usually defined as the drive to achieve a goal . . .the person who has the drive wants the benefit that comeswith the goal" (Lefton, Buzzotta, Sherberg & Karroher,1977, p. 76). A review of motivational theoriesdemonstrated a variety of philosophies regarding whatmotivated people.

The work on motivation in the field of psychology has been dominated by two different views of the nature of man. One represents man as being driven by inherited, conflicting unconscious drives that cause him to behave in instinctual and at times, self-destructive ways. The second view represents man as rational and aware of his goals and as behaving in those ways he feels will help him achieve his goals. {Lawler, 1973, p. 4)

Marshall Jones (1955) said of motivation in the annualvolumes of the Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, "thesubject matter of motivation has to do with how behaviorgets started, is energized, is sustained, is directed, isstopped. Put another way, motivation has to do with thewhy of behavior, as contrasted with the how or the what ofbehavior" (McClelland, 1985, p. 4).

7Frederick Taylor was one of the first authors to view

workers as productive units and to provide workers in­centives (pay) for their effort. "The principal object of management should be to secure the maximum prosperity for the employer, coupled with the maximum prosperity for each worker" (Taylor, 1947, p. 9). Scientific Management attempted to insure worker productivity by infusing uni­formity into each task. The worker was no longer entirely responsible for completion of the task, rather management assumed the responsibility of assisting the worker in becoming more productive. The management responsibilities required were described by Vroom and Deci as follows:

1. They develop a science for each element of a man's work, which replaces the old rule- of-thumb method.

2. They scientifically select and then train,teach and develop the workman, whereas inthe past he chose his own work and trainedhimself as best he could.

3. They heartily cooperate with the men so as to insure all the work is being done in accordance with the principles of the science which has been developed.

4. There is an almost equal division of the work and the responsibility between the management and the workman. The management takes over all work for which they are better fitted than the workman, while in the past almost all of the work and the greater part of the responsibility was thrown upon the men.(Vroom & Deci, 1972, pp. 295-296)

The scientific method required the work be planned inadvance by management. As a result, division of labor andtask assignment occurred. When tasks were accomplished

successfully within the allotted time, workers were to receive additional compensation. Taylor's (19 47) scientific method delineated tasks for workers and compensated them for correct applications of the tasks.The compensation acted as a motivator to work to one's potential in the most efficient manner.

Mary Parker Follett contended that organizations must consider self-respect when motivating employees, because most individuals do not like to be given orders. Follett believed that directions should come from the situation rather than a supervisor. She further stated that "more industrial trouble has been caused by the manner in which orders are given than in any other way" (Shafritz &Whitback, 1978, p. 46). Her solution was "to depersonalize the giving of orders, to unite all concerned in a study of the situation, to discover the law of the situation and obey that" (Shafritz & Whitback, 1978, p. 47) .

Chester Barnard believed organizations were systems of interactions. Individuals could choose to work for any organization and it was an executive's task to develop a desire on the part of the employees to contribute to that organization. Barnard did not agree with Taylor that employees worked solely for wages. Barnard's methods of incentive included:

(a) material inducements(b) personal non-material opportunities

9(c) desirable physical conditions(d) ideal benefactions(e) associational attractiveness(f) adaptation of conditions to habitual methods

and attitudes(g) the opportunity of enlarged participation(h) the condition of communion. (Barnard, 1968, p. 142)

Without the contribution of employees, an organizationcould not accomplish its goals. An employee's acceptanceof communication (willingness to follow orders) wasdetermined by the character of the order.

Authority is the character of a communication (order) in a formal organization by virtue of which it is accepted by a contributor to or "member" of the organization as governing the action he contributes; that is, as governing or determining what he does or is not to do as far as the organization is concerned (Barnard, 1968, p. 163)

An employee will follow orders if:(a) he can and does understand the communication(b) at the time of his decision, he believes

that it is not inconsistent with the purpose of the organization

(c) at the time of his decision, he believes it to be compatible with his personal integrity as a whole

(d) he is able mentally and physically to comply with it. (Barnard, 1968, p. 165)

The managerial grid is a theory by Blake and Mouton (19 78) of the organizational properties of production and people. "The Grid approach— a systematic way of under­standing administrative leadership in terms of its two major and essential qualities: concern for institutionalperformance and concern for people" (Blake, Mouton & Williams, 1981, p. ix). The grid compared the concern

10for production (x axis) against concern for people (y axis) .

The Managerial Grid is useful for helping people identify the assumptions they make as they work with and through others. By using managerial theories to identify one's own assumptions, a person is able to see himself more clearly, to understand where their differences come from,to see how to change themselves, and to helpothers toward more productive and rewarding experiences. (Blake & Mouton, 1978, p. 6)

Figure 1 illustrated the Managerial Grid.Blake and Mouton contended that the 9.9 team manage­

ment style was the most effective management style.Through this type of mutual respect, management, employees and managers were more productive in their work."Achievement of such a 9.9 orientation may be the key tostrengthening the free enterprise system and the political democracy on which it rests" (Blake & Mouton, 1978, p. 217).

Maslow (19 54) believed "the study of motivation must be in part the study of the ultimate human goals or desires or needs" (p. 66). As a result, Maslow created a theory of motivation which was based on a hierarchy of human needs. This classification was defined as the goals or needs of humans, "the pulls rather than the pushes" of individuals (Maslow, 1954, p. 71). Table 1 listed the hierarchy of needs.

The basic or lower needs were usually satisfied first; however, there could be some reversals in the hierarchy.In Motivation and Personality (1954), Maslow gave the

11

Figure 1 The Managerial Grid

1.9 ICountry Club Management Thoughtful attention to needs of people for satisfying relationships leads to a comfortable friendly organization atmosphere and tempo.

j |Team Management

Work, accomplishment is from committed people; interdependence through a "common stake" in organization purpose leads to relationships of trust and respect.

5.5Organization Man Management Adequate organization per­formance is possible through balancing the necessity to get out work with maintaining morale of people at a satis­factory level.

1 . 1Impoverishment Management - Exertion of minimum ef­fort to get required work done is appropriate to sustain organization membership.

9.1Authority-Obedience

Efficiency in operations results from arranging conditions of work insuch a way that human __elements interfere to a minimum degree.

Source; Robert R. Blake and Jane S. Mouton,The New Managerial Grid (Houston, TX: Gulf PublishingCompany, 197 8), p. 11.

12Table 1

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (after Maslow, 1954)

Physiological needs (need for food, water, and sex).Safety needs (need for security and protection from pain, fear, anxiety, and disorder); need for order, lawfulness, and discipline. Need for belongingness and love (need for love, tenderness, and togetherness).Esteem needs (need for achieve­ment, respect, and approval). Self-actualization needs (need for self-fulfillment, for realizing one's potential, for understanding and insight).

Source: David C. McClelland, Human MotivationGlenview, IL: Scott, Foresman and Company, 1985), p. 41.

example of martyrs who gave up everything for a specific idea or value. These people always had their basic needs satisfied and as a result, had a strong character. In such a case, need satisfaction would be at the self- actualization level.

As one set of needs was satisfied, another set emerged to take its place. However, Maslow contended that not all needs were 100 percent satisfied before the next set of needs emerged. He assigned arbitrary figures to the hierarchy to illustrate this point. "It is as if the average citizen is satisfied perhaps 85 percent in his physiological needs, 10 percent in his self-esteem needs,

Lower, or Deficit, 1, Needs

2 ,

Higher, or Growth, Needs

13and 10 percent in his self-actualization needs" (Maslow, 1954, pp. 100-101). When motivating people, the ap­propriate set of needs must be satisfied. If a lower set such as safety had not been satisfied, it was useless to address any of the higher needs. Unfulfilled needs drove or motivated individuals to do whatever was required to fulfill the needs.

Clayton Alderfer agreed with Maslow that there was a hierarchy of individual needs. However, he identified only three sets of needs.

1. Existence: These are needs that aresatisfied by such factors as food, air, water, pay, and working conditions.

2. Relatedness: These are the needs that are satisfied by meaningful social and inter­personal relationships.

3. Growth: These are needs that an individual satisfies by making creative or productive contributions. (Gibson et al., 1985, pp.

