the influence of gender on the performance of organizational citizenship behaviours

8/6/2019 The Influence of Gender on the Performance of Organizational Citizenship Behaviours

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DOI: 10.1177/014920630202800504

2002 28: 629Journal of ManagementDeborah L. Kidder

BehaviorsThe Influence of Gender on the Performance of Organizational Citizenship

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Journal of Management 2002 28(5) 629648

The Influence of Gender on the Performance ofOrganizational Citizenship Behaviors

Deborah L. KidderDepartment of Management, College of Business and Economics, Towson University,

Towson MD 21252, USA

Received 25 September 2000; received in revised form 5 June 2001; accepted 26 September 2001

This paper examines the relationship between gender and reports of organizational citizenship

behaviors (OCBs). Drawing on gender role theory, I examine the effects of employee gender

(male/female), gender orientation (masculine/feminine) and gender-dominated occupational

choice (nurse/engineer) on OCBs. I hypothesize relationships between gender and the perfor-

mance of gender-congruent OCBs, i.e., female-typed altruism and male-typed civic virtue. The

results demonstrate significant differences in line with traditional gender roles. Implications

are discussed. 2002 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.

In the past decade or so, the Management literature has increasingly focused on the per-

formance of organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs) in the workplace (see Borman &

Motowidlo, 1997 for a review). OCBs represent work behaviors that are discretionary and

not directly linked to an organizations reward system (Organ, 1997). Researchers have

come to realize that going beyond minimum job requirements, while always beneficial, is

an increasingly critical attribute in these days of heightened competition and the global

marketplace.

There is considerable evidence that the performance of OCBs is beneficial and has a

positive influence on organizational performance (e.g., Podsakoff & MacKenzie, 1997). It

hasalso been shown that managers consider the performance of OCBsin the performance ap-

praisal process (Allen&Rush,1998; Orr, Sackett & Mercer, 1989; Schnake & Dumler, 1997;

Shore, Barksdale & Shore, 1995). Researchers have looked at attitudinal factors related to

the performance of OCBs, such as organizational justice perceptions (Konovsky & Pugh,

1994; Moorman, 1991; Organ, 1988; Tansky, 1993), and organization-based self-esteem

(Chattopadhyay, 1999; Pierce, Gardner, Cummings & Dunham, 1989), as well as personality

Tel.: +1-410-704-2934; fax: +1-410-704-3236.

E-mail address: [email protected] (D.L. Kidder).

0149-2063/02/$ see front matter 2002 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.

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630 D.L. Kidder / Journal of Management 2002 28(5) 629648

factors (Organ & Lingl, 1995; Speier & Frese, 1997), and motives (Bolino, 1999;

Eastman, 1994). However, there is still much to learn about what influences the performance

of OCBs (Penner, Midili & Kegelmeyer, 1997). While alluded to in previous conceptual

articles (e.g., Kidder & McLean Parks, 1993; Van Dyne, Cummings & McLeanParks, 1995),no one has specifically examined the relationship between gender and OCBs. Since gender

has been linked to different attitudes, behaviors and outcomes in the workplace (Williams &

OReilly, 1998), an examination of the relationship between the two may extend the existing

research on OCBs in a promising direction.

In this paper, I examine how gender influences the performance of OCBs. Gender may

influence performance in three ways: (1) gender role prescriptions influence expectations of

differential behavior between males and females; (2) within each gender category, gender

orientation (masculinity/femininity) leads to self-identifying with socially prescribed gen-

der roles; and (3) occupational segregation and gender stereotyping result in gender-typed

behavioral expectations for gender-typed occupations. In a conceptual article, Kidder and

McLeanParks (1993)argued that OCB-altruism mayinclude expectedbehaviors for females

and stereotypically feminine occupations, of which nursing is an example (Drogosz &

Levy, 1996). On the other hand, they argued that OCB-civic virtue behaviors are associated

with the masculine stereotype, andthus maybe more associatedwith males andmasculine-

type occupations such as engineering (Barnes-Farrell, LHeureux-Barrett & Conway, 1991).

