American Jewish Archives Devoted to the preservation and study of American Jewish historical records

DIRECTOR: JACOB RADER MARCUS, PH.D.

Miltun and Hattie Kutz Distinguished Service Proftssor of American Jewish History

ASSOCIATE DIRECTOR: STANLEY F. CHYET, PH.D.

Associate Professor of American Jewish History

Published by THE AMERICAN JEWISH ARCHIVES, CINCINNATI, OHIO 4 5 2 2 0

on the Cincinnati campus of the HEBREW UNION COLLEGE - JEWISH INSTITUTE OF RELIGION

VOL. XIX NOVEMBER, 1967 NO. 2

In This Issue

Abba Hillel Silver: A Personal Memoir LEON I. FEUER 107

The late Dr. Silver, writes his friend and colleague, Rabbi Feuer, was "in his generation. . .primus inter pares." W h y and how that was so, Rabbi Feuer tells us in this compelling memoir about a man whose role in American Jewish history generally, and in the course of American Zionism in particular, it would be difficult to exaggerate.

Isaac Leeser : Centennial Reflections BERTRAM WALLACE KORN I z7

A century has passed since the death of Isaac Leeser, whose contribution, says Dr. Korn, "to the creation of a viable American Judaism" outweighs what "any other Jewish religious leader has ever given."

Jewish Marriage and Intermarriage in the Federal Period (1776-1 840) MALCOLM H. STERN lqz

The Mestizo Jews of Mexico SEYMOUR B. LIEBMAN 144

The Jewish connection with Mexico dates back to Cortks and the sixteenth century, but to what extent do the country's "Indian Jews" share that con- nection? Mr. Liebman's exploration of the problem cannot fail to interest those to whom the Latin American Jewish experience is a matter of more than incidental importance.

Book Review Schappes, Morris U., A Pictorial History of the Jews in the United States.

Reviewed by Louis Ruchames 175

A Note on the History of the Jews of St. Eustatius I. S. EMMANUEL 177

Index to Volume XIX

Illustrations Rabbi Abba Hillel Silver, page 1 2 I ; President Harry S. Truman and Frank L. Weil, page I 22; President Harry S. Truman and Eddie Jacobson, page I 39; Isaac Leeser, page 140; Lic. Laureano Ramirez, page 157; The Synagogue of Venta Prieta, page I 58.

Patrons for 1967

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ARTHUR FRIEDMAN 91 LEO FRIEDMAN 91 BERNARD STARKOFF

Published by THE AMERICAN JEWISH ARCHIVES on the Cincinnati campus of the HEBREW UNION COLLEGE -JEWISH

INSTITUTE OF RELIGION

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@ 1967 by the Amnican Jewish Archives

Abba Hillel Silver: A Personal Memoir

LEON I. F E U E R

M y first recollection of Abba Hillel Silver goes back to the age of sixteen. I had gone with my father, who had heard about his orator- ical prowess and admired the skill, to hear him preach. M y impression of that morning, even though I heard him innumerable times there- after, is vivid and indelible. The tall, lean, gaunt figure in the cutaway coat - he never permitted himself or me to wear any other apparel in the pulpit or on ceremonial occasions -the dark eyes on fire with passionate conviction, occasionally tightly closed as though peering intently inward, the arms outstretched, the long talon-like but beautifully molded fingers seeming to encompass the entire audience which sat tense and utterly silent for fear of breaking the hypnotic mood, the incomparably beautiful voice gliding over the tonal range: It seemed to me as though the ancient prophet of Tekoa had been reincarnated before my very eyes. The awe of that moment has never really left me.

I was then beginning my first year at Western Reserve Uni- versity in Cleveland, lukewarmly intending to study law in the absence of any real, convinced choice of profession, but unable to shake off the suggestion planted in my mind a few years earlier by my mother that I consider the rabbinate. That Sunday morning probably decided me. M y family had in the meantime joined the Temple. My father, no more than I, could resist the spell of that young - although he never really seemed young - overpowering personality. H e suggested that I solicit Rabbi Silver's advice. Neither of us had ever even heard of the Hebrew Union College.

