the inter language phonology of korean english

8/3/2019 The Inter Language Phonology of Korean English

1/15

Interlanguage Phonology of KoreanInterlanguage Phonology of KoreanInterlanguage Phonology of KoreanInterlanguage Phonology of KoreanLearners of EnglishLearners of EnglishLearners of EnglishLearners of English

HyoukHyoukHyoukHyouk----Keun KimKeun KimKeun KimKeun KimJune 25, 1999

(with notes and modifications by Thomas E. Payne, May 2005)

Korean and English Stops, Phoneme Substitutions, Syllable Structure, Vowel

Insertion, Stop Voicing, Nasalization, /n/-Insertion, conclusion

1. Korean and English Stops

While Korean has three distinctive stops as phonemes at each of three places of

articulation (9 altogether), English has two distinctive stops in each place (6

altogether). English voiceless stops are aspirated in the word initial or in the stressed-

syllable initial position, but they are not aspirated after /s/ and after vowels in the

unstressed-syllable initial position, and they may remain unreleased in the syllable

coda position. The following compares the Korean and English stop phonemes andallophones. The most similar sounds are linked together.

(1) Korean and English Stop Phonemes andKorean and English Stop Phonemes andKorean and English Stop Phonemes andKorean and English Stop Phonemes and commoncommoncommoncommon AllophonesAllophonesAllophonesAllophonesKoreanKoreanKoreanKorean EnglishEnglishEnglishEnglish

PhonemePhonemePhonemePhonemessss AllophoneAllophoneAllophoneAllophonessss AllophoneAllophoneAllophoneAllophonessss PhonemePhonemePhonemePhonemessss

/p/p/p/p,,,, tttt, k/, k/, k/, k/ [p[p[p[phhh,,,, tttt, k, k, k, k]]]] [p[p[p[p,,,, tttt, k], k], k], k] /p, t, k//p, t, k//p, t, k//p, t, k/

////pppp, t, k/, t, k/, t, k/, t, k/ [[[[pppp, t, k], t, k], t, k], t, k] [p, t, k][p, t, k][p, t, k][p, t, k]

////pppp, t, k, t, k, t, k, t, k//// [p[p[p[p, t, k, t, k, t, k, t, k]]]]

[b, d, g][b, d, g][b, d, g][b, d, g] [b, d, g][b, d, g][b, d, g][b, d, g] /b, d, g//b, d, g//b, d, g//b, d, g/

2. Phoneme Substitutions2. Phoneme Substitutions2. Phoneme Substitutions2. Phoneme Substitutions

Koreans tend to substitute Korean /p , t , k / for English /p, t, k/, and Korean /p, t, k/for English /b, d, g/, which causes a devoicing problem in the word initial or word

final position. [Note: Actually, Major & Faudree (1996) show that voiced stops in word-initialposition are not a big problem to Korean learners of English. They conclude that the subjects

overcame the difficulty of voicing in the word initial position. However, according to Ladefoged(1993), native listeners of English differentiate a voiceless stop and a voiced stop in the word initial

position by the presence of aspiration not by the presence of voicing, and also those in the word final

position by the duration of preceding vowels not by the presence ofvoicing, since English stops in

those positions are partially devoiced. Thus, the Korean speakers do not seem to have problems indifferentiating voiceless stops (= aspirated ones) and voiced stops (= unaspirated lenis ones) in the

word initial position. However, many Korean learners of English do not know that the vowel duration

is longer before a voiced consonant than before a corresponding voiceless consonant. This must have

lead to much poorer result in the production of word final voiced stops in Major & Faudree's (1996)


2/15

2

experiment. ] The following are consonant substitutions (H-B Park, 1992:59) and vowel

substitutions commonly made by Korean learners of English:

(2) a. ConsonaConsonaConsonaConsonannnnt Substitutionst Substitutionst Substitutionst Substitutions