This may lead to different levels of performance based on traditional gender roles, affecting

perceptions of employee performance and performance ratings. The purpose of my study

is to examine whether gender, gender orientation, and gender-typed occupation each have

a separate significant effect on gendered OCBs.Gender roles are shared cultural expectations that apply to individuals solely on the basis

of their socially-identified gender (Eagly & Karau, 1991). Gender role theory suggests that

individuals internalize cultural expectations about their gender because social pressures ex-

ternal to the individual favor behavior consistent with their prescribed gender role (Eagly,

Karau & Makajhani, 1995). People are drawn to categorizing themselves and others into

social groups in order to establish their own identity (Tajfel & Turner, 1985). These social

identities help individuals define themselves, which in turn facilitates their understanding

of what to do, think, and even feel (Ashforth & Kreiner, 1999: 417). Individuals seek

to enhance their self-esteem through their social identities, which leads them to choose

identity-congruent behaviors as well as adhering to group values and norms (Ashforth &Mael, 1989, 1996). Social identities are often based on demographic categories (Ashforth &

Mael, 1989). The more visible a difference between social categories, such as ones bio-

logical sex, the more likely that category is to be salient (Fiske & Taylor, 1991). While

research shows the meaning that individuals attach to social identities may vary, it is clear

that some level of consensus exists in our culture about socially prescribed gender roles

(Deaux, 2000).

Several traits have been associated with females in our culture, such as empathy, per-

spective taking, concern for others (e.g., Carey, Fox & Spraggins, 1988; Dobbins, 1985;

Eagly & Karau, 1991; Fox, Gibbs & Auerbach, 1985; Hanson & Mullis, 1985; Rosnowska,

1985; Santilli & Hudson, 1992), and altruism and helping (Gilligan, Ward & Taylor, 1988;Held, 1990; Ridgeway, 1991). In contrast, males are seen as competitive,aggressive,and am-

bitious (Berger, Rosenholtz & Zelditch, 1980; Ely, 1994; Lockheed & Hall, 1976; Meeker &



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D.L. Kidder / Journal of Management 2002 28(5) 629648 631

Weitzel-ONeill, 1977; Schein & Mueller, 1992). In a review of the literature on gender

role attitudes and gender role behaviors, Spence and Helmreich (1980) concluded that these

traits could be combined into a single trait dimension: expressivityinstrumentality. They

suggested typical expressive female behaviors are characterized by a concern for others andan interpersonal orientation. In contrast, instrumental male behaviors include independence,

proactivity, and self-confidence. There is considerable evidence of the persistence of gen-

der stereotypes (e.g., Brenner, Tomkiewicz & Schein, 1989; Eagly & Karau, 1991; Koenig,

1989; Norris & Wylie, 1993; Schein, Mueller & Jacobson, 1989; Steinberg, 1990; Swann,

Langlois & Gilbert, 1999). For instance, in a recent follow-up study on the persistence of

gender role prescriptions, the authors found that traditional gender roles still were held by

a significant number of subjects (Spence & Hahn, 1997).

Gender and OCBs

OCBs have received a significant amount of attention in the literature (e.g., Morrison,

1994; Organ, 1988; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Moorman & Fetter, 1990; Smith, Organ &

Near, 1983; Van Dyne, Graham & Dienesch, 1994). While several dimensions have been

suggested and tested, much of the focus has been on two dimensions, altruism (e.g., Van

Dyne & LePine, 1998; Shore et al., 1995) and civic virtue (e.g., LePine & Van Dyne, 1998;

Robinson & Morrison, 1995).

The dimension of altruism includes all discretionary behaviors that have the effect of

helping a specific other person with an organizationally relevant task or problem (Organ,1988: 8). Altruism is characterized as helping behavior, implying sensitivity, especially to

ones social environment (Organ, 1988, p. 103). This other focus is typically associated

with an understanding of the needs of others and with the female gender role (de Beauvoir,

1952; Flax, 1983). While it is inaccurate to suggest that males do not help others, research on

gender stereotypes differentiates between categories of helping: females are expected to be

nurturing and caring, while males are expected to be heroic and perform high-risk helping

behaviors (Eagly & Crowley, 1986; Erdle, Sansom, Cole & Heapy, 1992). In addition,

asking for help violates masculine gender role norms (Good, Dell & Mintz, 1989). If being

helped makes males feel uncomfortable, they may also be less willing to help others as it

may violate reciprocity norms (McLean Parks, 1997).Empirical research suggests both that females are perceived as more altruistic by

observers (e.g., Seymour & Busherhof, 1991; Stockard, Van de Kragt & Dodge, 1988) and

that females often are more likely to be altruistic and helpful than males (e.g., Anderson,

1993; Belansky & Boggiano, 1994; Eagly & Wood, 1991; George, Carroll, Kersnick &

Calderon, 1998; Jha, Yadav & Kumari, 1997). Consequently, the behaviors associated with

altruism are likely to be seen as more in keeping with the female gender role than the male

gender role.