107-108)Alderfer's theory was similar to Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory. However, Maslow proposed each lower need must be satisfied before the next higher need would become predominant. Alderfer suggested "that in addition to the satisfaction-progression process Maslow proposed, a frustration-regression process is also at work" (Gibson et al., 1985, p. 109). This was illustrated in Figure 2 which demonstrated that when an individual was frustrated in satisfying a higher need such as growth, the individual would redirect his efforts to the lower need. If, for

14

CN

0pGtn•Hpm

cn'O0)0ssmmo

g o•H-p G 5-1 •P cn G P Pm Gtn O G -H O -P g O G id MMtn in CM-H

•H +J X! rd tn co G0 'CS •H G ■P (d <di—i -■ 0 001 o

fr«° u* §■CD H P iw

O -M Qt in£ "M M X

4J C

Mo oOr ue cp

io j:

MM

•m c jj10 J= M 4JMl 3 in o 3 u M IJI

w

p*o•H>G-Ga)CQPO£MmO>tjOI—IoJGOtnP*

O•QgGPEm

G*GtdJGU■H>0OGG>

GOtnrQ•rHCDG

■rH

td0-p•rHo

o03cn

<

T3GGGfGGPI

Cm

S0PMHGS0•POrG•G<

tncn0pCM>i0WPOa• «PI •H <TlO*»r-HT3O •O a,£0g m0 coQG cnt—H• >iG3 r-H0 rH0• G> G0 OP a

15example, growth was being blocked by company resources, the manager should assist the employees' efforts toward a lower need satisfaction.

The behavior modification theory was developed by B. F. Skinner. Essentially, this theory contended that indivi­duals learn by reinforcement. When a reinforcement was paired to an activity, individuals would repeat the activity in order to attain the reinforcement.

Behavior modification assumes that behavior is more important than its 'psychological causes,' such as the needs, motives, and values held by individuals . . . Discrete and distinguishablebehaviors are the most important bases in developing any behavior modification plan to correct a performance problem. (Gibson et al., 1985, p. 199)

Therefore according to Skinner, employees were motivated through the pairing of positive and negative reinforcement, punishment, or extinction (withholding a positive re­inforcement for a learned behavior).

One of the early human relations motivational theorists was Elton Mayo. He conducted the Hawthorne studies at the Western Electric plant in Hawthorne, Illinois. The study's objective was to determine the impact of lighting on worker productivity. During the study, variables such as rest periods, foods, and the like were adjusted to study their effect on workers. However, when these variables were once again restricted, productivity remained high. While the study failed to demonstrate a relationship between lighting and production, the psychological factors did appear to

16influence productivity. Mayo surmised that

the mere fact of the research being carried out demonstrated to the workers that their problems were not being ignored . . . and most importantof all, a crowd of solitary workers had beentransfered into a group with a sense of socialresponsibility. (Vroom & Deci, 1976, pp. 304- 305)

The Hawthorne studies demonstrated the importance of thefeelings of employees on productivity.

David McClelland contended that needs were acquired through the culture in which one lived. He focused on motives he considered to be important and attempted to determine why specific needs were attractive to people.The needs he addressed were power, affiliation, and achievement. According to McClelland (1985), when these needs existed strongly in a person, they served to motivate that person. McClelland's theory reasoned, therefore, that since we learned these needs from our culture, by stimulating these three needs, motivation could be taught.

The expectancy theory of Victor Vroom suggested that individuals chose their behavior based on their perceptions of what they might expect from the behavior. Individuals weighed the consequences of each behavior and chose the action which would produce the most preferred outcome."The intent of expectancy theory is to assess the magni­tude and direction of all the forces acting on the individual" (Gibson et al., 1985, p. 156). Figure 3 illustrated the expectancy theory.

17

m<DUPtn•HpH

> 1

o0)£1E-t>iOc(d-PoOaw

■H U

tn e •w M *H O iH H-l>>1-1 p

a) a w (j 0. 01 o

•H

■U

4-> 4-1

•H4-1

CO CO

u a o to

Source:

James

L. Gibson,

John

M. Ivancevich

and

James

H. Donnelly,

Jr.

Organizations

Beha

vior

-Str

uctu

re

- Processes

(Plano,

TX:

Business

Publ

icat

ions

Inc.,

5th

ed.,

1985), p.

157.

18There are four levels to the Expectancy Model:

1. People have preferences among the various outcomes that are potentially available to them.2. People have expectancies about the likeli­hood that an action (effort) on their part will lead to the intended behavior or performance.3. People have expectancies (instrumentalities) about the likelihood that certain outcomes will follow their behavior.4. In any situation, the actions a person chooses to take are determined by the ex­pectancies and the preferences that a person has at the time. (Lawler, 1973, p. 49)

First-level outcomes were produced by the job itself. Productivity, absenteeism, turnover, and quality of pro­ductivity were all first-level outcomes. Second-level outcomes were what resulted from the first-level outcomes such as promotion, merit pay increases, group acceptance or rejection. An individual would assess the potential out­comes to determine the amount of effort he or she would put into the job. Uris (1986) said of expectancy theories, "Superior effort is likely to be sustained if it is recognized by rewards suited to the individual's value system. . . . It is the employee's perception of reward rather than the reward itself that matters" (p. 15).

Douglas McGregor's Theory X/Theory Y.contended that motivation was determined by a worker's feelings and attitudes. McGregor developed these two different philosophies of management based on assumptions about people. Table 2 identified the characteristics associated with each theory.

19Table 2

Theory X/Theory Y

1. Human beings are in­herently lazy and will shun work if they can.

2. People must be directed, controlled, and moti­vated by fear of punish­ment or deprivation to be impelled to work as the company requires.

1. For most people, physi­cal and mental effort expended at work is as natural as that ex­pended for play or rest.

2. People will exercise self-control in the service of objectives which they accept.

3. The average human being prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid responsi­bility, has relatively little ambition, and above all, wants security.

3. Under proper conditions, the average person learns to accept and even seek responsibility.

4. The capacity for ex­ercising imagination, ingenuity, and creativity exists gene­rally among people.

Source: Aurem Uris, 101 of the Greatest Ideas forManagement (Plano, TX: Business Publications, Inc., 1986),p. 46.

Theory X did not attempt to satisfy man's higher egotistic needs. This theory did not provide for worker motivation. It was applicable to the scientific method involved in mass production industries. Theory Y was based on the assumptions that man's lower needs had been fulfilled and management must provide for employee's safety, association, independence, and status. "Theory X places exclusive reliance upon external control of human behavior while Theory Y relies heavily on self-control and self- direction" (Vroom & Deci, 1974, p. 316).

20Rensis Likert stressed the differences between the

managerial attitudes of successful organizations and un­successful organizations. The successful managers strove to use all the major employee motives which, when satisfied, would result in favorable and cooperative employee attitudes. Likert reported that research has shown employees do well when they feel supported by the organ­ization, and recognized for their importance and worth as a person. The general principle upon which high-producing managers built their organizational systems was the principle of supportive relationships. This principle stated,

The leadership and other processes of the organ­ization must be such as to insure a maximum probability that in all interaction and all relationships with the organization each member will, in the light of his background, values and expectations, view the experience as sup­portive and one which builds and maintains his sense of personal worth and importance.(Vroom & Deci, 1974, p. 326)

In other words, each member of the organization had to feelthat the objectives of the organization were important andhis own task contributed greatly to the successfulattainment of the objectives. Likert called these conceptsthe Systems 4 Theory. Likert (19 67) reiterated the threemain concepts as:

1. The use by the manager of the principle of supportive relationships.2. His use of group decision making and group methods of supervision, and

213. His high performance goal for the

organization. (Likert, 1967, p. 47)Herzberg constructed the Motivation-Hygiene Theory

from a study in which employees were asked what made them feel good or bad about events which occurred at work. Herzberg (19 82) attempted to define what type of activity resulted in satisfaction of the worker and what type of activity caused employee dissatisfaction. Results of the study indicated that specific work factors caused employee job satisfaction; these factors were termed motivators. The work factors which had the capacity to cause employee dissatisfaction were termed hygiene factors. Motivators could only affect job satisfaction; they could not cause dissatisfaction. Concurrently, hygiene factors could create job dissatisfaction, not satisfaction.

Figure 4 identified the motivation and hygiene factors. An employer who addressed the hygiene factors attempted to limit dissatisfaction in jobs, but "what does motivate is the challenge and pleasure of the work itself, the sense of achievement, recognition of a job well done, a feeling of responsibility, and the desire for advancement" (Uris, 1986, p. 27). These were Herzberg's motivation factors and were ones an employer addressed to create job satisfaction.

Herzberg (1982) viewed individuals as a combination of the Biblical Adam and Abraham. The Adam character was

Figure 4Classic Profile of Motivators and Hygiene Factors in

an Organization

Hygiene MotivatorsJob dissatisfaction Job satisfaction

Achievement

Recognition for achievement

Work itself

Responsibility

Advancement

GrowthCompany

policy & administration

Supervision

Interpersonal relations

Working conditions

Salary

Status

Security

Source; Frederick Herzberg, The Managerial Choice, 2nd ed. rev. (Salt Lake City, UT: Frederich Herzberg,1982), p. 71.

23one whose "basic nature is that of avoidance organism . . . seeking to attune himself to his environment in order to survive. The environment is the source of danger and consequently the source of his unhappiness" (Herzberg, 1982, p. 51). The hygiene factors were the aspects of employment which the Adam in us sought to avoid.

