THE INVISIBLE WEAPON

Telecommunications and International Politics 1851-1945

DANIEL R. HEADRICK

New York Oxford / O X F O R D U N I V E R S I T Y P R E S S / 1991

Contents

1 Telecommunications and International Relations / 3

Characteristics of Electrical Communications, 3 Telecommunications and World History, 5 International Telecommunications as a Field of Study, 8

2 The New Technology / 11

Origins of the Telegraph, 11 International Telegraphic Cooperation, 12 The First Submarine Telegraph Cables, 14 The Mediterranean Cables, 15 The First Atlantic Cables, 1858-1866, 17 The Red Sea Cable, 1856-1860, 19 Telegraphs to India, 1861-1870, 20 Conclusion, 24

3 The Expansion of the World Cable Network, 1866-1895 / 28

The Technology of Cables, 29 The Atlantic Cables, 33 The Cable Companies, 35 Cables to India and Australia, 40 Cable Rivalries in the West Indies and Latin America, 41 Across Russia to Japan, 43 Commercial Codes and the International Telegraph Union, 44 Conclusion, 46

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4 Telegraphy and Imperialism in the Late Nineteenth Century / 50

The Telegraph in India, 51 The Telegraph in Indochina, 53 Cables and News in the French West Indies, 54 The Telegraph in China, 56 The East African Cables, 62 The West African Cables, 64 Cables and Colonial Control, 66 Conclusion, 68

5 Crisis at the Turn of the Century, 1895-1901 / 73

Telegraphy and Diplomacy, 73 British Cable Strategy to 1898, 75 Telegraphic Delays and French Imperialism, 78 Germany and the Azores Affair, 80 The Spanish-American War, 82 The Fashoda Incident, 84 The British Strategic Cable Report of 1898, 85 The Boer War, 87

6 The Great Powers and the Cable Crisis, 1900-1913 / 93

The British Pacific Cable and the "All-Red" Routes, 93 British Cable Strategy, 1902-1914, 98 The American Cables, 99 France and the Cable Crisis, 102 Germany and the Cable Crisis, 103 Conclusion, 111

7 The Beginnings of Radio, 1895-1914 / 1 1 6

Marconi and the Birth of Wireless Telegraphy, 1895-1899, 117 The Marconi Monopoly and the Reaction of the Powers, 1900-1906, 119 Technological Change and Commercial Rivalries, 1900-1907, 121 The U.S. Navy and Radio to 1908, 124 The Continuous Wave, 1908-1914, 125 French Colonial Wireless, 1908-1914, 127 German Long-Distancc and Colonial Radio, 1906-1914, 129 The British Imperial Wireless Chain, 1911-1914, 130 Conclusion, 132

8 Cables and Radio in World War I / 138

The Jitters of July 1914, 139 Allied Attacks on German Communications, 140 German Attacks on Allied Communications, 141 Allied Communications during the War, 142 Censorship, 145 Propaganda, 148 Conclusion, 149

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Contents

9 Communications Intelligence in World War I /153

Government Cryptology before 1914, 154 Communications Intelligence on Land, 155 British Naval Interception and Direction-Finding, 157 German Codes and British Cryptanalysis in 1914, 159 British Naval Intelligence, 1915-1916, 162 The U-Boat War, 1917-1918, 164 German Communications Intelligence, 165 The Zimmerman Telegram, 167

10 Conflicts and Settlements, 1919-1923 / 173

The Paris Peace Conference of 1919, 174 The Washington Conferences of 1920-1922, 176 The Struggle over Cables to Latin America, 177 The Radio Corporation of America, 180 British Radio, 1919-1924, 183 German and French Radio to 1924, 185 Radio in Latin America and China, 187 Conclusion, 189

11 Technological Upheavals and Commercial Rivalries, 1924-1939 / 195

The Distribution of Cables in the World in 1923, 195 Cable Technology in the 1920s, 196 The New Cables, 1924-1929, 200 ITT and the Telephones, 201 The Shortwave Revolution, 202 The British Reaction, 203 French Colonial Shortwave, 205 The International Impact of Shortwave, 205 The British Communications Merger, 206 Responses to the British Merger, 208 The British Dilemma: Profits versus Security, 211 Conclusion, 212

12 Communications Intelligence in World War II /218

British and German Communications Intelligence to 1936, 219 Cipher Machines, 221 The Approach of War, 1936-1939, 222 The Outbreak of War, 1939-1940, 223 British Communications Intelligence in Wartime, 224 German Communications Intelligence in Wartime, 228 The Battles of Britain and North Africa, 1940-1942, 228 German Spies and Allied Radio Deception, 230 Funkspiele, Resistance, and the Normandy Landing, 233 The Soviet Rings, 235 Conclusion, 238

13 The War at Sea / 243

The Cable War, 243 Communications and Naval Warfare in the Atlantic, 246 The Battle of the Atlantic, 1939-1944, 249 American Communications Intelligence before Pearl Harbor, 250 From Pearl Harbor to Midway, 253 After Midway, 254

14 The Changing of the Guard / 260

The American Expansion, 261 Strategic Cables to North Africa and Europe, 263 The Retreat of Britain, 265 The Organization of Postwar Communications, 267 Conclusion, 268

15 Telecommunications, Information, and Security / 272

Bibliographical Essay / 275

Books on Submarine Telegraph Cables, 275 Books on Radio and Telecommunications, 276 Communications Intelligence, 277 Primary Sources, 278

Index / 279