EnglishEnglishEnglishEnglish p, fp, fp, fp, f b/vb/vb/vb/v s/s/s/s/ tttt d/d/d/d/ z/z/z/z///// kkkk ggggIL (Korean)IL (Korean)IL (Korean)IL (Korean)

b. Vowel SubstitutionsVowel SubstitutionsVowel SubstitutionsVowel Substitutions

EnglishEnglishEnglishEnglish iyiyiyiy eyeyeyey aaaa owowowow uwuwuwuw ayayayay awawawaw yyyy IL (Korean)IL (Korean)IL (Korean)IL (Korean) iiii:::: iiii eyeyeyey eeee aaaa oooo owowowow uuuu u:u:u:u: ayayayay awawawaw oyoyoyoy

3. Syllable Structure3. Syllable Structure3. Syllable Structure3. Syllable Structure

Not only the phoneme inventories but also the syllable structures of English and

Korean are quite different from each other. The Korean syllable structure is much

simpler than that of English: V, VC, CV, CGV, CVC or CGVC. Furthermore, the

syllable coda position is restricted to only lenis stops /p, t, k/, nasals /m, n, / and alateral /l/.

4. Vowel Insertion4. Vowel Insertion4. Vowel Insertion4. Vowel Insertion

Broselow (1987:272) proposes the following Syllable Structure Transfer Hypothesis:

(3) Syllable Structure Transfer HypothesisSyllable Structure Transfer HypothesisSyllable Structure Transfer HypothesisSyllable Structure Transfer HypothesisWhen the target language permits syllable structures which are not permittedin the native language, learners will make errors which involve altering thesestructures to those which would be permitted in the native language.

The two strategies for dealing with unfamiliar syllable structure: 1. Cluster

simplification (by deletion or insertion), 2. Resyllabification (making more syllablesout of the resulting structure)

Korean speakers learning English seem to support this hypothesis. For example, they

often try to break consonant clusters by inserting a vowel. They also insert a vowel

after a fricative or an affricate sound, since fricatives or affricates in the syllable coda

position, without vowel insertion, would be neutralized as /t/ in Korean (see the

description of SFNR below), e.g. bus might be homophonous with but. Due to

this epenthesis, the original syllable-final fricative or affricate is resyllabified as a

syllable-initial one, and thus becomes more pronounceable to Korean speakers (Nam

& Southard, 1994:267). A high front vowel [i] is inserted after a palatal sound such as

/, , , / and a high back unrounded vowel [] is inserted elsewhere (Ahn, 1991:15;Tak, 1996:768, 775). The following are some examples of vowel insertion by Koreanspeakers:

(4) a. Christmas --> [krsmas]b. church --> [: i]

In (4b), /r/ in the coda position is deleted, since Korean syllable system does not allow

/r/ in this position, and instead its preceding vowel is compensatorily lengthened.

On the other hand, H-B Park (1992) insists that Korean speakers insert // [] after astop, only if its preceding vowel is a tense vowel or a diphthong, giving the following

examples:


3/15

3

(5) a. [piyk] 'peak'[kowt] 'coat'[payp] 'pipe'

b. [pk] 'pick'[kt] 'good'[tp] 'tip'

However, as shown in the variants [kh eyk] and [kh eykh ] forcake, or in the variants[tayp] and [tayp] fortype, vowel insertion may not apply even after a tense vowelor diphthong. K-J Lee (1992) has a similar idea to H-B Park (1992). Exemplifying

that doghas two different variants [tok] and [towg] butguide orleague are alwaysrealized as [kayd] and [liyg], she insists that English syllable-final voiced stopstake a following [] after a tense vowel or a diphthong, and that they are unreleasedafter a lax or simple vowel. In fact, a syllable-final voiced stop tends to take an

epenthetic [] quite easily, even if it is preceded by a lax/simple vowel as shown in[kg] forgag.

6.6.6.6. NNNNasalization (NasR)asalization (NasR)asalization (NasR)asalization (NasR)

The Nasalization (or NasR) seems to be a more serious problem among Korean

second language learners of English. Many Koreans pronounce pop music as [pammyuik], and nickname as [nineym] (Nam & Southard, 1994).

See Appendix 2 for examples of waveforms and spectrograms.