The Abraham characteristic in each of us was created to be a "striving, creating organism" (Herzberg, 1982, p. 51). The motivator factors were the work aspects the Abraham side of us sought to fulfill. "Adam is the nature of man which is concerned with unhappiness, and Abraham is the nature of man which seeks happiness" (Herzberg, 1982, p. 52) .

Motivational theories represented a continuum of philosophies as to the most effective process which would encourage employees to challenge themselves and work to their fullest potential. Sergiovanni and Starratt (1983) proposed that "motivation theories are modes of analysis that can help us to understand issues and develop practices" (p. 123). Work has moved from a necessary act to earn money to the way in which we defined our contri­butions and worth as an individual. Similarly, motivational theory has developed from Taylor's monetary payment for effort to Herzberg's reinforcement of an individual's self-actualization. There existed many more

24theories than this writer reviewed; however, the theories presented addressed a variety of philosophies. For the purpose of this study, Frederick Herzberg's Motivational- Hygiene Theory provided the theoretical base, as his identification of motivator and hygiene factors effec­tively fit this study. Sergiovanni and Carter (1973) also utilized Herzberg's theory to study educational organ­izations. In The New School Executive, they stated,

We believe the motivation-hygiene theory to be applicable to educational organizations and, indeed, to teachers and students for two reasons: (1) the theory is consistent with thehumanistic belief pattern which forms one dimension of. our applied science of edu­cational administration; and (2) when the Herzberg hypothesis is tested using teachers and other educators as respondents, results similar to those found for other groups are obtained. (Sergiovanni & Carter, 1973, p. 75)

Figure 5 illustrated Sergiovanni and Carter's (1973) studywhich replicated Herzberg's investigation.

Motivation in OrganizationsDeci and Ryan (1985) believed that "for organizations

to thrive, indeed, in many cases even to survive, members of the organization must be motivated to perform well"(p. 294). A study by the U. S. Chamber of Commerce in 1980 showed "an overwhelming 88 percent of all working Americans feel it is personally important to them to work hard and to do their best on the job" and suggested that "there are large reservoirs of potential upon which management can draw to improve performance and increase

Figure 5

Comparison of

Satisfiers

and Dis

satlsfiers

for Teachers

25

0>c8>O)>.

core>oS

cn o) ■O ®2-5to re re ®J £OS ®■E £« rere E^ o w *C

CD Q.- Ire o cn _ cn T3b £

.32*cn

cnw in Q) CD-D -C= & « - COS £a r■= £cn •= ® — CJcn c.£ « cn c3 wre £® tr12 S.CD r-

COCO

cn.E■DCCO

•oQ.tnCl

t_

inin

CDCD

00<D

o

cno<_>CDOC O. ^ f—in d JjCD — >^ s i

CLCM

CD cn

C l

CO

CDCDCD

CCy

c(0£_o£oE■ocastr_a>as

©p tn©osasJ= ac © o p5o ©C L

© C JO m£ ■- os cnIE © w c © CO

^ CO •K ©| s• I °W o © © o ® E cr©T>Q) LL.fO • g £2 © o £© oCo * - -

2 p

*- © © -cCO r -U— O)19 ̂o.oCO23D)0)O)COc0)e0)

Q_a>o

Ada

pted

Fr

om:

Thom

as

J. Se

rvio

vann

i an

d Fr

ed

D. C

arve

r, Th

e Ne

w Sc

hool

Exe

cutiv

e (N

ewYo

rk:

Dod

d. M

ead

& C

ompa

ny,

1973

), p.

76.

26productivity" (Shelly & Buehler, 19 87, p. 84).

Jay Hundley set forth a "simple model for capturing the dedication of individuals and their interest in work," a model which was derived from the J. C. Penney Company (Shelly & Buehler, 1987, p. 85).

1. Standards. Set them so they make an unequivocal statemet of what's expected of the organization and the individual.2. Involvement. Allow the individual to per­form outside the formal structure. Allow him or her to participate in the definition as well as the solution of the problem. Involvement also means a say in his or her career.3. Reward. As much as possible of the pay that a person receives should be affected by their performance and that of the work team or organization within which they work.4. Appraisal. The need to close the system by reporting back to individuals on how they are measuring up against the standards and ob­jectives that they participated in setting. (Shelly & Buehler, 1987, p. 90)

Peters and Waterman (1982) identified the best-runcompanies in America in their book, In Search ofExcellence. Eight attributes which characterized thesecompanies were developed. One of these attributes was thebelief in productivity through people. In elaborating onthis philosophy, the authors stated,

Treat people as adults; treat them as partners; treat them with dignity; treat them with respect; treat them— not capital spending and automation— as the primary source of pro­ductivity gains. These are fundamental lessons from the excellent companies' research. In other words, if you want productivity and the financial reward that goes with it, you must

27treat your workers as your most important asset. (Peters & Waterman, 1982, p. 238)

Drucker (1974) identified six elements which organ­izations need to be effective.

1. They need to define "what is our business and what should it be."2. They need to derive clear objectives and goals from their definition of function and mission.3. They then have to think through priorities of concentration which enable them to select targets, to set standards of accomplishment and performance, that is, to define the minimum acceptable results; to set deadlines; to go to work on results; and to make someone accountable for results.4. They need to define measurements of performance.5. They need to use these measurements to feed­back on their efforts, that is, to build self- control from results into their system.6. Finally, they need an organized audit of objectives that no longer serve a purpose or have proven unattainable. They need to identify un­satisfactory performance, and activities which are obsolete or unproductive, or both. And they need a mechanism for sloughing off such acti­vities rather than wasting their money and their energies where the results are unsatisfactory. (Drucker, 1971, p. 158)

Rensis Likert contended that "a consistent pattern of motivational principles and their application is associated with high productivity and high job satis­faction" (Koontz & O'Donnell, 1968, p. 125).

Much of the motivational research in the business sector could be transferred to educational settings.

28Students, teachers, and administrators all needed moti­vation to become more productive. The goals of a school system were to educate its students, and the most important person in that process was the teacher. It, then, was the responsibility of an administrator to develop and maintain motivated teachers. The more motivated the teachers, the more learning would take place in the classroom. Drucker (1974) believed that "managing the service institutions for performance will increasingly be seen as the central managerial challenge of a developed society, and as its greatest managerial need" (p. 135). Snyder and Anderson (1986) advised in Managing Productive Schools that "an outsider (teacher or administrator) can manipulate events in such a way as to trigger, inspire, and stimulate behavior in a certain direction" (p. 302). Administrators must not only understand motivational constructs, but must utilize them in all facets of subordinate-superior interaction whenever possible.

Throughout organizational motivation research, the emphasis on motivating employees resurfaced again and again. Rosenbaum (1981) advocated, "for anyone who manages people, the bottom line is knowing how to en­courage desirable behavior and discourage undesirable behavior" (p. 59). He suggested that building up workers' perception of themselves would result in greater productivity. "If the supervisor encourages feelings of

29competency in subordinates, the motivation to perform the specific task and the overall job well will be increased" (p. 34).

Latham and Wexley (1982) maintained that "performance appraisal lies at the heart of motivation because it is through the appraisal interview that the employee receives feedback from a manager and/or others, (e.g., peers) regarding job performance" (p. 5).

Teacher Performance EvaluationThe responsibility of evaluating teachers was

originally given to laymen, clergy, trustees, citizens' committees, and the like who supervised to maintain control, emphasizing rules and standards. After 1827, the supervision of instruction was designated to superin­tendents. However, "as the free public school emerged as an 'educational ladder' during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the district superintendent eventu­ally came to be the individual charged with the overall supervisor responsibilities" (Gwynn, 1961, p. 5). When the superintendent's position was enlarged, supervisory duties were delegated to elementary or secondary principals. As common schools were established, elementary schools became separate units from secondary schools. Figure 6 showed the kinds of supervision that grew out of each major type of school or educational agency in the United States.

30'd•doQ

voCDP3dv•H&-I

go•H-P‘Htno04potn•P>S-lCD&GWCDx:+j

•pGCDeao

I—ICD>CDQ

ttSo•PPO•Pcn•HEC

tnzoI"COo0.>*OSoto>ttIUcu3tntn3O£§IUCO

oUl>•Jo>UJ

<ccoCOzo

CO2UlCOUlXKooz

o c e o> H*UJ CO

s iO P O

I co

t!) M̂cmJ?tf3mO-CD

>oe<t o z o UJ x 2 u uj cno p c v j

-J< r ifilDQ. COCO 03

E>C0X̂CD

• •po>HSCD!Z

G0•HCO•H>pCDftGWvpOCDO■H-POcdpftT3Gcd>PoCDx:E-ivG •G <o>i£ •U a.P0C i-c•P VOa cnt-H•1-3

>iG• • cdCD ftO SP 0G OOW t3nscdCDa

31With the advent of compulsory school legislation,

elementary enrollment increased and new schools were built for this population growth; this resulted in the non-teaching principal position. Gwynn (1961) described this principal's position as, "his main task was admini­stration and supervision of a more general type for all grades of the school" (p. 7) . Today, schools utilized peer reviews as well as the traditional models of principal supervision. Gwynn (1961) identified ten supervisory responsibilities.