The dimension of civic virtue implies a sense of involvement in what policies are adopted

and which candidates are supported (Organ, 1988: 12). While the initial operationalization

of this dimension was limited to behaviors such as reading memos, Graham and her col-leagues (e.g., Graham, 1991; Van Dyne et al., 1994) helped expand and evolve the concept

of civic virtue towards voice behaviors, which is more in keeping with the label for this



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dimension (LePine & Van Dyne, 1998). Voice represents speaking out and challenging the

status quo (Krefting & Powers, 1998; LePine & Van Dyne, 1998; Van Dyne et al., 1995).

In a recent construct validity study, Van Dyne and LePine (1998, p. 108) differentiated

between helping and voice: Affiliative [helping] behavior is interpersonal and coopera-tive . . . and is other-oriented. Challenging [voice] behavior emphasizes ideas and issues. It

is change-oriented and can damage relationships(1998: 108). In an organizational context,

civic virtue is influenced by the political rights of employees (Tetrick, 1995).

Strong empirical evidence suggests that males are perceived as more assertive and task-

oriented rather than relationship-oriented (e.g., Carless, 1998; Eagly et al., 1995; Rojahn &

Willemsen, 1994) as well as the fact that they often are more assertive. For instance, Walker,

Ilardi, McMahon and Fennell (1996) found that males were five times more likely than

females to exercise opinion leadership in leaderless groups. In a study of mixed-gender

groups with egalitarian gender role expectations, males were more likely to be selected

as leaders and participated more in group discussion (Sapp, Harrod & Zhao, 1996). This

suggests that the challenging voice behaviors, which exemplify civic virtue, may be seen

as more consistent with male gender stereotypes than with female gender stereotypes.

Given that individuals tend to conform to their culturally defined gender roles, research

suggests that females are more likely to report performing OCB-altruism than males, and

males are more likely to report performing OCB-civic virtue behaviors than females:

Hypothesis 1: Gender will be related to the performance of gender-typed OCBs. Specifi-

cally:

a. Being female will be positively related to the performance of OCB-altruism.b. Being male will be positively related to the performance of OCB-civic virtue.

Indeed, research on the performance of OCBs has found some evidence to support this

hypothesis. Specifically, Morrison (1994) and Van Dyne and Ang (1998) found that women

were more likely to perform altruism/helping OCBs, while LePine and Van Dyne (1998)

found being male was positively related to performing voice behaviors.

Gender Orientation and OCBs

Apart from belonging to a gender category, individuals also display personality differ-

ences in terms of genderorientation (Karakowsky & Siegel, 1999; McCall & Struthers, 1994;

McCutcheon, 1996). Research on personality differences in gender orientation suggests that

the degree to which individuals self-identify with the culturally defined characteristics as-

sociated with their biological sex varies (Frable & Bem, 1985; Holt & Ellis, 1998; Kent &

Moss, 1994). That is to say, all individuals tend to vary along two dimensions, masculinity

and femininity, with these dimensions capturing the cultural prescriptions for males and

females (i.e., masculine individuals are assertive, ambitious, competitive, while feminine

individuals are nurturing, sensitive and passive). While on average females are more likely

to perform more feminine behaviors than males, for instance, within each gender categorya range of behaviors exist. Therefore, while gender influences an individuals behavior, the

extent to which a person self-identifies with gendered traits may have an additional influence.



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Kent and Moss (1994) found that gender orientation, specifically being high on the

masculine dimension, was a stronger predictor of leadership emergence (a role traditionally

associated with males) than was biological sex. Moore (1999), in a study of female police

officers, found that these women retained a strong female identity while also self-attributingmasculine traits.

