The Incumbency Advantage Incumbency tradition is high in both Senate (generally above 50%)

and House (generally above 80%, incumbent rate more stable than Senate)

Media coverage is higher for incumbents Incumbents have greater name recognition

due to franking (use govt $), travel to the district, news coverage

Members secure policies and programs for voters Easier to raise campaign contributions because

lobbyists seek their favors Redistricting that incumbents do (gerrymandering and

malapportionment) Sophomore surge- second term election strength Constituents can see what incumbents are doing in their

community Exception to incumbency advantage: scandal or unpopular president Consequences?

Continuity (less radical change), more experienced, established relationships with interest groups, policy specialization discourages challengers, lack of responsiveness, fewer minorities

Incumbent House Members Running for Reelection, 1964-2006

19641966

19681970

19721974

19761978

19801982

19841986

19881990

19921994

19961998

20002002

20042006

0

100

200

300

400

0

Number defeated Number reelected

Reelection Rates of House

and Senate Incumbents 1946-2006

1946

1948

1950

1952

1954

1956

1958

1960

1962

1964

1966

1968

1970

1972

1974

1976

1978

1980

1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

2006

50

60

70

80

90

100

Percent reelected

House Senate

In 1974, huge drop in House and Senate Republican seats due to Watergate scandal; huge drop of Democratic incumbents due to Ronald Reagan’s popularity and Jimmy Carter’s failure

Determinants of voting patterns

• Representative as Delegate vs. trustee

– Delegate: act on what constituents want (agent of the voters, even if they disagree)– Trustee: members act on their own personal beliefs of what is best for society

• Representational view (Constituent influence): members vote to please their constituents, in order to secure re-election– Interest group influence, constant visits at home with constituents,

e-mails, phone calls, town hall meetings• Organizational/ party view (colleague and party influence): where

constituency interests are not vitally at stake, members primarily respond to cues from colleagues– Party leadership pressure, vote along party lines (more than 75% of

the time)• Attitudinal view (personal views): the member’s ideology determines

her/his vote

• Congressional approval ratings very low (30%) overall distrust of Congress as a whole; higher approval of individual members • Anomaly: incumbents reelected

Confidence in American Institutions, 2007

Source: CNN/USA Today/ Gallup poll, June 11-44, 2007.

"I am going to read you a list of institutions in American society. Please tell me how much confidence you, yourself, have in each one--a great deal, quite a lot, some, or very little?"

The militarySmall business

The policeThe church

BanksSupreme CourtPublic schools

Medical systemThe presidencyTelevision news

NewspapersCriminal justice

Organized laborBig business

HMOsCongress

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Percent responding "great deal" or "quite a lot"

Confidence in government institutions is comparatively low.

Congressional Approval, 1974-2006

1974

19

75

1976

19

78

1986

19

90

1992

19

94

1995

19

96

1997

19

98

1999

20

00

2001

20

02

2003

20

04

2005

20

06

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Per

cent

resp

ondi

ng "a

ppro

ve"

“Do you approve of the way Congress is handling its job?”

Americans are far more

favorable towards their own member

of Congress

Party Leadership in Congress Overview After legislative election (every 2 years), the party with the most

representatives is the “majority” party – Significance: majority party holds the most significant leadership positions and

the majority of seats in committees Political parties are very important in the basic organization of leadership

and member’s voting in the House and Senate

Overview of leadership positions:

• Speaker of the House (House of Reps) – Nancy Pelosi• Majority leader (House and Senate) • Minority leader (House and Senate)• Party whips (House and Senate)• President pro-tempore (Senate)• President of the Senate (Senate)- Joe Biden

- Currently the 111th Congress January 2009- January 2011 Democrats- Soon we will be in the 112th Congress January 2011-2013 Divided

Party Structure in the HouseParty Structure in the House House HouseSpeaker of the HouseSpeaker of the House is most important leader of majority party and presides over is most important leader of majority party and presides over

House (once all powerful until revolt in 1910) – voted for by majority party, House (once all powerful until revolt in 1910) – voted for by majority party, senior member w/ leadership expsenior member w/ leadership exp

– Presides over meetings Presides over meetings – Recognizes members to speakRecognizes members to speak– Appoints members to select & conference committeesAppoints members to select & conference committees– Directs business on the floorDirects business on the floor– Assigns bills to committeesAssigns bills to committees– Exercises behind the scenes influence over Exercises behind the scenes influence over

party membersparty members– 33rdrd in line for succession in line for succession– Usually one votes in case of a tieUsually one votes in case of a tie