1. To aid the teacher and the principal in understanding children better.2. To help the teacher to develop and improve individually and as a co-operating member of the school staff.3. To assist school personnel in making more interesting and effective use of materials of instruction.4. To help the teacher to improve his methods of teaching.5. To make the specialized personnel in the school system of maximum assistance to the teacher.6. To assist the teacher in making the best possible appraisal of the student.7. To stimulate the teacher to evaluate his own planning, work and progress.8. To help the teacher achieve poise and a sense of security in his work and in the community.9. To stimulate faculty groups to plan curriculum improvements and carry them out co­operatively, and to assume a major responsi­bility in co-ordinating this work in improving teacher education in service.10. To acquaint the school administration, the teachers, the students, and the public with the work and progress of the school. (Gwynn, 1961, pp. 27-31)

The area of supervision covered several tasks. "We can think of supervision as the glue of a successful

32school . . . the function in schools that draws togetherthe discrete elements of instructional effectiveness into whole-school action" (Glickman, 1985, p. 4). The tasks of supervision which brought about improved instruction included direct assistance. Through direct assistance, "the supervision can provide one-to-one feedback to teachers to improve instruction (Glickman, 1985, p. 257). This one-to-one feedback was accomplished through per­formance evaluations. Cummings and Schwab (1973) reported that,

organizations usually have two purposes for employee evaluations. First, appraisal results are used for making administrative decisions, such as merit pay, promotions, transfers, or terminations. Second, performance appraisals are used to help improve performance by aiding areas for development and growth. (pp. 4-5)

In the Handbook of Teacher Evaluation, Bernard McKennasaid, " . . . the major purpose of teacher evaluation isassumed to be the improvement of instruction" (Millman,1981, p. 231).

"In the evaluation of teachers, we attempt to de­termine the degree to which teachers have attained such knowledge (teaching procedures and their effects) and the degree to which they apply it in their instruction"(Smith, Peterson & Micceri, 1987, p. 16).

Regardless of the format used to evaluate teachers, all should have provided an opportunity for feedback to the teacher. "The most crucial interpersonal link between

the teacher and the observer occurs when the teacher is provided with information on his or her performance. If growth is to occur, it is most likely to begin with this communication" (Duke & Stiggins, 1986, p. 32). "According to cognitive evaluation theory . . . the impact of anevent on motivational process is determined not by the objective characteristics of the event but rather by its psychological meaning for the individual" (Deci & Ryan, 1985, p. 87). When the Cyanamide Corporation reviewed its evaluation system, it found that "workers who felt good about themselves would perform better, or at least view their circumstances in a more favorable light, than those who had to defend themselves against what they might see as attacks" (Gellerman & Hodgson, 1988, p. 40) from critical performance evaluations.

Teacher Evaluation InstrumentsSupervisors evaluating teachers' classroom effec­

tiveness had a variety of instruments available for use in an effort to gather data. In the Handbook of Teacher Evaluation, Millman (1981) identified three methods for gathering data:

1. Frequency/count systems recording the frequency number or presence of certain behaviors or events.2. Rating systems rate the degree to which a certain variable was present such as a class­room event or behavior.3. Narrative system describes the classroom activities as they occur. (p. 101)

Borich and Madden's (1977) book, Evaluating Classroom

34Instruction, reviewed numerous instruments which measured information about the teacher, pupil or classroom. Information was obtained from the teacher, pupil or an observer on the classroom climate, verbal interaction, group dimensions, and so forth. The evaluation system used by a supervisor should reflect the purpose and goals of the organization. "When performance evaluation is linked with the goals of the organization and the worker, evaluation tends to provide a specific feedback function and subsequently shapes behavior to influence the organ­ization's productivity" (Snyder & Anderson, 19 86, pp. 247-248).

The Flanders System of Interaction Analysis measured the verbal interactions of the teacher and the student through a continuum of ten categories. The categories of interaction were:

Teacher categories (indirect influence)1. Accepts feeling2. Praises or encourages3. Accepts or uses ideas of students4. Asks questionsTeacher categories (direct influence)5. Lectures6. Gives directions7. Criticizes or justifies authorityStudent categories8. Student talk-response9. Student talk-initiationOther10. Silence or confusion. (Borich & Madden,1977, p. 449)

In the classroom, an observer coded the verbal inter­action between the teacher and students. After the coding

35was completed, the interactions were paired to form a sequential picture of the classroom verbal interactions. Figure 7 showed the pairing of observations.

These sequences could be placed on a Matrix to illustrate a pattern of occurrences in the classroom. Each number is entered into the Matrix twice, once as the first number in the pair and once as the second number in the pair. The build-up in the cells identified the most common interactions occurring in the classroom. Figure 8 was a sample Matrix.

There were over fifty interactional analyses systems developed to code some type of behavior. Most systems were concerned only with how teaching and learning took place. "In short, it appears that positive emotional environments are made by teachers whose reactions are supportive of their students' ideas, feelings, work efforts and behavior" (Simon & Boyer, 1986, p. 7).

French and Galloway (1968) believed it was important to measure the nonverbal interaction as well as the verbal interaction between teachers and students. "Nonverbal cues and clues represent elegant signs for conveying and receiving information, for actions do speak far louder than words" (p. 1). This system was based on a continuum from the teacher who encouraged interaction to the teacher who restricted interaction with the students. The concept base for this teacher observation system was,

Figure 7 Pairing of Observations

first pair second pair

)ninth pair (

questionanswerpraisequestionanswerpraiseteacher commentpupil comment teacher commentpupil comment

Source: Anita Simon and Gil E. Boyer, eds.,"Mirror for Behavior," Classroom Interaction Newsletter 3, no. 2 (January 1986). [Special Edition.]

Figure 8 Sample Matrix (Flanders)

acceptsFEELING

PRAISESENCOURAGES

a c c e p t sIDEAS

ASKQUESTIONS

LECTURING

GIVINGDIRECTIONS

OUTICUING

STUDENT TRIR RESPONSE

STUOENT TALI INITIATION

SILENCECONFUSION

STUDENT T U Iu ijl i t j ASg GTVU9GIDEAS QUESTIONS LECTURING DIRECTIONS O UTICfflNG RESPONSE INITIATION

ACCENTS PRAISES FEELING ENCOURAGES

1

Source: Anita Simon and Gil E. Boyer, eds.,"Mirrors for Behavior," Classroom Interaction Newsletter 3, no. 2 (January 1986): 15

38communication can exist independent of any involvement in a higher order human process which may be properly referred to as inter­action. Interaction implies role taking and empathic skills and it implies a mutual reciprocity of understanding others and being understood. This view of interaction is assumed to be a significant process and a key factor in producing learning in the classroom, and communication is viewed as the catalyst for encouraging or restricting interactions. Since the teacher is the dominant figure in the class­room, teacher behavior becomes the utmost importance in producing meaningful communi­cations and subsequent interactions. (French & Galloway, 1968, pp. 3-4)

The Galloway System identified nonverbal interaction which could occur during Flander's verbal categories. The categories follow.

Indirect-Direct(Verbal)

Accepts student feelingPraises or EncouragesUses student ideasAsks questionsLectures - Gives

informationGives directionsCriticizes or

Justifies authorityStudent talk

(response)Student talk

(initiated)Silence or Confusion

Encouraqinq-Restrieting (Nonverbal)

Congruent-Incongruent Implement-Perfunctory Personal-Impersonal

Responsive-Unresponsive Involve-Dismiss

Firm-Harsh

Receptive-Inattentive

Receptive-Inattentive Comfort-Distress (French &

Galloway, 1968, p. 6).

39To record these verbal and nonverbal categories, the observers marked a slash for encouraging behavior or a dash for restricting behavior to the right of recorded tallies of verbal behavior. The three-dimensional matrix was used to plot the responses to provide an insight into teacher behavior and students' responses to such behavior.

Kounin (19 77) conducted research on children and adults in group situations to determine the ripple effects of management techniques on others within the group who were not directly intended for the reprimand. In hisresearch, Kounin termed reprimands "desists." Hedetermined it was possible to identify specific teacher behavior which would result in managerial classroom success. "These techniques of classroom management apply to the group and not merely to individual children. They are techniques of creating an effective classroom ecologyand learning milieu" (Kounin, 1977, p. 144).

Classes were videotaped to record teacher desist techniques and students' work involvement. Students' involvement was scored according to the following continuum:

1. Definitely in the assigned work.2. Probably in the assigned work.3. Definitely out of the assigned work.(Kounin, 1977, pp. 77-78)

Deviancy on the students' part was categorized as, "(1)Not misbehaving [;] (2) Engaging in mild misbehavior [;] and (3) Engaging in serious misbehavior" (Kounin, 1977, p. 78).