8. Conclusion8. Conclusion8. Conclusion8. Conclusion

In conclusion, Korean learners of English tend to transfer Korean phonological rules

such as SFNR, LSVR, NasR, etc. to English. They also use vowel insertion toapproximate permissible Korean syllable structures when speaking English. The

degree of transfer consistency of these rules may be different from each other. That is,

those who transfer LSVR also seem to transfer NasR, but those who do not transfer

NasR do not seem to transfer LSVR. In order to prove this hypothesis, more empirical

research is required. Such a research program would be a good tool for judging the

development degree of an L2 learner's acquisition of L2 phonology or the degree of

his or her fossilization in L2 pronunciation.

APENDIX 1APENDIX 1APENDIX 1APENDIX 1

Korean PhonologyKorean PhonologyKorean PhonologyKorean Phonology1. Vowel System1. Vowel System1. Vowel System1. Vowel System

(1) Figure 1. (Simple) Vowel Chart of KoreanFigure 1. (Simple) Vowel Chart of KoreanFigure 1. (Simple) Vowel Chart of KoreanFigure 1. (Simple) Vowel Chart of Korean


4/15

4

Figure 1 expresses only the simple vowels of modern standard Korean. Korean has

two pairs of non-low back vowels: high and mid rounded vowels, /u, o/, and high and

mid unrounded vowels, / , /. The unrounded back vowels are more forward than

their corresponding rounded ones. The distance between two non-high front vowels,

/e/ and //, is so close that many Koreans may not distinguish them from each other.

2. Consonant System2. Consonant System2. Consonant System2. Consonant System

(1) Figure 2. Consonant Chart of KoreanFigure 2. Consonant Chart of KoreanFigure 2. Consonant Chart of KoreanFigure 2. Consonant Chart of Korean

One characteristic of Korean consonants, shown in Figure 2, is that there are three

distinctive voiceless sounds in the stop and affricate categories (H-B Park, 1992;

Kenstowicz, 1994; M-R Kim, 1994; Nam & Southard, 1994; HS Kim & Jongman,

1996). These are (1) (strongly) aspirated sounds /p, t, kh , /; (2) unaspirated fortissounds /p*, t*, k*, */; and (3) unaspirated (or slightly aspirated) lenis sounds /p, t, k,/. In Korean, the number of fricatives is very small compared to that of stops. Thereare one glottal fricative /h/ and two alveolar fricatives, of which one is a fortis /s*/ and

the other a lenis /s/. There are no fricatives such as /f, v, , , z,, /. There are threenasals, /m, n, /. There is only one glide '[ri l]' in Korean, which is

complementarily distributed between [r] and [l].

3. Syllable3. Syllable3. Syllable3. Syllable----Final NeutralizationFinal NeutralizationFinal NeutralizationFinal Neutralization

All the Korean consonants are distinctive only in the syllable onset position, except

// which appears only in the syllable coda position. However, just seven of the

twenty consonants can appear in the syllable coda position. These are /p, t, k, l, m, n,

]. Other stops, affricates and fricatives are neutralized to lenis stops in the same

general place of articulation (H-S Kim, 1990; D-S Park, 1990; J-S Kim, 1992; J-S


5/15

5

Lee, 1992; H-B Park, 1992; Nam & Southard, 1994; HS Kim & Jongman, 1996). The

rule can be formulated as follows:

Examples of the application of this rule are given in (4):

(4)

However, if a particle starting with a vowel is attached to the words in (4),resyllabification occurs and the consonants in the coda position are movedto the onset position of the following syllable before the application of SFNR(3). Let me show some examples, adding a nominative particle "-i" to eachword of (4) above.