• Majority leader and minority leaderMajority leader and minority leader: floor leaders, schedules bills, rounds up : floor leaders, schedules bills, rounds up votes for party favors, stepping stone to Speaker position, spokesperson for votes for party favors, stepping stone to Speaker position, spokesperson for minority partyminority party

• Party whipsParty whips keep leaders informed (go betweens for leaders and members), keep leaders informed (go betweens for leaders and members), round up votes of party members, pressure members to support leadership, round up votes of party members, pressure members to support leadership, inform members of important billsinform members of important bills

• Committee assignments and legislative schedule are set by each partyCommittee assignments and legislative schedule are set by each party

Senate Party Leadership • President of the Senate is the Vice President of U.S. (rarely present,

only votes in ties) – symbolic office• President pro tempore presides; this is the member with most

seniority in majority party (a largely honorific office, no real powers)

• Real leaders are the *majority leader and the minority leader, elected by their respective party members – first Senator heard on the floor, determines Senate agenda, influences committee assignments

• Party whips: keep leaders informed, round up votes, count noses• Each party has a policy committee: schedules Senate business,

prioritizes bills• Committee assignments are handled by a group of Senators, each for their own party

CommitteesREAL work of Congress

• Bills are worked out or killed in committees • Investigate problems and oversee the executive branch

Four types of committees:

1) Standing Committees (*legislation) Most important, basically permanent, handle bills in diff. policy areas, only type of comm. to

propose legislation by reporting a bill to full House (Senate-16, House-19) *Most important: Ways and Means (taxes), Senate judiciary, Rules Committee

2) Select Committees (*special, temporary issues)• Formed for specific purposes, temporary (but may become standing committees), sometimes

produce legislation• Ex. Investigated Watergate scandal

3) Joint Committees (*joint special issues)• Select comm. consisting of members from both House and Senate, conduct business between houses, help focus public attention on major issues, oversee institutions , investigations

4) Conference Committees (*compromise bill)• Consist of members from houses, hammer out differences between House and Senate versions of similar bills, make a compromise bill to be sent back to each house for approval

1995-1996 (104th Congress, Republicans) reformed # of committees (reduced from 252-198), term limits on committee chairmen (6 yrs)

Each member of House serves on 1-2 standing committees (unless limited to one of exclusive); Senators may serve on two major committees (average – 7 subcommittees) and one minor committee

Committee Membership

Chairman and majority of each standing committee comes from majority party with a minority of minority party members (try to be proportionate to Congressional party split)

Assignments are based on personal and political qualities of the member, region, reelection help Members from safe districts (elected with more than 55% of

the vote, guaranteed reelection) can be on an important committee that helps the nation and public welfare,

while marginal districts (elected with less than 55% of vote, reelection is not secure) need committees that suit the need of constituents (ex. Kansas rep on Agricultural committee)

Method of committee membership: Each party has a Committee on Committees Speaker of the House selects Select and Conference Committee

members (powerful!)

Committee Chairmen (House)

Powerful – decides what is on the committee agenda

1910 -- House Revolt transferred power to chairmen and away from Speaker of the House

1910-1970 -- Chairmen chosen by seniority system

Member with the longest continuous service of majority party on committee is placed automatically as chair (whoever has been in the committee the longest is the chairman)

1970 reform – secret ballots of majority members elected chairmen, may only chair 1 committee, committee meetings usually public, increased staff size for all

Before 1970s, work was done primarily by chairmen behind closed doors Reforms gave more rights to members, especially with little seniority Took away extreme power of chairmen, but still very powerful In practice, most chairmen are still senior members

1995 Republican Reforms – 6 year term limits for House chairmen

Functions of Committees Proposed bills are assigned to specific committees, the comm.

Controls the life or death of the bill

11,000 bills are introduced in each 2 year session, committees weed the bad bills out

Pigeonholed – when a bill is put aside in a committee for possible future consideration majority of bills are forgotten forever and never make it out of

committee Those approved move to subcommittees who hold hearings over

bill – supporters and critics of the bill appear at hearings and are questioned by subcommittee.

Bill is then marked up (changed or rewritten) and returned to full committee where more alterations may be made

Sent to Rules Committee (House – decides on rules for the bill, may be amended by members, amount of debate) or straight to floor (Senate)

A Bill’s Destiny:Option 1:Killed by committee or chair (not considered)

Option 2:Pigeonholed (temporarily put aside for future consideration)

Option 3: Sent to subcommittee for further consideration