40Teachers' desist techniques were coded for with-it-ness

in that she knew what all the children were doing and gave desists at the appropriate time. Also coded was a teacher's ability to overlap or manage more than one event at a time, such as maintaining group reading while repri­manding students. Teachers' ability to manage movement of students from one task to another was also coded for its effects on the effectiveness of the classroom, as well as Group Forms techniques, which consisted of maintaining student attention and making them accountable for the classroom skills and information presented. Kounin's teacher evaluation system studied a teacher's classroom management techniques and the resulting students' work involvement and misbehavior in an effort to create an appropriate learning environment. Figure 9 and Figure 10 illustrated pupil and teacher coding, respectively.

Goldhammer (19 69) developed the Clinical Supervision approach for teacher evaluation. The term "clinical" referred to "an image of face-to-face relationships between supervisors and teachers" (p. 54). This author contended that the establishment of a relationship based on trust and openness between teacher and supervisor was essential to the facilitation of individual self-actualization in teachers.

Because the systematic training of intelligence is such a complex undertaking, simple teaching devices such as textbooks are methodologically insufficient. To affect the learner's use of

41Figure 9

An Example of Coded Pupil Behavior Using Kounin System

An Example of Coded Pupil Behavior Using Kounin System

B, C, B, C| B| C, B. G.♦N y/N

♦N y/N

-M -M- ♦N *N

+N VN*N y/N

-M -M*N *N

y/N y/N

♦N y/N

y/N -M*N *N

Work Involvement: + “ Definitely in•J " Probably in - “ Definitely out

Dcviancy: N « No misbehaviorM * Mild misbehavior S ■ Serious misbehavior

Source: Class Handout (Las Vegas, NV: Universityof Nevada, Las Vegas, Fall, 1988): n.p.

42Figure 10

An Example of Coded Teacher Behavior Using Kounin System

An Example of Coded Teaclter Behavior Using Kounin System

1. Desist Techniques

A. With-it-ness

Target

Timing

♦ ♦ - -

♦ - ♦ -

(+ “ on target o r in tim e; - “ o ff target o r too Ute)

B. Overlapping (Also scored during child intrusions o r "bring-ins.")

None

Some

>/

J indicates dem onstrated behavior)

It. Movement Management

A. Sm oothness-lerkincss

Stimulus-Bounded >/ VThrust

Dangle

T runcation

Flip-Flop

B. Momentum

Overd welling Fragm entation

V >/ >/

«J •

■J

V indicates dem onstrated behavior)

•

y indicates dem onstrated behavior)

III. Group Focus

A. Alerting: hands up(+), mass respo n se^), random call ons(+), ignore group ( - ) .

B. Accountability: hold up props, circulate/check, hold up props

Source; Class Handout (Las Vegas, N V : University of Nevada, Las Vegas, Fall, 1988): n.p.

43his mental apparatus requires intensely personal and idiosyncratic processes. If, as Rogers has maintained, learning cannot be taught directly, but can, at best, only be facilitated by another's efforts, then deliberate education should occur in a context of regular and intimate encounters, in close relationships among people. Clinical supervision is intended to provide such relationships for the sake of teachers' learning and to facilitate the teachers' establishment of such relationships with their pupils and among their pupils. Its observational and dialectical priorities reflect an underlying value on closeness: betweensupervisors and teachers and between teachers and students. (Goldhammer, 1969, p. 359)

Clinical supervision consisted of five steps: thepreobservation conference, the observation analysis and strategy, the supervision conference and the post­conference analysis. Figure 11 illustrated the Clinical Supervision Cycle.

The preobservation conference provided an opportunity to re-establish communication between the supervisor and teacher, to also relax the teacher regarding the impending observation. This conference provided fluency for both the supervisor and teacher in understanding the teacher's frame of reference and intentions in conducting the lesson which was to be observed. The teacher would be able to conduct a conceptual rehearsal of the lesson, make necessary revisions, and reach an explicit agreement with the supervisor regarding the reasons for the observation.

The second stage was the in-class observation. A supervisor was encouraged to write down what was heard in the classroom verbation. "In the most general sense,

Figure 11 Clinical Supervision Cycle

0^ACOLLEC7Vo/v

PRE-DATA-COLLECTION

CONFERENCES

4. Observation

Planning the observation

Analysis

Lesson planning

Establish the relationship

6. Planning theconference j POST-DATA-

7. Conferenoe / COLLECTION / CONFERENCES

8. Renewed planning

Source: Wayne K. Hoy and Patrick B. Forsyth,Effective Supervisions: Theory into Practice(New York: Random House, 19 86) 63

45observations should create opportunities for supervisors to help teachers to test reality, the reality of their own perceptions and judgements about their teaching" (Goldhammer, 1969, p. 63).

In the analysis and strategy stage, the data collected during the observation were reviewed to make them intelli­gible and manageable. The strategy for the supervision conference was planned. Issues were identified, specific data were chosen which were used as examples, goals were selected, and the process of the conference was determined.

Goldhammer's (1969) intentions for stage four of the supervisor's conference were:

1. To provide a time to plan future teaching in collaboration with another professional educator. Perhaps the best measure of whether a conference has been useful in teacher's framework is whether it has left him with something concrete in hand, namely, a design for his next sequence of instruction.2. To provide a time to recline the supervisory contract, to decide which directions supervision should take and by what methods it should operate (or whether supervision should be temporarily terminated).3. To provide a source of adult rewards. In common practice, teachers have few opportunities for their value to be acknowledged by other adults who have professional sophistication and who know their work, that is, teachers' work, initimately.4. To review the history of supervision, that is, of the problems that supervision and teacher have addressed formerly and to assess progress in mastering technical (or other) competencies upon which teacher has been working.

465. To define treatable issues in the teaching and to authenticate the existence of issues that have been sensed intuitively.6. To offer didactic assistance to teacher, whether directly or by referral, in relation to information or theory that teacher requires and of which supervision may have relatively advanced knowledge.7. To deal with an array of factors that may affect teacher's vocational satisfaction as well as his technical competency . . . (Goldhammer,1969, pp. 69-70)

It was during this stage that the teacher received theformal written observation document.

The final Clinical Supervision stage was the Post- Conference Analysis. This analysis determined whether the supervision process was productive. It allowed for identification of the strengths and weaknesses of the process and any modifications which might be required.The five sequential stages were repeated on a timely basis to provide for on-going evaluation.

Clinical Supervision was the performance appraisal utilized by the school district in this study. The written communication was analyzed in this study to determine the existence of motivational constructs within the communication.

Regardless of the type of performance evaluation system utilized by an organization, the feedback provided to employees regarding their performance is a critical aspect in motivating employees and maintaining a positive

47organizational climate. Cummings and Schwab (1973) stated,

a well designed and implemented performance evaluation program can certainly have a motivational impact on ratees. It can encourage improvement, develop a sense of responsibility, and increase organizational commitment. Performance evaluation can also be motivational if it provides ratees with some understanding of what is expected of them.(pp. 600-601)

Pawlik (1986) agreed that "feedback should not focus only on negative performance. Good points should also receive attention. This helps prevent demoralization of the employee" (p. 35). The performance evaluation system impacts the attitudinal concepts of employees toward their work.

An organization's performance-appraisal system represents the central communication linkage between the individual member and the larger organization. Through the appraisal process, the employee is supposed to learn about the strengths and weaknesses of his or her per­formance as seen by managers, and to recognize the relationship between performance and rewards . . ., (Farace, Monge & Hamish, 1982,p. 256)

48

CHAPTER 3

Design of the Study

IntroductionThe purpose of this study was to determine whether

elementary school principals used the concepts of Frederick Herzberg's motivators in written performance evaluations of elementary school teachers.

Source of DataThis study was conducted in a large Western school

district. The school district was not named in the study to insure the confidentiality of the performance evalu­ations which were reviewed. The district was referred to in this study as the Sheridan School District.

Selection of DataOnly performance evaluations written by elementary

school principals were examined. As the school district involved in the study was very large, random sampling was used to reduce the amount of data to a manageable amount. The Sheridan School District maintained a master list of all elementary individuals employed by the district.Every tenth individual was selected to be included in the study. If the individual selected was not an elementary

49classroom teacher, the subject was ignored and the next eligible person chosen. The researcher limited the subject pool to a sample of 200 performance evaluations. Drew (1976) stated, "sample size presents a problematic question because no set answer or rule may be given" (p. 122). Krippendorff (1980) concurred with the question of how large a sample should be, "there is no set answer"(p. 69).

The performance evaluations in the Sheridan School District consisted of three parts. First, principals completed a narrative of what specifically occurred in the classroom during the observation period. Next, principals analyzed the teacher's performance. Finally, individual developmental objectives were constructed for the next school year. Only the analysis section was of interest to this researcher as it was in this section principals had the opportunity to use motivational comments. The narrative was a simple statement of facts and the developmental objectives were future goals.