Rabbi Silver - I have never been able to bring myself to address him or even think of him in more familiar terms - neither encour- aged nor discouraged me. In retrospect, it occurs to me that, having been in the ministry barely four years, he was hardly in a position,

Dr. Leon I. Feuer, a past president of the Central Conference of American Rabbis, is spiritual leader o f Toledo's Collingwood Avenue Temple (Shomer Emunim).

107

or perhaps he did not want, to give such crucial and definitive advice. His attitude was that if I was determined to prepare for the rabbinate - the decision had to be exclusively mine - he would help and guide me. H e recommended a Hebrew teacher, suggested that I take some courses in Jewish history being offered by his friend and neighbor, the Conservative Rabbi Solomon Goldrnan, with whom there would later be an irreparable and regrettable break, and offered to place at my disposal the annual Temple Sisterhood scholarship. Without this financial help, I could not even have entertained the idea of going out of town to school.

The following September, 1920, at the age of seventeen and in my Sophomore university year, I entered the Hebrew Union College. I was the first of a long series of rabbinical candidates whom Silver sponsored. Probably no other rabbi sponsored as many. M y contacts with him during my student years were quite regular, and - as far as that was possible with this, to me, awesome, silently strong, and not always outgoing man - fairly intimate. During midyear and Passover vacations, I would lunch with him at least once or twice. These meetings followed a set and rather curious pattern. There would be a few laconic inquiries about the progress of my studies. H e would then unfold a newspaper, often one of the daily Yiddish papers then being published and of which he was a regular and careful reader, and generally leave me to my food and our separate thoughts. H e almost seemed to take a special kind of delight in flaunting that esoteric Yiddish type before the gaze of the non-Jewish diners around us. It seemed to be a kind of symbolic act expressive of his fierce Jewish pride. I soon got used to this procedure - I suppose indulging my own pride in being in the company of this already prominent public figure - and so I did not feel neglected. There was always a sort of unspoken communion between us, at least I liked to think so, which did not require much verbal communication. During the summer months, when he was often abroad with his family, I conducted Sabbath services and officiated at funerals. I dared to hope, and I was not wrong, that this was my preparation for my later association with him in the rab- binate of the Cleveland Temple.

During Passover of my Senior year, I was summoned to a

ABBA HILLEL SILVER : A PERSONAL MEMOIR 1°9

luncheon meeting with him and four or five members of the Temple board. I suspected the reason for the occasion, but I could not be certain, since I had not been informed. There was some informal conversation, not too much of it relevant to the purpose at hand. T h e meeting, so far as I could tell, was largely devoted to eating, and he did not let much interfere with that pleasure, but when it broke up and we found ourselves on the sidewalk outside, Rabbi Silver tuned to me, proffered his hand, and congratulated me upon just having been elected his assistant. I was, if one can describe it that way, pleasantly and excitedly taken aback and mumbled some- thing probably incoherent in response. I had been through an experience which was to become typical of our lifetime relationship and certainly characteristic of Abba Hillel Silver. H e had not consulted my wishes in the matter. H e had assumed, correctly, of course, that I wanted to be his assistant. Nor, as far as I could gather, had there been any lengthy consultation with the board. I was to be his first assistant. H e simply told them that I was his choice. T h e rest was formality. Their function was to get acquainted with me, not to approve of me.

I dwell upon this episode because it is somewhat revelatory of his attitude toward the laymen of his congregation. H e was often accused of being arrogant and high-handed with them. I think this is an oversimplification. Once having made up his mind, he had supreme confidence in his own judgment, particularly in the areas of Jewish life where he considered himself the expert and, therefore, the authority. H e was the leader, laymen were the followers, and where he believed a principle was at stake, he seldom brooked opposition. That was likewise later true of his relationship with his peers in the rabbinate and in the political arena of the Zionist move- ment. H e feared no man and no opponent, no matter how highly placed. When his eyes flashed anger and his voice seethed with indignation, the opposition generally wilted and faded away. It was only in the Zionist world, where the views of others were equally dogged and the tactics were rough, that he was not always, although remarkably often, the winner. H e did not know how to compromise with or to conciliate his opponents. This may have been a weakness, for his adversaries often became his enemies, determined at the

opportune moment to strike back. This was the case with Stephen S. Wise, Chaim Weizmann, David Ben Gurion, and Nahum Gold- mann. Whether it was a public weakness, history will have to judge. He was far more frequently than not vindicated by events. His talent for making enemies was, of course, the reason why he failed to achieve his ambition to become the formally elected leader of World Zionism. After a short period of frustration, he was quite able to adjust himself. He had no obsession about office holding. If official honors came to him, he accepted them as his due. If not, that was that. He wasted very little time brooding. Though a very complex person in many ways, he was in this way, as Mrs. Silver once commented, a very simple and uncomplicated man. But we are getting a bit ahead of the story.