(5)

4. Lenis Stop Voicing4. Lenis Stop Voicing4. Lenis Stop Voicing4. Lenis Stop Voicing

Example (5-d) shows us that there is another phonological rule in Korean. Koreanlenis stop and affricate sounds such as /p, t, k, / change into corresponding voicedsounds between two voiced sounds according to the Lenis Stop Voicing Rule (Paik,

1977; H-B Lee, 1982; D-S Park, 1990; J-S Kim, 1992; J-S Lee, 1992; Nam &

Southard, 1994; Jun, 1995). Thus, voiced obstruents such as [b, d, g, ] exist inKorean as allophones they are not themselves distinct phonemes. However, the/s/ sound does not change into /z/ between two voiced sounds as shown in (5-e)above. The formulation of this rule and some examples are given below:

(6) Lenis Stop Voicing Rule (LSVR)Lenis Stop Voicing Rule (LSVR)Lenis Stop Voicing Rule (LSVR)Lenis Stop Voicing Rule (LSVR)

This rule can apply not only within a word but also across a word boundary,as shown below:


6/15

6

(7)

This rule does not seem to apply to a compound, nath_al /na #al/ 'each +grain,' since the target consonant is not a lenis stop. However, the ruleapplies to the word after the application of SFNR (3), preventing it from

being pronounced as na_thal /na al/ by resyllabification. The followingshows the process of its derivation:

(8)

5. Nasalization5. Nasalization5. Nasalization5. Nasalization

An obstruent preceding a nasal is switched into its homorganic nasal sound. This

nasalization is not a secondary articulation, but a complete consonant assimilation

(Paik, 1977; D-S Park, 1990; Choi, 1991; J-S Kim, 1992; J-S Lee, 1992; Kang, 1992).

The following are the examples of (4) above, to which a Korean suffix man 'only' isattached.

(9)

According to the above examples, the nasalization rule may be roughly formulated as

follows:

(10) C --> [+nasal] / V ___ $ [+nasal] ($ = Syllable boundary)

However, this rule as stated is too broad there are many exceptions. In the case of(9-c,d,e) for example, different voiceless consonants with different features (i.e., anaspirated alveolar stop /t/, an alveolar fricative /s/, and a palato-alveolar affricate//) become a (voiced) alveolar nasal /n/. Notice that the target obstruent for the

application of the nasalization rule is under the environments for both the SFNR (3)and the LSVR (5).

6. /n/6. /n/6. /n/6. /n/----InsertionInsertionInsertionInsertion

In a compound or a derived word, if the last sound of the previous word or

prefix is a consonant followed by a /i/ or /j/ of the next word, /n/ is inserted

between the two words. The examples are given in (14). This rule applies


7/15

7

before the NasR(11) and provide the environments for the NasR as shown in(14-d).

(14)

APPENDIX 2APPENDIX 2APPENDIX 2APPENDIX 2

Waveforms and SWaveforms and SWaveforms and SWaveforms and Spectrogramspectrogramspectrogramspectrograms

AllophoneAllophoneAllophoneAllophone----based English Pronunciationbased English Pronunciationbased English Pronunciationbased English Pronunciation

AspirationAspirationAspirationAspiration

Waveform and spectrogram of"to stand against" from "They announce that Abe is

expected to stand against evil."

Cluster SimplificationCluster SimplificationCluster SimplificationCluster Simplification

Waveform and spectrogram of"different meaning" from "The word 'vague' must

have a different meaning from 'ambiguous.'"


8/15

8

PalatalizationPalatalizationPalatalizationPalatalization and Velarized /l/Velarized /l/Velarized /l/Velarized /l/

Waveform and spectrogram of"told you" from "Who'd told you to look at yourself

in silence?"

TappingTappingTappingTapping

Waveform and spectrogram of"made of" from "The bag might be made of snakeskin."

Korean Accented English PronunciationKorean Accented English PronunciationKorean Accented English PronunciationKorean Accented English Pronunciation

Devoicing due to NeutralizationDevoicing due to NeutralizationDevoicing due to NeutralizationDevoicing due to Neutralization

Waveform and spectrogram of"cab should" from "The word 'cab' should be a short

form for 'taxicab.'"


9/15

9

vs.

Waveform and spectrogram of "cap should""cap should""cap should""cap should" from "The word 'cap' should bean adjective."