InstrumentationThe research tool used in this study was content

analysis. "Content analysis is a multipurpose research method developed specifically for investigating any problem in which the content of communication serves as the basis of inferences" (Holsti, 1969, p. 2). Hamilton (1987) reported that "content analysis concentrates on

50the question 'What are they writing about?' by examining the records the organization keeps" (p. 81). Krippendorff (1980) defined content analysis as "a research technique for making replicable and valid inferences from data to their context" (p. 21). Weber (1985) said, "content analysis is a research methodology that utilizes a set of procedures to make valid inferences from the text" (p. 9).

As shown in Table 3, Holsti (1969) identified thepurposes of content analysis, the questions answered byeach purpose as well as the research problem addressed byeach question. Content analysis has been used in manyempirical domains. Brelson's (1980) seventeen uses forcontent analysis were restated by Krippendorff (1980).

. to describe trends in communication content

. to trace the development of scholarship

. to disclose international differences in communication content. to compare media or "levels" of communication . to audit communication content against objectives. to construct and apply communication standards . to aid in technical research operation (to code open-ended questions in survey interviews). to expose propaganda techniques. to measure the "readability" of communicationmaterials. to discover stylistic features . to identify the intentions and other characteristics of the communicators . to determine the psychological state of persons or groups. to detect the existence of propaganda (primarily for legal purposes). to secure political and military intelligence . to reflect attitudes, interests, and values ("cultural patterns") of populations groups . to reveal the focus of attention . to describe attitudinal and behavioral responses to communications. (pp. 33-34)

Content

Analysis

Rese

arch

COg00*HCOGP

60)iHOU

Pm

pCGH03GCOGPS

COGS3C/

eo4-4 CO O *HCO G G C4P s>» o H O

4-4 CO O G

-C ^G O G *H G 0 3-4 G

PQ CO

GCOOCLGPm

4-14 J

4-J cr•H4J•U

>> *HH CO r H4 J

• H 4 J

•H

4 J

< 3 P Q

D X4 J «H

G r-H

*H G *H *H *HG *H00 00 00 P-G G GCO CO CO U J3CO > 4 J >

2 2 2 cn mcn

g o o •H *HG 00 <4-4 4J 00 - G *HX CO

CO W

51

Table

3 (Continued)

6<ur-Huaoup-t rBo14O)0)co(UPi

COCD3

O '

GO

<4-1 coO •H

94CO COCD O .a . S

OH U

>4-4 CO O U •H 43 44 O O G ftcfl B M <u pq co

CDcooa.M3&4

4-1

O 43

CD a.•H •Ha t 43 3 44 cr 3

4-1 -H 4-1

o >. a- j-i co x )

a t 4 J 9-1 *H CD XJ

CO 4-1CJ -H•H

CO CO *H CJ T3

O -H G H M-H

004-1

•H00 t H

CZJCN

4-1

fL, w

4J

4-144

M—I M—I

44

52

Source

: Ole R.

Holsti

, Con

tent

Analys

is for the Soc

ial Sci

ences

and Hum

anities

(Reading,

Addison-Wesley Pub

lishin

g Com

pany,

1969),

p.

26.

53This study detected the existence of motivational language in elementary teacher's written performance appraisals and identified the type of motivational constructs used in each appraisal.

Krippendorff (1980) reported the first documented use of content analysis was in eighteenth-century Sweden (p. 13). The Songs of Zion were comprised of ninety hymns which were blamed for causing dissidence in the Swedish state church. Scholars counted religious symbols in the Songs of Zion and other scholars counted religious symbols in established song books. While no difference was found, it was the first known use of content analysis.

Galfo and Miller (19 7 0) stated in Interpreting Edu­cational Research that content analysis "can be described as a four-step process: (1) collection of writtenmaterial, (2) development of categories, (3) classifi­cation and assignment to categories, and (4) quantifi­cation" (p. 42). To design the content analysis research project, this researcher followed Krippendorff1s (19 80) steps in designing a content analysis.

. applying the framework for content analysis

. searching for suitable data

. searching for contextual knowledge

. developing coding instructions

. searching for contextually justifiable procedures. deciding on qualitative standards . budgeting and resource allocation.. (p. 170) .

The analysis of content in this study gave con­sideration to validity and reliability. Wiersma (1986)

54stated, "reliability focuses on replicability and validity focuses on accuracy and generalizability of the findings" (p. 7). Galfo and Miller (1965) added, "validity refers to the accuracy of an instrument relative to the question, Does the instrument really measure what the researcher says it measures?" (p. 95). "Validity in research deals with the accurate interpretability of the results (internal validity) and the generalizability of the results (external validity)" (p. 6). According to Holsti(1969),

The meaning of validity may differ from study to study depending on the investigator's purposes.. . . If the purpose of research is a purelydescriptive one, content validity is normally sufficient. Content validity is usually established through the informal judgement of the investigator. (p. 143)

Travers (1978) concurred with Holsti by stating, "a difficulty that the historian faces when he attempts to validate his inferences is that his process always in­volves a considerable degree of personal judgement and subjectivity" (p. 381).

Wiersma (1986) stated, "reliability of research concerns the replicability and consistency of the methods, conditions, and results" (p. 7). Holsti (1969) contended, "reliability is a function of coders' skill, insight, and experience, clarity of categories and coding rules which guide their use; and the degree of ambiguity in the data" (p. 135). Holsti asserted that the decisions made in

55content analysis must be objective and, "guided by a set of rules that minimize— although probably never quite eliminate— the possibility that the findings reflect the analyst's subjective predispositions rather than the content of the documents under analysis" (Holsti, 1969, pp. 3-4). Weber (1985) contended, "there is no single 'right way' to do content analysis. Instead, each in­vestigator must judge what methods are appropriate for her or his substantive problem" (p. 69).

The a priori approach to category development was used in this study. According to Herzberg, the a priori approach "is based upon a predetermined categorical scheme" (Sergiovanni, 1983, p. 252). Krippendorff (1980) contended, "although ingenuity is always welcome, the researcher who relies on existing conceptualizations has more of a chance to contribute to knowledge" (p. 173). Holsti (19 69) stated, "without a theory, however rudi­mentary, to inform the analyst, he is without any guides for his coding decisions" (p. 99). The motivators from Frederick Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene Theory served as the categories for this study. Galfo and Miller (1970) identified four principles for the development of categories,

First, content with meaningful similarities are grouped together. . . . Second, allcontent should be concluded in one of the selected categories. . . . Third, the numberof categories should not be too large to make the management of data difficult nor too small

56for the identification of meaningful dif­ferences. Fourth, the categories adopted should be related by some unifying principle, (pp. 42-43)

Holsti (19 69) stated the general principles of categoryconstruction should,

reflect the purposes of research, be exhaustive,be mutually exclusive, independent, and be derived from a single classification system, (p. 95)

Herzberg, Mausner and Snyderman (1959) conducted a study in which they applied the methods of content analysis to stories reported by 200 accountants and engineers in the Pittsburgh area. In each interview, the individual was asked to relate a work experience which caused him to feel exceptionally good or exceptionally bad about his job. The researchers used a posterior approach to the material which means the categories were not identified before the study; rather, the categories were extracted from the interview material. The results of the study identified thirteen factors which affected job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction. They are: recognition, achievement, possibility of growth, ad­vancement, salary, interpersonal relations, supervision- technical, responsibility, company policy and admini­stration, working conditions, work itself, and job security. Of these factors, Herzberg identified six as having the potential to cause job satisfaction.

57The factors that lead to positive job attitudes do so because they satisfy the individual's need for self-actualization in his work. The concept of self-actualization, or self- realization, as a man's ultimate goal has been focal to the thought of many personality theorists. For such men as Jung, Adler, Sullivan, Rogers, and Goldstein the supreme goal of man is to fulfill himself as a creative, unique individual according to his own innate potentialities and within the limits of reality. . . . Man tends to actualize himselfin every area of his life, and his job is one of the most important areas. The conditions that surround the doing of the job cannot give him this basic satisfaction; they do not have this potentiality. It is only from the performance of a task that the individual can get the rewards that will reinforce his aspirations.(pp. 113-114)

Herzberg's six motivators were:1. achievement2. recognition3. work itself4. responsibility5. advancement6. growth.

Sergiovanni and Starratt (1983) outlined an operational approach to Frederick Herzberg's Motivation- Hygiene Theory. This motivation-commitment theory related to teachers and their work relationship.