I served with Rabbi Silver at the Cleveland Temple from June, 1927, until January, 1935. While there was no real practical differ- ence in my status, he insisted that I bear the title Minister of Religious Education; he suggested that, in view of my youth - I was twenty- four - this would give me an added aura of authority with the faculty and supervisors, most of whom were older. He apparently later changed his mind about this, because none of my successors bore the title. He also insisted that I must have an automobile, and since I did not have the money with which to purchase one, he loaned me three hundred dollars for which he later refused repay- ment, brushing me off with the remark that he did not recollect the loan. The car was a used Chevrolet, and I have fond memories of that automobile with its defective, whistling clutch. I courted my wife in it, and when he officiated at our wedding in 1929 during my second year with him, he was visibly pleased with my choice. He had confirmed her, therefore he approved of her, and a kind of camaraderie grew up between them. One of her ways to his affec- tions was through her ability to cook and to consume potato pan- cakes, and between them they were able to make unbelievable quantities disappear. He was a gargantuan eater, and at midnight after an emotion-packed address or a tension-filled meeting he could

ABBA HILLEL SILVER: A PERSONAL MEMOIR 1 1 1

and did frequently sit down to a full meal without any untoward result or any ill effect on his sleep. This ability to relax almost instantaneously accounts for the amazing and almost profligate way in which he could discharge energy in speaking, working, and traveling, especially during the crucial years of the Zionist struggle for the establishment of the Jewish State. He paid a price, of course, in the illness of his last few years and in his sudden and unexpected death. But in those earlier years he often teased me about my more delicate digestion. It was a favorite joke of his that "they don't make rabbis like him anymore." Do they? I doubt it. He had a robust sense of humor to match his appetite, and was especially fond of Jewish dialect and Yiddish stories, often bursting into second and third rounds of laughter which convulsively shook his large frame.

As I have already indicated, he was exceedingly generous in financial matters. He could not resist a bearded shliach or a Hebrew book vendor. He had the means and never spared them. This may have been a kind of defiant reaction to a poverty-ridden boyhood on the East Side of New York and virtually penniless years as a student. He was always a lavish tipper. His contributions to charity were unusually large. He and his family lived very comfortably and took almost yearly trips to Europe or Palestine, later Israel. He must have made during his lifetime at least twoscore visits to the Holy Land, and a trip there always seemed to reinvigorate his strength and refresh his spirit. Travel generally was a source of intellectual replenishment for him and a means for satisfying his avid curiosity about history and other lands. Some of his best sermons drew their material from the observations and impressions he garnered on these trips.

I spent nearly eight years at The Temple. The length of my service was not unusual, though it may seem so in these days of two- and three-year apprenticeships. This was the average tenure for Silver's assistants. It will not be easy, but I must try to telescope my recollection of those years into a few vivid impressions of the remarkable and also in ways strange personality with whom I had become associated during the formative years of my professional life. His influence over me was, and over the years would increasingly

1 1 2 AMERICAN JEWISH ARCHIVES, NOVEMBER, 1967

become, deep and pervasive, conscious and subconscious. M y views about Jewish life, about human problems generally, my philosophy of the rabbinate, my reactions to people and events, were immutably fixed during those years. I am aware now that my days at the College had simply been a prelude to this period of my real training for the rabbinate. There was very little that was planned or formal about my learning. Rabbi Silver never had enough spare time for that. The experience was for me rather a kind of sustained mood, an intellectual environment, a spirit that I was expected to absorb. It consisted largely of listening, observing, learning what to do or to refrain from doing and when. Whatever tasks were assigned to me had to be executed as nearly perfectly as possible. H e was very intolerant of mistakes or errors of judgment. Youth and inexperience were no excuse. Even so seemingly trivial a matter as a misprint in the weekly bulletin which I edited could arouse in him a Jovian and to me fearsome wrath. I am told that as the years and assistants wore on, he grew more amiable about his colleagues' shortcomings. I was like the oldest son who paves the way for his brothers.