Stop VoicingStop VoicingStop VoicingStop Voicing

Waveform and spectrogram of"cap is" from "The cap is red, but I want to paint it

black."

vs.

Waveform and spectrogram of "cab is""cab is""cab is""cab is" from "The cab is backed into thegarage."


10/15

10

NasalizationNasalizationNasalizationNasalization

Waveform and spectrogram of"cap must" from "A cap must be worn when anybody

bakes bread here."

vs.

Waveform and spectrogram of "cab must""cab must""cab must""cab must" from "I think the cab must beslower than her new car."

/n/ Insertion/n/ Insertion/n/ Insertion/n/ Insertion

Waveform and spectrogram of"look at yourself" from "Who'd told you to look at

yourself in silence?"


11/15

11

References Cited

Ahn, Sang-Cheol. 1991. Vowel deletion and epenthesis: the vowel . Studiesin the Linguistic Sciences, Vol. 21, No. 2, 1-18.

Allen, James. 1995.Natural Language Understanding, 2nd ed. Redwood City,

CA: The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company, Inc.

Anderson, Peggy J. 1993. The Interstress Interval as an Indicator of PerceivedIntelligibility among Nonnative Speakers of English. Ph.D.dissertation. The Wichita State University.

Anderson-Hsieh, Janet. 1992. Using electronic visual feedback to teach

suprasegmentals. System, Vol. 20, No. 1, 51-62.

Beebe, Leslie M. 1980. Myths about interlanguage phonology. Paper

presented at the National TESOL Convention, San Francisco.

(Reprinted in Georgette Ioup & Steven Weinberger, (eds.,

Interlanguage Phonology: The Acquisition of a Second LanguageSound System, 1987, 165-175.)

Bird, Steven. 1994. Introduction to computational phonology. ComputationalLinguistics, 20, 3, pp.1-8.

Bird, Steven. 1995. Computational Phonology: A constraint-based approach.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Broselow, Ellen. 1987. An investigation of transfer in second language

phonology. In Georgette Ioup & Steven H. Weinberger, eds.,

Interlanguage Phonology: The Acquisition of a Second LanguageSound System,, 261-278. Cambridge, MA: Newbury House Publishers.(a first draft of this paper was written in 1979)

Celce-Murcia, Marianne & Janet M. Goodwin. 1991. Teaching pronunciation.

In Marianne Celce-Murcia, ed., Teaching English as a Second orForeign Language, 2nd edition, 136-153. MA: Newbury House.

Choi, Eun Young. 1991.Postlexical Phonology in Korean. Ph.D. dissertation.University of Washington. Corder, S. Pit. 1971. Idiosyncratic dialects

and error analysis..IRAL, 9, 147-160.

Corder, S. Pit. 1992. A role for the mother tongue. In Susan Gass & Larry

Selinker (eds.,Language Transfer in Language Learning,Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins Publishing Co.


12/15

12

Chun, Jae-Ho. 1989. The contrastive study of phonological changes between

Korean and English. Tae_Ku En_E Yen_Ku, 6, 1-36 (written inKorean).

Clements, George N. 1985. The geometry of phonological features. In Ewen,

C & Anderson, J., eds.,Phonology Yearbook, 2. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.

Dickerson, Lonna J. 1975. The learner's interlanguage as a system of variablerules. TESOL Quarterly, Vol. 9, No. 4, 401-408.

Dickerson, Wayne B. 1987. Explicit rules and the developing interlanguage

phonology. In Allen James & Jonathan Leather (eds., Sound Patternsin Second Language Acquisition. Providence, RI: Foris Publications

USA, Inc.

Eckman, Fred R. 1977. Markedness and the contrastive analysis hypothesis.

Language Learning, 27, 315-330. (Reprinted in Georgette Ioup &

Steven Weinberger, eds.,Interlanguage Phonology: the Acquisition ofa Second Language Sound System, 1987, 55-69.)

Eckman, Fred R. 1987. The reduction of word-final consonant clusters ininterlanguage. In Allen James & Jonathan Leather, eds., Sound

Patterns in Second Language Acquisition, Providence, RI: ForisPublications USA, Inc., 143-162.