1. There are certain conditions in work that teachers expect to enjoy. If these conditions are present in sufficient quantity, teachers will perform adequately, but only adequately.If these conditions are not present in suf­ficient quantity, teachers will be dis­satisfied and work performance will suffer.2. The conditions in work which teachers expect as part of the traditional legal work relationship are called hygienic factors.Their absence results in teacher dissatisfaction and poor performance. Their presence maintains the traditional legal work relationship but does

58not motivate performance. Hygienic factors are associated with the participation investment in work.3. The factors which contribute to teachers' exceeding the traditional work relationship are called motivators. The absence of motivators does not result in dissatisfaction and does not endanger the traditional work relationship. Motivational factors are associated with the performance investment in work.4. Motivational factors and hygienic factors are different. Motivation to work does not result from increasing hygienic factors.5. Hygienic factors are associated with the conditions of work and are extrinsic in nature. Examples are money, benefits, fair supervision, and a feeling of belonging. Motivational factors are associated with work itself and are intrinsic in nature. Examples are recognition, achievement, and increased responsibility.6. Hygienic factors are important, for their neglect creates problems in the work environ­ment. These problems can result in dissatis­faction and lowered performance. Taking care of the hygienic factors prevents trouble, but these factors are not potent enough to motivate people to work, to evoke the performance decision.7. Hygienic factors meet the human need to avoid unpleasantness and hardship. Moti­vational factors serve the uniquely human need for psychological growth.8. Satisfaction at work is not a motivator of performance per se, but results from quality performance. Administrators and supervisors should not use satisfaction as a method of motivating teachers, but satisfaction shouldbe thought of as a goal that teachers seek, one that is best obtained through meaningful work.9. Administrators and supervisors who use job satisfaction to motivate teachers are practicing hum&n relations. This has not been proven to be an effective approach. Human relations emphasize hygienic factors.10. Administrators and supervisors who con­sider job satisfaction as a goal that teachers seek through accomplishing meaningful work and who focus on enhancing the meaningful view of work and the ability of teachers to accomplish this work are practicing human resources supervision. This has been proven to be an

59effective approach. Human resources development emphasizes the motivational factors.11. True, not all teachers can be expected torespond to the motivation-hygiene theory, butmost can. (pp- 134-135)

The category of recognition is defined by Herzberg as"some act of notice, praise . . ." (Herzberg et al., 1959,p. 45). Webster (1969) defined recognition as "to acknowledge with a show of appreciation" (p. 715). Operational statements for the category included the following:

...demonstrated a high level of commitment and enthusiasm...her knowledge and expertise have proven invaluable...maintained a professional and humanistic attitude . . ....I find the teacher to be extremely competent and professional . . .

Achievement was defined by Herzberg as, "some specifically mentioned success" such as "successful com­pletion of a job, solutions to problems, vindication, and seeing the results of one's work" (Herzberg et al., 1959, p. 45). Webster (1969) defined achievement as, "a result brought about by resolve, persistence, or endeavor" (p.7). Operational statements for the achievement category included the following statements:

...developed a new brochure . . .

...certified in Monterey language conditioning

...participated in the SKIHI Program

...students developed a project on the economy

Herzberg defined work itself as, "the actual doing of the job or the tasks of the job" (Herzberg et al.,

601959, p. 48). A sample of operational statements for this category included:

...a fine variety of activities are used to teach motor skills . . ....reports are efficiently written and submitted in a timely manner . . ....well planned classroom experiences . . . ...the environment was well organized and conducive to learning . . .

Webster (1983) defined responsibility as, "answerableor accountable as being the cause, agent, or source ofsomething" (p. 1543). Sample operational statements were:

...aggressively pursued the new tasks presented her...her efforts and willingness to meet with parents are commended . . ....willing to help other teachers . . ....has taken advantage of every opportunity to broaden her knowledge . . .

The category of advancement referred to, "an actualchange in the status or position of the person in thecompany" (Herzberg et al., 1959, p. 46). Operationalstatements examples included:

...as a new member of the Student Services team . . ....she is our first itinerant teacher . . ....moved into the consultant's position . . .

The possibility of growth category did not include actual changes in positions but did include changes in one's status which indicated, "not only the likelihood that the individual would be able to move onward and upward within his organization but also a situation in which he is able to advance his own skills" (Herzberg

et al., 1959, p. 46). Webster (1969) defined growth as,"progressive development" (p. 369). Operationalstatements included the following examples:

...selected two priority objectives for the year... is continuing her involvement with other departments...is planning an extensive effort at . . .

All of the operational statements were taken from this researcher's performance evaluations from the past ten years. Statements from the Sheridan School District's performance evaluations were not published in this docu­ment due to the confidentiality agreement between the researcher and the school district.

Research ProceduresProbabilistic sampling resulted in the accumulation

of 200 elementary teacher performance evaluations. The analysis section of each evaluation was read and phrases which fit the mutually exclusive categories of achieve­ment, recognition, work itself, responsibility, ad­vancement, and growth were coded. The data collected addressed the hypotheses of this study.

1. Did elementary school principals include constructs of motivational theory in the written evaluations of teachers?

2. Was there a particular type of motivation conveyed in written teacher evaluations?

How frequently were the constructs of motivational theory used in elementary school teacher performance evaluations

63

CHAPTER 4

Findings of the Study-

SummaryThis study was conducted to address the following

hypotheses:1. Do elementary school principals include

constructs of motivational theory in the written evaluations of teachers?

2. Was there a particular type of motivation conveyed in written teacher evaluations?

3. How frequently were the constructs of motivational theory used in the elementary school teacher evaluations?

Content analysis was the procedure used to determine the answers to these questions. Frederick Herzberg's motivators served as the categories for the analysis of 200 elementary teacher performance evaluations.

The results of this study demonstrated that elementary school principals did include constructs of motivational theory in written teacher performance evaluations. The analysis of 200 written evaluations revealed 197 evaluations contained motivational constructs. Figure 12 illustrated over 98.5 percent of

64

CM

d)1303U_

cn•f—*o cn ^

c £= o toTO §■i °03 >LUCDoc 503E o© o Q- c"S ^o -«— *

& Og oIfo _c0) ^ CL

(£OO00coO in

coooto IT)O 06S 01

the evaluations exhibited motivational constructs. Only 1.5 percent did not contain any constructs of motivation. There were 1,251 motivational constructs identified.

The six categories used to analyze the teacher evaluations were:

1. Work itself2. Growth3. Recognition4. Responsibility5. Achievement6. Advancement.The type of motivation most often conveyed in

teacher's written performance evaluations was the category of work itself. From the most often occurring to the least occurring, the categories were:

1. Work itself2. Growth3. Recognition4. Responsibility5. Achievement6. Advancement.

Figure 13 illustrated the number of occurrences for each category.

Work itself was the motivational category identified most often in the performance evaluations of elementary teachers. This category was counted 736 times in 200

66

VIL>O(0>

■ B M B+■»OmV)O)

«— qJa> o3 N o> k.

i Z <U

X.. in

© 5 > * sg- £<u $D = ZL. w

3a; aAt o

a>-QE3z

00(0

Work

(In

ert

Grow

th

Reco

aniti

on

Res

pons

ibili

ty

The

tota

l nu

mbe

r of

occu

rren

ces

for

each

m

otiv

atio

nal

cate

gory

67evaluations. Figure 14 represented the percentage of occurrences for this category.

The category of growth was identified 186 times through the content analysis process. Figure 15 depicted the percentage of occurrences for the category of growth.

Recognition motivational constructs were found to occur 168 times in the 200 evaluations of elementary teacher evaluations. Figure 16 demonstrated that the 168 frequency count was 13.5 percent of the total occurrences.

The content analysis category of responsibility was found to occur 73 times in the evaluations. Figure 17 indicated 73 occurrences, which was 5.8 percent of the total number of occurrences.

There were 71 occurrences of the achievement category; this reflects a 5.7 percent of the total number of occurrences which was reflected in Figure 18.

The category which had the least number of occur­rences was advancement. This category was identified 17 times. Figure 19 demonstrated the frequency of the advancement occurrence, as compared to the other constructs.

Figu

re

14

Her

tzbe

rg’s

Mot

ivat

or b

y T

ype:

68

cnT3rj

CDin

*_o

ii. V'V

Q. 0)c/5 o

QJ "OC/> D

Figu

re

15

Her

tzbe

rg’s

Mot

ivat

or b

y T

ype:

69

sz

O LOo 00CD.£=•+■-4O

Gro

wth

as a

perc

enta

ge

of the

to

tal

obse

rved

oc

curr

ence

s.

Figu

re

16

Her

tzbe

rg’s

Mot

ivat

or b

y T

ype:

70

c ̂D ) C 0 O T -oCDcc

Rec

ogni

tion

as a

perc

enta

ge

of the

to

tal

obse

rved

oc

curr

ence

s.

Figure 1

7

Her

tzbe

rg’s

Mot

ivat

or b

y T

ype:

71

94.2

Res

pons

ibili

ty

as a

perc

enta

ge

of th

e to

tal

obse

rved

oc

curr

ence

s.

72

CoECD>gjIco<

in

CDQ_> *

CO

cdI—13O)Ll

-Qs 5~ a?I.SCO o' b ) <u_CD_QN<5X

CO ■♦—»oCOc CO

CD-C

Ach

ieve

men

t as

a pe

rcen

tage

of

the

tota

l ob

serv

ed

occu

rren

ces.