STARCHED COLLARS AND BLACK TIES

This is probably the place to dispose of a myth about Silver which I have frequently run across, that he really did not care much about his rabbinical vocation or his congregation, but merely ex- ploited them as bases from which to pursue his career as platform orator, public personality, and Zionist leader. There could be no greater distortion of the truth. Every Sabbath morning when the upper grades of the Religious School were in session -on Sundays he was in the pulpit - and prior to the Sabbath morning service, he would visit classrooms and after the service would present me with a list of critical notes about teachers, texts, classroom methods, and even the temperature in the rooms. He believed profoundly in Jewish education, with considerable emphasis upon the Hebrew language, as the chief instrumentality of Jewish survival. H e was an advocate of straight, forceful, well-informed teaching and business- like learning, a program which he personally applied to his own sons who, during the year as well as during their summer vacations, had

ABBA HlLLEL SILVER: A PERSONAL MEMOIR 1 1 3

to spend a number of hours daily studying Hebrew sources. He had nothing but contempt for "projects" and playmethod pedagogy, and the currently popular proposition that the school was a place for "pleasant Jewish experience" often aroused his ireful scorn.

Every program of every Temple organization, adult or youth, was carefully scrutinized and had to have clear relevance to what he considered the main business of a synagogue - the teaching of Jewish values and their applicability to current issues. He was uncompromisingly opposed to the institutional or synagogue center philosophy. Activities for their own sake or for their "folk" value had no appeal for him. He might be said to have been at the opposite end of the spectrum from the Reconstructionists. Because of his intense Jewish nationalism, he was certainly not a "classical" Reformer. Nevertheless, he shared with that school the conviction that Judaism as a religio-ethical way of thinking and living was the central fact of human existence, superior to all other religious and philosophic systems. Rational and pragmatic about most matters, he possessed more than a touch of mystical passion about this view and about his God faith. Even his Zionism must be viewed in this light, as a perusal of his writings and addresses will clearly reveal. It was the incarnation of the Messianic drive of the people of Israel, rooted in a long past of racial experience and dreaming, for spiritual hegemony in the world.

He exercised the same scrupulous care with regard to the selec- tion of congregational personnel to man the boards and committees of The Temple, Brotherhood, and Sisterhood, as he did about activities and programs. No matter how occupied he might be with larger and more urgent affairs, he took a personal hand in their choice. Ability, popular following, tested loyalty to the institution and the effort to maintain family continuity in the congregation were the chief criteria. It might be said with some justification, although not altogether, for Jews are not that easily regimented, that these people simply served as rubber stamps for Silver policies. On the other side of the coin, the result clearly was a congregation and a program functioning with an unusual degree of smoothness, effici- ency, and cooperation, with a minimum of internal bickering and politicking, and with all eyes focussed on the main objectives. There

was no question, of course, as to who was the boss of the total operation: the rabbi. It has been said of Silver that to him people were secondary to causes. In a sense this is true. I myself heard him on several occasions paraphrase that sentiment. It was not that he was lacking in the softer human emotions and sympathies. That would be a grave misjudgment, as I have personal cause to know. But he had sternly disciplined himself to maintain outer calm and compo- sure - inwardly he was as tensely wound as a watchspring - and the ability to reason logically and carefilly to face the many crises and emergencies of his public life. He believed firmly that people, especially Jews -and he was his own hardest taskmaster - were put upon earth to serve great causes and to achieve noble goals and that, therefore, they had to be prepared to face and to endure whatever exigencies or hardships ensued. He expected this kind of service of me and of his other associates. I think the secret of his influence over us, the reason for the lengthy terms we remained with him, is to be found in the fact that he exacted nothing of us by way of work that he did not expect of himself, sometimes manyfold. Not one of his assistants ever worked as hard as the senior rabbi.