If an individual self-identifies with masculine gender characteristics (i.e., has high mas-

culine identity), Kidder and McLean Parks (1993) argument suggests that this individ-

ual would be more likely to see civic virtue behaviors as part of their self-identity. The

parallel process would occur among individuals with high feminine identity for altruistic

OCBs. Individuals tend to choose activities congruent with salient aspects of their identities

(Ashforth & Mael, 1989). Borman and Motowidlo (1997) argued that OCB performance

was associated with personality variables, supporting the importance of examining the effect

of gender orientation in addition to gender.

Hypothesis 2: Gender orientation will be related to the performance of gender-typed

OCBs. Specifically:

a. Being feminine will be positively related to the performance of OCB-altruism.

b. Being masculine will be positively related to the performance of OCB-civic virtue.

Gender-Typed Occupation and OCBs

A major component of an individuals self-definition often comes from her/his occu-

pational identity (Ashforth & Kreiner, 1999; Ashforth & Mael, 1989). Occupations differ

along several dimensions, such as prestige (Ashforth & Kreiner, 1999) or task requirements

(Borman & Motowidlo, 1997), which influence an employees occupational identity. For

this study, I am interested in how the choice of a gender-typed occupation influences the

performance of OCBs.

Women and men are often considered to be differentially qualified for various types

of jobs, based on their socialized gender roles (Cockburn, 1991; Hall, 1993). Behavioral

traits that are appropriate for an occupation may seem independent of the gender of the job

incumbent, yet they are often inextricably linked with the dominant (in terms of numericalsuperiority) gender in that occupation. For instance, successful behaviors in male-dominated

occupations include aggressiveness and competitiveness, traits commonly associated with

masculine gender roles, while stereotypically feminine traits (i.e., devoted to others, gentle

and soothing) are considered important for female-dominated occupations, such as nursing

(Yount, 1986).

The nursing profession is clearly a stereotypically female occupation. Nursing is 96%

female (Fagin & Maraldo, 1988). Caring is an essential component of a nurses job, and

strongly associated with helping (Held, 1990). Caring and helping are also commonly

associated with the feminine gender role (Folbre, 1995). Research on male nurses has

shown that they perform more of the impersonal caring tasks in comparison to their femalecounterparts, suggesting that these male nurses follow their gender roles, even within a

female-dominated occupation (Williams, 1993). Because caring is an integral part of a



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nurses job, it is likely that nurses will view helping as part of their occupational identity,

thus increasing their propensity to perform helping behaviors.

In contrast to nursing, engineering has been traditionally associated with masculine

stereotypes (Lobel & Shavit, 1997; Powell, 1993). Engineers are expected to be analyticaland have strong quantitative and abstract reasoning skills. Less than 10% of all engineers

are women (Powell, 1993). In keeping with traditional masculine stereotypes, engineers

are expected to be very task-focused as well as confident in their abilities and opinions.

This suggests that they are more likely to view voicing their opinions and being active in

organizational life (i.e., civic virtue behaviors) as part of their occupational identity, thus

increasing their self-reported performance of civic virtue behaviors.

Hypothesis 3: Gendered occupation will be related to the performance of gender-typed

OCBs. Specifically:a. Being a nurse will be positively related to the performance of OCB-altruism.

b. Being an engineer will be positively related to the performance of OCB-civic virtue.

Methods

Data

The data on nurses used in this study were drawn from a cross-sectional survey of a

random sample of currently employed registered nurses. Mailing labels were obtained from

the nurses association of an upper midwest state for 1000 registered nurses. The number of

completed questionnaires returned totaled 310, for a response rate of 31%. After removing

nurses who listed their status as temporary, the final sample size was 218 women and 33

men, for a total of 251 nursing respondents.

The data on engineers came from a survey of a random sample of a northeastern

universitys engineering school alumni. One thousand surveys were mailed to a random

sample of alumni whose mailing address was in the United States. The response rate

was approximately 20%, of which 54 were women and 141 were men, for a total of

195 engineering respondents.