Eckman, Fred R. & Gregory K. Iverson. 1994. Pronunciation difficulties in

ESL: coda consonants in English interlanguage. In Mehmet Yavas, ed.,

First and Second Language Phonology, San Diego, CA: SingularPublishing Group, Inc., 251-265.

Flege, J. E. 1984. The detection of French accent by American listeners.

Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 76, 692-707 (cited inTajima et al. (1997).

Fry, Dennis. B. 1979. The Physics of Speech. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press.

Gass, Susan M. & Larry Selinker. 1994. Second Language Acquisition: AnIntroductory Course. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,Inc., Publishers.

Gilbert, Judy B. 1993. Clear Speech: Teacher's Manual and Answer Key, 2ndedition. Cambridge, MA:Cambridge University Press.

Ioup, Georgette & Steven H. Weinberger, eds. 1987.InterlanguagePhonology: The Acquisition of a Second Language Sound System.

Cambridge, MA: Newbury House Publishers.

Jun, Sun-Ah. 1995. Asymmetrical prosodic effects on the laryngeal gesture inKorean. In B. Cornell & A. Arvaniti, eds.,Phonology and Phonetic

Evidence: Papers in Laboratory Phonology IV, Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press, 235-253.

Kang, Seok Keun. 1992.A Moraic Study of Some Phonological Phenomena inEnglish and Korean. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Illinois atUrbana-Champaign.


13/15

13

Kenstowicz, Michael. 1994.Phonology in Generative Grammar. Cambridge,MA: Basil Blackwell Inc.

Kenworthy, Joanne. 1987. Teaching English Pronunciation. NY: LongmanInc. Kim, Chin Woo and Hyoung-Youb Kim. 1991. The character of

Korean glides. Studies in the Linguistic Sciences, Vol. 21, No. 2, 113--

125.

Kim, Hee-Seob. 1990. The Manner Features in Phonological Representations.Ph.D. dissertation. Indiana University.

Kim, Hyouk-Keun. 1997a. Transfer of Korean Phonological Rules to English

Phonology Acquisition. InProceedings of the InternationalConference on Cognitives Science '97 (ICCS '97), Seoul, Korea, 291-

292.

Kim, Hyouk-Keun. 1997b. Transfer of L1 Phonology to L2 Pronunciation.

Presented at teh 17th annual Second Language Research Forum (SLRF

'97): SLA Across Language, Michigan State University, East Lansing,

Michigan.

Hyouk-Keun Kim. 1998. Generating Interlanguage Syllabification inOptimality Theory. InProceedings of the COLING-ACL '98 Workshopon the Computation of Phonological Constraints, Montreal University,Montreal, Canada.

Kim, Hyunsoon & Allard Jongman. 1996. Acoustic and perceptual evidence

for complete neutralization of manner of articulation in Korean.

Journal of Phonetics, 24, 295-312

Kim, Jong Shil. 1992. Word Formation, the Phonological Word, and WordLevel Phonology in Korean. Ph.D. dissertation. University of Texas atAustin.

Kim, Mi-Ran. 1994.Acoustic Characteristics of Korean Stops and Perception

of English Stop consonants. Ph.D. dissertation. University ofWisconsin-Madison.

Kreidler, Charles W. 1989. The Pronunciation of English: A course Book inPhonology. Cambridge, MA: Basil Blackwell Inc.

Ladefoged, Peter. 1993.A Course in Phonetics, 3rd edition. Orlando, FL:Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc. Lado, R. 1957.Linguistics AcrossCultures. Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press.

Lee, Hyun-Bok. 1982. Phonetic variations of Korean speech sounds as

conditioned by tempo and rhythm. Ohak-Yonku / Language-Research,18, 1, 115-120. (written in Korean).

Lee, Hyun-Bok & Cheol-Jae Seong. 1996. Experimental phonetic study of thesyllable duration of Korean with respect to the positional effect. CD-

ROM Proceedings of ICSLP '96 (International Conference of SpeechLanguage Processing), FrP2L3.