I learned a great deal about preaching from him. Yet I cannot recall that he ever reviewed in detail the contents of a sermon with me. Just a suggestion here and there, mainly his theory that during the first five years of preaching sermons should be carefully written out and memorized. The vocabulary thus acquired, he contended, would provide the flexibility that would enable one to become emancipated from the written manuscript, to speak from notes or outline. The technique has worked, at least for me. He himself took sheaves of notes into the pulpit or onto the platform, but so great was his mastery of words, of timing, of dramatic pause, of voice inflection, that the audience was rarely, if ever, conscious of their presence. I even heard him read addresses or papers, at the rab- binical conferences, for example, so effectively that he could make his hearers forget that he was doing so. He was neither particularly critical of my preaching nor offered any special commendation. He always took my achievements, whatever they may have been, more or less for granted. I do not remember receiving a note of congratu- lation from him when I was elected vice-president of the Central

ABBA HILLEL SILVER : A PERSONAL MEMOIR " 5

Conference of American Rabbis. I think that he just assumed I would be elected, and that he would have been surprised, if not disappointed, had I not been.

He was very insistent that religious services should be conducted with the proper dignity and solemnity, that rituals like confirmation should be executed as perfectly and impressively as possible. T o this day I follow the habit, acquired from him, of drilling confirma- tion classes until they have reached the peak of mastery. He often said it was much better to work to avoid slipups and to worry about them ahead of time than to regret them later. Generally his view was that it was not new liturgies we needed, but the reading of prayers in the kind of earnest and exalting way that could not help but uplift the mood of the worshippers. He himself conducted every service as though it were fresh, revelatory, almost with a Hasidic touch of intensity - with kavwnah, which was one of his favorite words. He constantly urged me to read, to study, and to write. It was during my service in Cleveland that I collaborated on the preparation of a confirmation manual and a two-volume anthology of post-biblical literature, begun as experimental texts in our school. I was forced to acquire the habit of painstaking attention to detail. He simply would not endure sloppiness or shoddiness in work, in personal appearance, or even in the condition of the Temple building. He had a strong sense of the dignity of the pulpit. He insisted on the same formal attire in the pulpit, for weddings, and for funerals: cutaway, striped trousers, starched collar, and black tie. It is not an apocryphal story that in an effort to introduce some variety into his dress, his wife once asked a haberdasher for the "loudest" black ties in his stock. He once looked rather crossly askance at me because I went into the pulpit with a black and white patterned tie. His devotion to his rabbinical duties set a pattern for me which I have not always been able to emulate, but which, when I have fsiled, has always given me a severe case of bad conscience. He often preached with a high temperature, being subject to frequent bouts of colds and sore throat. During the hectic period of the I ~ ~ o ' s , when he was leading the Zionist campaign for American support and was compelled to spend nearly every week from Monday to Thursday in New York and Washington, he insisted upon being home except in

emergencies every weekend, to meet with his confirmation class which he disliked missing, and to occupy his pulpit on Sunday mornings. I wondered then how he stood up under the strain. I know now what the cost was. I have often been amused by the disbelieving reaction of colleagues when I would tell them that it was his weekly custom to inspect the Temple building from furnace room to dome, and God help the staff if everything was not in place and spic-and-span.

One of the difficulties - perhaps the only unpleasant aspect - of my stay in Cleveland was the strained situation which existed between him and some of his local rabbinical colleagues, first Solomon Goldman and then Barnett R. Brickner. I sometimes found myself in the middle, because I liked both of them. I thought that he was at times unnecessarily unyielding and stubborn in both of those situations, and sometimes I even summoned up enough nerve to say so. As is always the case in these tangled, personal rivalries and relationships, it is impossible to assess any share of the blame one way or the other. Part of it was certainly due to the psychological difficulty with which a rabbi who is himself quite capable struggles when he finds himself in the same community with an outstanding personality like Silver whom he cannot hope to overtake in popular esteem and prominence. So he falls victim to the temptation to indulge in acts of petty jealousy and backbiting. As a completely overshadowed assistant, I could be sympathetic at times - but not always. They should have reconciled themselves to the fact that in his generation he was primus inter pares. Perhaps he should have been more generous in his understanding of them.