Measures

OCBs. The eight items used to measure OCBs were drawn from previous literature

(e.g., Morrison, 1994; Podsakoff et al., 1990; Van Dyne & LePine, 1998). An example of an

altruism item was: Helping others who have heavy workloads, while an example of a civic

virtue item was Making suggestions to improve the effectiveness of your area. A principal

axis factor analysis extracted two factors with eigenvalues over 1, with the four civic virtue

items ( = .72) loading on the first factor and the four altruism items ( = .79) loading on

the second factor. OCB performance was measured with a 5-point Likert-type scale rangingfrom never to always. The two dependent variables were calculated by averaging responses

to the four items for each category.



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Gender and occupation. Gender of the subject was coded 1 for females, and 0 for males.

Occupation was coded 1 for nurses, 0 for engineers.

Gender orientation. A subset of the gender scale developed by Bem (1981) was used inthis study. This scale is made up of a series of items that are classified as either masculine

or feminine. These items were rated with a 5-point Likert-type scale, ranging from strongly

disagree to strongly agree. One of the four masculine items used in this study was: I defend

my own beliefs ( = .70). An example of one of the four feminine items used was: I

am sensitive to the needs of others ( = .81). Respondents were instructed to base their

responses on their experience at work. A principal axis factor analysis extracted two factors

with eigenvalues over 1, with all four feminine items loading on the first factor, and all four

masculine items loading on the second factor. The responses to these items were averaged

to create two variables, one for masculine orientation and one for feminine orientation.

Control variables. A review of the OCB literature suggested three important variables

to control for in the analysis. The first two have shown evidence of being linked with gender,

so it was considered important to control for these factors. The OCB literature has identified

organizational justice perceptions to be positively related to OCBs (Organ & Ryan, 1995;

Podsakoff, Mackenzie, Paine & Bachrach, 2000). Also, gender differences in the influence

of justice perceptions on outcome variables have been found (Sweeney & McFarlin, 1997).

In order to test the additional explanatory power of gender, it was necessary to control

for perceived organizational justice. The multi-dimensional justice scale was drawn from

Moorman (1991). There were 11 items used in this study (four for distributive justice, = .92, three for procedural justice, = .82, four for interactional justice, = .87).

It was also deemed necessary to control for self-esteem. There is a significant amount

of research demonstrating gender differences in self-esteem (e.g., Kendler, Gardner &

Prescott, 1998; Kling, Hyde, Showers & Buswell, 1999). In addition, research has linked

perceptions of organizational justice and self-esteem, which is considered one of the driving

factors behind social categorizations (Lind & Tyler, 1988; Tyler, 1994). Recent studies of

OCBs have demonstrated that deriving self-esteem from organizational identity may influ-

ence propensity to perform OCBs (Pierce et al., 1989; Chattopadhyay, 1999), which may

confound the results when examining gendered identities. The four-item organization-based

self-esteem scale ( = .81) used was adapted to fit the sample occupations. These itemswere rated with a 5-point Likert-type scale, ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree.

An example of this scale was: I am a valuable part of this hospital/company.

The final control variable concerned perceived job breadth, i.e., whether or not an em-

ployee perceives the OCB to be an expected part of the job. There has been quite a dis-

cussion in the literature over whether or not employees and/or supervisors view OCBs as

in-role or extra-role (e.g., Kidder & McLean Parks, 1993; Kidder & Reed, 1997; Kiker &

Motowidlo, 1999; Lam, Hui & Law, 1999; Morrison, 1994). For instance, Morrison (1994)

found support for her contention that OCBs are positively correlated with perceptions of

what is expected on the job. In a recent review of the OCB literature, Podsakoff et al. (2000)

called for future research to take this into consideration when examining OCBs. Therefore,it was necessary to control for whether or not respondents viewed OCBs as expected of

them. Respondents were asked to classify each of the eight OCB items as either in-role



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(a formal or informal job expectation for them), extra-role (above and beyond expectations)

or out-of-role (not appropriate). The perceived job breadth variables were calculated by

summing the number of items that were classified as in-role. For example, the altruism

perceived job breadth variable is the sum of the number of altruism items the respondentconsidered to be an expected part of the job, thus ranging from 0 to 4 for each respondent.