Lee, Jin-Seong. 1992.Phonology and Sound Symbolism of KoreanIdeophones. Ph.D. dissertation. Indiana University.


14/15

14

Lee, Joo-Hee. 1995. The Affect of Korean Language Transfer in the

Production of English /r/ and /l/: Theoretical and PedagogicalConsiderations. Master's thesis, the University of Texas at Arlington.

Lee, Ki-Jeong. 1992. Topics in the Internal Structure of PhonologicalRepresentations: with Reference to External Evidence. Ph.D.

dissertation, the University of Minnesota.

Lee, Yongsung. 1993. Topics in the Vowel Phonology of Korean. Ph.D.dissertation. Indiana University.

Major, Roy C. 1994. Current trends in interlanguage phonology. In Mehmet

Yavas, ed.,First and Second Language Phonology, San Diego, CA:Singular Publishing Group, Inc., 181-204.

Major, Roy C. & Michael C. Faudree. 1996. Markedness universals and the

acquisition of voicing contrasts by Korean speakers of English. SSLA,Vol. 18, 69-90.

Nam, Ji Young & Bruce Southard. 1994. Orthographic representation and

resyllabification of English loan words in Korean.Language and

Speech, Vol. 37, No. 3, 259-281.Paik, Young-Ja. 1977. Pronunciation difficulties of Korean students learning

English as a second language. Ohak-Yonku / Language-Research, Vol.13, No. 2, 177-189.

Park, Duk-Soo. 1990.Lexicon and Syntax in Korean Phonology. Ph.D.dissertation. The University of Hawaii.

Park, Hye Bae. 1992.External Evidence for Representations, Rules, and

Constraints in Korean and Japanese. Ph.D. dissertation. StateUniversity of New York at Stony Brook.

Selinker, Larry. 1969. Language transfer. General Linguistics, 9, 67-92.

Selinker, Larry. 1972. Interlanguage.IRAL, 10, 209-231 (Reprinted inJack C. Richards, ed.,Error Analysis: Perspectives on SecondLanguage Acquisition, 1974, London: Longman, 31- 54.)

Selinker, Larry & Usha Lakshamanan. 1992. Language transfer and

fossilization: the multiple effects principle. In Susan M. Gass & Larry

Selinker, eds.,Language Transfer in Language Learning. Philadelphia,PA: John Benjamins Publishing Co.

Tak, Jin-Young. 1996. Variable vowel epenthesis in Korean-accented English.

Proceedings of the Annual Boston University Conference on LanguageDevelopment, 20, 2, 768-779.

Tajima, Keiichi & Robert Port & Jonathan Dalby. 1997. Effects of temporal

correction on intelligibility of foreign-accented English.Journal ofPhonetics, 25, 1-24.

Tarone, Elaine E. 1978. The phonology of interlanguage. In Jack C. Richards,

ed., Understanding Second and Foreign Language Learning: Issuesand Approaches, Rowley, MA: Newbury House Publishers, 15-33.

Tarone, Elaine E. 1987. Some influences on the syllable structure of

interlanguage phonology. In Georgette Ioup & Steven Weinberger,


15/15

15

.eds.,Interlanguage Phonology: the Acquisition of a Second Language

Sound System, Cambridge, MA: Newbury House Publishers, 232-247.

Weinberger, Steven H. 1987. The influence of linguistic context on syllable

simplification. In Georgette Ioup & Steven H. Weinberger, eds.,

Interlanguage Phonology: the Acquisition of a Second language SoundSystem, Cambridge, MA: Newbury House Publishers, Inc., 401-417.

Weinberger, Steven H. 1994. Functional and phonetic constraints on secondlanguage phonology. In Mehmet S. Yavas, ed.,First and Second

Language Phonology, San Diego, CA: Singular Publishing Group,Inc., 283-302.

Yang, D-W. 1978. Consonant influence on duration of vowels in Korean.

Linguistic Journal of Korea, 3, 33-60. (Cited in Kim & Jongman(1996).

the inter language phonology of korean english

Documents