I do not believe that I would ever have known whether my service during those years had been satisfactory to him. I was confident that there was a basic understanding and affection between us, but I was never really certain how he felt until the night of the farewell . dinner tendered me by the Temple Brotherhood. During his address he was clearly swallowing a few lumps, and one or two tears trickled down his cheeks. When the tender of the pulpit of Colling-

ABBA HILLEL SILVER: A PERSONAL MEMOIR "7

wood Avenue Temple in Toledo, to which he had recommended me without my knowledge, had come and I solicited his advice, his response was that it would be much more convenient for him if I remained, but that, on the other hand, he felt that it would be much better for me to accept, that the time had come for me to strike out on my own. When I told him that some of my friends, including members of the College faculty, had advised me against accepting because that congregation had a rather poor reputation, his characteristic reply was: "There are neither good nor poor congregations. Jews are the same everywhere. There are only good or poor leaders."

In January, 1935, he installed me as rabbi of Collingwood Avenue Temple. Thereafter he was with me and I with him on virtually every important milestone in our professional lives. Our families spent several summer vacations together in a rustic camp in Maine to which he was very fond of going when he did not go abroad. There he could relax and become informal enough even to wear a soft-collar shirt. He enjoyed walking, swimming, card playing in the evening, and most especially fishing. He loved to boast of his prowess as an angler. Outdoor picnics were a regular feature, and he always insisted that our wives forage for the makings of potato pancakes. Our guide became an expert in Jewish cookery. A regular part of each day was spent in perusing the daily press, study, writing, and his sons7 Hebrew lessons. The kindling of the Sabbath lights and the recitation of the Kiddush were always observed by our two families in the Silver cabin before we went to the public dining room.

In 1943, he assumed the chairmanship, during the most dreadful and dangerous period of modern Jewish history, of the American Zionist Emergency Council, the action arm of the various cooperating Zionist organizations and groups in the United States. He was to lead the effort to win American support for the abolition of the British White Paper of 1939 and then for the establishment of a Jewish Commonwealth in Palestine. This was to be the climactic and, both physically and emotionally, the most desperately difficult period of his life and Jewish leadership. I do not propose to go into any detailed recital or analysis of the events of those years, except

perhaps as a different perspective may be cast upon them, for some curious twisting and rewriting of history have emanated in connec- tion with them from certain quarters. How he swung the temporarily assembled American Jewish Conference to the support of the aim of Jewish political independence, despite the opposition of the leaders of the American Jewish Committee and others, is a matter of record. His forthright public criticism of the Roosevelt Administration for its inaction in the face of the European Jewish tragedy is also clearly on the record. He did not altogether trust Franklin D. Roosevelt's public professions of support f i r the Zionist movement, and said so publicly. The recent publication of State Department papers dealing with the Roosevelt-lbn Saud consultations amply justifies the position which he took. He was severely critical of Zionist leaders, whom he described as being in the pockets of Tammany Hall and the Demo- cratic Party. He made strenuous and successful efforts to cement personal friendships and to win political, nonpartisan support from both political parties. This gave rise to another Silver myth, the amusing notion that he had become a Republican conservative because he opposed the third-term candidacy of Roosevelt to support Wendell L. Willkie and later endorsed Dwight D. Eisenhower. This is indeed an ironic and very wide of the mark estimate of a man who had voted for Norman Thomas, Robert M. LaFollette, Alfred E. Smith, and Roosevelt himself for two terms; who through- out his life had been an advocate of radical social and economic reforms, and in the last years of his life was even charged with being pro-soviet. In this struggle for Jewish statehood, Silver also strongly opposed as futile the conventional, shtadlanut, back door approach of Jewish leadership, and argued for and succeeded in developing mass Jewish pressure upon the United States Government. That this could be done in war time was, to put it mildly, phenomenal. Newspapermen and political figures in Washington were unable to contain their astonishment at the effectiveness of it.