Given that common method bias is a potential concern, Harmans single-factor test

was conducted (see Podsakoff & Organ, 1986). In this procedure, items used to create

the independent variable measures (i.e., procedural, distributive, and interactional justice,

organization-based self-esteem, Bems masculinity, and Bems femininity items) were sub-

jected to an unrotated factor analysis to determine the number of factors necessary to account

for the variance. If no general factor emerges, then there is some evidence that common

method bias is less of a concern (Podsakoff & Organ, 1986). This principal axis analysis

showed six distinct factors (one for each variable) with eigenvalues of greater than one that

collectively accounted for 69.25% of the variance. The first factor in the unrotated structure

had an eigenvalue of 6.277 and only accounted for 27.2% of the variance while the other five

factors accounted for an additional 42.05%. Because several factors were identified and the

first factor did not account for the majority of the variance, there was no general factor, thus,

common method bias does not appear to be a major concern (Podsakoff & Organ, 1986).

Results

Table 1 contains the means, standard deviations, and correlations among the studyvariables. As is common in the literature, the three organizational justice control variables

were significantly correlated, ranging from .40 to .53. Being female, having a high feminine

gender orientation, and being a nurse were all significantly correlated, while being masculine

was positively correlated with organization-based self-esteem. Females in the sample were

less likely to view civic virtue as in-role, while masculine respondents were more likely to

view civic virtue as in-role. Nurses and engineers did not differ in their level of organization-

based self-esteem. The two dependent variables were moderately correlated at .11.

The hypotheses were testedusing hierarchical multiple regression analyses.1,2 The results

are reported in Table 2.

The results from the hierarchical regression on altruism suggest that gendered socialidentities have an influence on self-reports of OCB-altruism. The adjusted R2 after step 1

of the analysis equaled .18, and equaled .24 in step 2. The introduction of the four gender

variables accounted for a significant amount of additional variance in the analysis (R2

increment = .06, F-change = 8.99, p < .000).

The results from the hierarchical regression on civic virtue also demonstrate a significant

link between gendered social identities and self-reported performance of civic virtue OCBs.

The adjusted R2 after step 1 of the analysis equaled .33, and equaled .45 in step 2. The

introduction of the four gender variables accounted for a significant additional amount of

(R2 increment = .14, F-change = 28.35, p < .000).

Hypothesis 1 suggested that gender would be related to gender-congruent OCBs. Thishypothesis was partially supported. Although the correlations between gender and the de-

pendent variables shown in Table 1 were significant, the multiple regression analysis showed



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Table 2

OLS hierarchical multiple regressions on performance of OCBsa

Variable OCB-altruism OCB-civic virtue

Step 1

Organizational justice

Distributive .08 .04 .02 .04

Interactional .11 .04 0 .08

Procedural .15 .07 .07 .03

Organization self-esteem 25 .18 .24 .23

Perceived job breadth .32 .28 .48 .38

Step 2

Gender (1 = female) 0 .14

Feminine orientation .09 .01

Masculine orientation .06 .12

Occupation (1 = nurse) .22 .27

Step 3

Sex X occupation .05 .35

Adj-R2 .18 .24 .24 .33 .46 .47

F 20.68 43.81

F-change 8.99 .18 28.35 11.16

a N = 251 for nurses, N = 195 for engineers. Standardized coefficients are reported. p < .05. p < .01. p < .001.

no significant difference between males and females in the performance of OCB-altruism,

once the other identities were controlled for. However, females were significantly less likely

to report performing civic virtue behaviors than males, thus supporting Hypothesis 1b.

Hypothesis 2 suggested that gender orientation would be related to gender-typed OCBs.

This hypothesis was supported by the data. Having a feminine identity was positively related

to the performance of OCB-altruism, while a masculine identity was positively related to

OCB-civic virtue. It should be noted, however, that incongruent gendered identities were

not significant, i.e., feminine identity was not negatively related to self-reports of OCB-civic

virtue, nor was masculine identity negatively related to OCB-altruism.Finally, Hypothesis 3 was strongly supported for both OCB dimensions. This hypothesis

suggested that gendered occupational identity would be related to reports of gender-congruent

OCBs. Nurses were more likely to report performing OCB-altruism and less likely to report

performing OCB-civic virtue, while the opposite was true for engineers (i.e., engineers were

more likely to report performing civic virtue behaviors than nurses and less likely to report

altruism behaviors).