Figure 1

9

Her

tzbe

rg’s

Mot

ivat

or b

y T

ype:

73

c0E0oc03>"Cl<

Adv

ance

men

t as

a pe

rcen

tage

of

the

tota

l ob

serv

ed

occu

rren

ces.

CHAPTER 5

Summary, Conclusions/ and Recommendations for Further Research

SummaryThis study examined 2 00 elementary teacher per­

formance evaluations in order to address the following hypotheses:

1. Did elementary school principals include constructs of motivational theory in the written evaluations of teachers?

2. Was there a particular type of motivation conveyed in written teacher evaluations?

3. How frequently were the constructs of motivational theory used in elementary school teacher performance evaluations?

This descriptive research utilized the process of content analysis to address the above hypotheses. A sample of 200 elementary teacher performance evaluations were reviewed and analyzed according to Frederick Herzberg's motivators:

1. achievement2. recognition3. work itself

754. responsibility5. growth6. advancement.

These motivators, according to Herzberg, when fulfilled, caused employee satisfaction. Phrases which fit the category definition were counted and the frequency of occurrence was tabulated for each category. Figure 20 illustrated the percentage of occurrence for each category.

ConclusionsThe data compiled from the content analysis of 20 0

elementary teacher performance evaluations addressed three hypotheses. The first hypothesis was:

1. Did elementary school principals include constructs of motivational theory in the written evaluations of teachers?

Of the 200 evaluations analyzed, only three did not contain phrases of any type. Therefore, 98.5 percent of the total evaluations contained some motivational constructs, which indicated that elementary school principals did use motivational constructs in the written teacher evaluations.

The second hypothesis was:2. Was there a particular type of motivation

conveyed in written teacher evaluations?

9 L

o03CDC QO

oooc

CD3oCDC/)

Figure 20T

otal Percentage of All

77The content category of work itself was identified 736 times. Of the 1,252 identified phrases, 736 belonged to the work itself category, which was 58.8 percent of thetimes. The category counts were illustrated in Chart 1.

Chart 1

Total Category Occurrences and PercentagesNumber of Percent of Total

Category Occurrences Occurrences

Work itself 736 58.8%Growth 186 14.8%Recognition 168 13.5%Responsibility 73 5.8%Achievement 71 5.7%Advancement 17 1.4%

Totals 1,251 100%

The third hypothesis was:3. How frequently were the constructs of

motivational theory used in elementary school teacher performance evaluations?

Figure 20 depicted the frequency of occurrences for all six motivators. The category of work itself was over­whelmingly used by the principals of the Sheridan School District.

Recommendations for Further ResearchThe findings of this investigation suggested the

following possibilities for further inquiry:1. The present study could be expanded to

include other school districts.2. Further research might involve an examination

of the impact of principals' age, gender, experience, and education level on teacher performance evaluations.

3. A study could be conducted to determine any similarity of research results between secondary teacher performance evaluations and elementary teacher performance evaluations.

79

Reference ListBarnard, C. I. (1968). The function of the executive.

Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Blake R. R., & Mouton, J. S. (1978). The new managerial

grid. Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing Company.Blake, R. R. , Mouton, J. S., & Williams, M. S. (1980).

The academic administrator grid. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Borich, G. D., & Madden, S. K. (1977). Evaluating classroom instruction. Reading, MA: Addison-WesleyPublishing Company.

Cummings, L. L., & Schwab, D. P. (1973). Performance in organizations. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman and Company.

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York:Plenum Press.

Drew, C. J. (1976). Introduction to designing research and evaluation. St. Louis, MO: The C. V. Mosby Company.

Drucker, P. F. (1974). Management. New York: Harper &Row, Publishers.

Duke, D. L., & Stiggins, R. J. (1986). Teacher evaluation: Five keys to growth. Washington, DC: NEA ProfessionalLibrary, National Education Association.

An example of coded pupil [teacher] behavior using Kounin System. (1988). [Class handout, University of Nevada,Las Vegas.]

Farace, R. U., Monge, P. R., & Hamish, M. R. (1977). Communicating and organizing. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.

French, R. L., & Galloway, C. M. (1986). A description of teacher behavior: Verbal and non-verbal (ERIC DocumentReproduction Service No. ED 028 13 4)

Galfo, A. J., & Miller, E. (1965) Interpretingeducational research (2nd ed.). Dubuque, IA: WilliamC. Brown Company Publishers.

80Gellerman, S. W., & Hodgson, W. G. (1988). Cyanamide1s

new take on performance appraisal. Harvard Business Review, 6_6(3), 36-37.

Gibson, J. L., Ivancevich, J. M., & Donnelly, J. H., Jr. (1985). Organization, behavior - structure-processes (5th ed.). Plano, TX: Business Publications, Inc.

Glickman, C. D. (1985). Supervision of instruction.Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, Inc.

Goldhammer, R. (1969). Clinical supervision. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc.

Gwynn, J. M. (19 61). Theory and practice of supervision.New York: Dodd, Mead & Company.

Hamilton, S. (1987). A communication audit handbook. New York: Longman.

Holsti, 0. R. (1969). Content analysis for the social sciences and humanities. Reading, MA: Addison-WesleyPublishing Company.

Hoy, W. K., & Forsyth, P. B. (1968) . Effective supervision: Theory into practice. New York: Random House.

Karjewski, R. J., Martin, J. S., & Walden, J. C. (1983).The elementary school principalship. New York: Holt,Rinehart & Winston, Inc.

Katz, D., & Kahn, R. L. (1966). The social psychology of organizations. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Koontz, H., & O'Donnell, C. (1968). Management: A bookof readings (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill BookCompany.

Kounin, J. S. (19 77). Discipline and group management inclassrooms (rpt.) Huntington, NY: Robert E. KriegerPublishing Company.

Krippendorff, K. (1980). Content analysis: An intro­duction to its methodology. Beverly Hills, CA: SagePublications. [Vol. 5 of Sage CommText Series.]

Latham, G. P., & Wexley, K. N. (19 81). Increasing productivity through performance appraisal (rpt. with corrections, 1981). Reading, MA: Addison-WesleyPublishing Company.

81Lawler, E. E. (1973) . Motivations of work organizations.

Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company.Lefton, R. E., Buzzotta, U. R., Sherberg, M . , & Karroher,

D. L. (1977). Effective motivation through performance appraisal. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Likert, R. (1967) . The human imagination. New York:McGraw-Hill Book Company.

Maslow, A. H. (1954) . Motivation and personality. New York: Harper.

McClelland, D. C. (1985) . Human motivation. New York: Scott, Foresman & Company.

Millman, J. (Ed.). (1981). Handbook of teacher evalu­ation . Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

Pawlik, V. (1986). On-the-job employee counseling:Focus and performance. Personnel Journal, 6_5(11), 31, 32, 35, 36.

Peters, T. J., & Waterman, R. H., Jr. (1982). In search of excellence. New York: Warner Books.

Rosenbaum, B. L. (1982). How to motivate today's workers. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.

Sergiovanni, T. J., & Carver, F. D. (1973). The new school executive. New York: Dodd, Mead & Company.

Shafritz, J. M., & Whitback, P. H. (1978). (Eds.).Classics of organization theory (1st ed.). Oak Park,IL: Moore Publishing Company, Inc.

Shelly, Y. K., & Buehler, V. M. (Eds.). (1987).Quality productivity and innovation. New York:Elsevier Science Publishing Co., Inc.

Simon, A., & Boyer, G. E. (Eds.). (1986). Mirrors forbehavior. Classroom Interaction Newsletter, _3 (2) . [Special edition.]

Smith, B. 0., Peterson, D., & Micceri, T. (1987). Evaluation and professional improvement aspects of the Florida performance measurement system.Educational Leadership , 4_4 (7) , 16-17.

Snyder, K. J., & Anderson, R. H. (1986). Managingproductive schools. New York: Harcourt BraceJovanovich, Publishers.

Steers, R. M., & Porter, L. W. (1975). Motivation and work behavior. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.

Taylor, F. W. (1947). Scientific management. New York Harper & Brothers Publishers.

Travers, R. M. (1978). An introduction to educational research (4th ed.). New York: MacMillian PublishingCo., Inc.

Uris, A. (1986). 101 of the greatest ideas formanagement. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Vroom, V. H., & Deci, E. L. (Eds.) (1974). Management and motivation. Harmondsworth [Middlesex]: PenguinBooks, Ltd.

Webster's new universal unabridged dictionary (2nd ed.). (1983). [Revised under the supervision of Jean L. McKechnie.] New York: Simon & Schuster.

Webster's seventh new collegiate dictionary. (1969) Springfield, MA: G. & C. Merriam Company, Publishers.

Wiersma, W. (1986). Research methods in education. (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, Inc.