Interaction of Gender and Occupation

The results of the regression analyses reported suggest that gender and occupation eachhave a significant effect on the performance of OCB-civic virtue. However, it is possible that

there may exist an interaction between the role expectations for gendered-occupations and



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the gender of the job incumbent. Specifically, male nurses are likely to report performing

more gender-congruent behaviors (OCB-civic virtue) than female nurses. Following this

same logic, female engineers are likely to report performing fewer gender-incongruent

behaviors (OCB-civic virtue) than male engineers.In order to test for possible interactions, the analyses were re-run including the interaction

term of gender by occupation. The interaction for OCB-altruism was not significant (see

Figure1). The results showed, however, that there wasa significant interaction forOCB-civic

virtue (see Table 2, step 3). The interaction plot (see Figure 2) indicates that male nurses

were more likely to report performing OCB-civic virtue behaviors than were female nurses.

However, there was no significant difference between reports of OCB-civic virtue between

female and male engineers.

Discussion

The results of this study provide positive evidence regarding the influence of gendered

identities on self-reported performance of OCBs. Gendered occupation was a significant

predictor of the performance of OCBs. Nurses were more inclined to perform (female-typed)

altruism behaviors and less inclined to perform (male-typed) civic virtue behaviors than

engineers, even after controlling for whether the respondents believed that the OCBs were

part of their job. Similarly, individuals with high feminine identity were more likely to report

performing altruism OCBs, while highly masculine individuals were more likely to report

performing civic virtue OCBs. Finally, females were significantly less likely to performcivic virtue behaviors than males, however, there were no gender differences in reported

performance of altruism behaviors after the other identities were controlled for.

The one hypothesis that was not fully supported by the data involved the relationship

between gender and the performance of gender-congruent OCBs. While females reported

performing fewer masculine-type civic virtue behaviors than males, there were no gender

differences in the reported performance of altruism or helping behaviors, once the other

gendered identities were controlled for. This suggests the influence of gender roles may be

stronger for male-typed behaviors, such as civic virtue, than for female-typed behaviors,

such as altruism. It is possible, however, that sample distribution may be the cause of the

insignificant findings for gender. The analyses run for this study represent a conservativetest of the hypotheses, given the relatively small proportion of male nurses and female

engineers (Cohen & Cohen, 1983).

Post hoc analyses of possible interactions between gender and occupation were signif-

icant for OCB-civic virtue but not for OCB-altruism. The results show that male nurses

report performing more OCB-civic virtue behaviors than female nurses, while female en-

gineers report performing the same level of OCB-civic virtue behaviors as male engineers.

This suggests that role requirements for the engineering profession may dominate per-

formance expectations. An examination of the direct effects masked the information that

among engineers, there were no reported differences in performance between males and

females.Results of this study present important implications for management practice as well as re-

search on the performance of OCBs. They suggest that how individuals identify themselves



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may influence their performance of OCBs and hence their expectations about their job.

Individuals may incorporate the performance of OCBs into their self-concept (Penner

et al., 1997). Research has demonstrated that managers do include contextual behaviors in

their performance ratings of employees (Allen & Rush, 1998; Orr et al., 1989; Schnake &Dumler, 1997; Shore et al., 1995). If individual employees in the same job differ in their

performance of OCBs due to their gender, it may affect their performance ratings. Fur-

ther, given that there is social consensus about appropriate gender role behaviors, managers

may have their own expectations about the performance of OCBs (Kidder & McLean Parks,

1993). An analysis of the respondents classification of OCBs as in-role or extra-role demon-

strated that male nurses and female engineers were more likely to view both altruism and

civic virtue as more in-role than their gender-congruent counterparts. This suggests that

individuals in gender-incongruent jobs may face either higher expectations of performance

(performing both types of OCBs) or increased role conflict when the gender of the citizen-

ship behavior is incongruent with the gender of the job or person (Kidder & McLean Parks,

1993).

Alternatively, it has been suggested that males andfemales mayface different expectations

in the workplace regarding gendered behaviors (Kidder & McLean Parks, 2001). Kidder

and McLean Parks (2001) argue that females may face potential social sanctions for per-

forming higher-status masculine behaviors, while males may not face the same sanctions for

performing lower-status feminine behaviors. Managers of employees in female-dominated

occupations, who strongly identify with traditional gender norms, may punish females for

performing masculine behaviors. Managers need to be aware of this tendency, in order to

avoid unfair differences in job requirements.In terms of research, this paper adds to our knowledge about factors that help ex-

plain employees performance of OCBs. Social identity theory suggests that individuals

self-identity helps drive their attitudes and behaviors at work. My results suggest that gender

is an important variable to consider in relation to OCBs, and further that the performance

of citizenship behaviors depends on multiple gender identities. According to these results,

each gendered identity (gender, gender orientation, and occupational) had a separate and

significant impact on reports of OCB performance. Future studies should at the minimum

include gender as an explanatory variable, although gender may be an imperfect proxy for

gender orientation and occupational identities.

While the present results are significant both theoretically and analytically, there aresome methodological limitations. All of the variables consisted of self-reports, raising the

possibility of common methods bias. However, the Harmans single-factor test results did

not indicate a substantial bias. Research on self-reported performance suggests that it is

comparable to ratings from other sources (Facteau & Craig, 2001), and that self-report data

are useful in measuring employees perceptions (Spector, 1994), but it still may be the

case that an employees OCB self-report may not be accurate measure of performance. In

addition, variables were measured at one time, so causality is only inferred. It is possible

that other factors not measured may help explain the findings. Since filling out a survey to

help a doctoral student can be considered a form of altruism, this may provide an alternative

explanation for the lack of gender differences in the performance of OCB-altruism. Anotherconcern involves the relative lack of significant correlations between the self-reported

OCB performance and the justice control variables. Previous research has linked OCB



16/21


performance and justice. The relatively small correlations in my sample may demonstrate

that justice is less important than gender and organization-based self-esteem, or that these

self-reports may not be comparable to similar data in previous studies. It is not possible

to determine the reason for this difference with this dataset. Finally, the results shouldnot be generalized beyond the occupations studied in this analysis, specifically nurses and

engineers.

Conclusion

OCBs are beneficial to the organization and have been shown to have a positive im-

pact on firm performance (Podsakoff & MacKenzie, 1997; Podsakoff et al., 2000). While

several antecedents of OCBs have been identified in the literature, (e.g., perceptions of

organizational justice, Tansky, 1993), we still have much to learn about what influences anemployees performance of citizenship behaviors. This study demonstrates that gendered

social identities are related to citizenship behaviors. Belonging to a gender category due to

predetermined biological fate, due to stable personality differences, as well as due to choos-

ing a gender-typed occupation all influence reports of the performance of gender-congruent

OCBs. Gender role theory and social identity theory thus represent additional theoreti-

cal frameworks helpful in understanding the performance of contextual behaviors. Future

research is needed to examine the relationship between identity and OCB performance,

on different samples and with different occupations and organizational levels. In addition,

research that integrates the findings of previous research, drawing on multiple theoretical

frameworks, will add to our understanding of the phenomena, by providing a more complete

or thick theory (Folger & Turillo, 1999).

Notes

1. Because the sample reflected a slightly larger proportion of female engineers than the

average, the equations were weighted to correct for this.

2. TheseresultsinfertheinfluenceofgenderstereotypesonOCBs.AsatesttoseeifOCBs

are consciously viewed in stereotypic terms, 62 business professionals, enrolled in an

evening MBA program, were asked to evaluate whether the items used in this analysiswere stereotypically masculine or feminine. A 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from

strongly feminine to strongly masculine was used. Responses for the altruism items

were averaged, as were the civic virtue items. Results from one-sample t-tests showed

that OCB-altruism was rated as feminine (t61 = 7.98, p < .001), and OCB-civic

virtue was considered masculine (t61 = 3.05, p < .01).

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank Blake Ashforth, John Mathieu, Judi McLean Parks, Dave Palmer,Gary Powell, Lynda St. Clair, and Linn Van Dyne for their insightful comments and

suggestions.



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Deborah L. Kidder is currently an Associate Professor at Towson University, USA. Her

Ph.D. is from the Industrial Relations Center at the University of Minnesota. Her current

research interests include perceptions of fairness and consequences of (un)fair treatment in

the workplace, social exchange and social identities.

the influence of gender on the performance of organizational citizenship behaviours

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