The plight of European Jewry and the desperate urgency for opening the gates of Palestine brought Silver and me back into intimate daily association. He requested the board of my temple to

ABBA HILLEL SILVER: A PERSONAL MEMOIR "9

grant me a year's leave of absence, so that I could become the Washington representative of the American Zionist Emergency Council. He spent part of every week with me, in Washington, discussing the Jewish situation with leaders of the Executive and Legislative branches of the government, the press, and other influ- ential personalities and directing there and in New York the strategy of the campaign by which he hoped to mobilize American public and official support for combatting the British White Paper and for a Jewish State. W e organized branches of the American Zionist Emergency Council in scores of American cities and towns, con- centrating on larger urban centers where there were substantial numbers of Jewish voters with whom senators and representatives running for election had to reckon. Then we arranged to have bipartisan resolutions proclaiming American sponsorship for the objective of the establishment of a Palestine Jewish Commonwealth introduced in both the Senate and the House. Our local councils were charged with the task of organizing their Jewish communities and of obtaining help and moral support for our cause from non- Jewish sources -the press, civic and church groups, and academic circles. T o aid in this general effort, we sponsored nationally, with numerous local chapters, an organization known as the American Christian Palestine Committee.

I went to Washington in the fall of 1943. My job was to inter- view, to solicit, and to organize the support of senators and con- gressmen, to pave the way for interviews by Silver of the more influential Congressional and governmental leaders, to arrange for local deputations to come to Washington to speak with their representatives, and, along with my colleagues in the Emergency Council who were operating out of our New York office, to stim- ulate the sending of messages from local communities to the national capital. I also arranged for the presentation of our case before the Foreign Relations Committee of the Senate and the Foreign Affairs Committee of the House.*

* Parenthetically, I should like to make at least this passing reference in gratitude to the enormous assistance which we received from the late Senator Robert A. Taft, whose contribution to the Zionist cause has been unjustly obscured and should someday in all fairness be brought to historical light.

It was during this year and those which followed that I really had an opportunity to gauge Silver's ability as a popular leader. His single-minded devotion to the task is simply indescribable. He traveled constantly, addressed literally hundreds of meetings, inter- viewed scores of prominent personages, and fought like a tiger to make the cause and his judgment of events prevail. His political acumen and sense of timing were faultless. Again and again things happened and people reacted as he said they would. Not only his sweeping eloquence, but the sheer logic and cogency of his argu- ments, as well as his mastery of the facts, were irresistible. I recall particularly his appearance to testify before the Foreign Relations Committee of the Senate. The impressive figure, the compelling voice, the earnest argument, the verbalizing of the desperate plight of the Jewish people, held that group utterly spellbound for more than an hour. Afterwards, senators from all over the country, in agreement or not, crowded around to congratulate him on his presentation. Nevertheless, the Resolution was tabled for the time being. Testifying both to the efficacy of our organized efforts and the loyal response of American Jewry, both that year and in 1946 when the Joint Resolution was finally passed, hundreds of thousands of messages poured into the mailrooms of congressmen. One Washington reporter told me that he had never seen a more efficiently organized lobby in operation. Responding to the urging of the British Government, Army Chief of Staff George C. Marshall took the unprecedented step of going up on the hill to request that the Palestine resolution be tabled. His argument was that it would cause an Arab uprising which would hamper the war effort. Using personal pressure, President Roosevelt persuaded several New York Zionist leaders to come personally to Washington and to testify before the Foreign Relations Committee that they did not think it would matter too much if the Resolution was postponed for a time. I do not believe that I have ever seen Silver so agitated as on that day. He paced back and forth, complexion white, teeth clenched, lips pale and trembling. He literally regarded them as traitors to the cause. My own reaction was akin to that which I had felt some weeks previously, when hearings of the House Foreign Affairs Committee were in progress, on seeing American Arabs and spokes- men for the American Council for Judaism in whispered consulta-

Rabbi -\bba Hillcl Silvcr Prescnring thc casc for a honicla~id for rhc )e~ \ . s in Palcsrinc

beforc rhc Unircd Narions, 194;

ABBA HILLEL SILVER : A PERSONAL MEMOIR 1 2 3

tion. The Resolution was passed about a year and a half later after the exertion of considerably more political pressure during the next Congressional elections of 1946 and the influx of a phenomenal number of additional messages both from Jews and from non-Jews. Except for the intervention of the Executive Branch, there can be little doubt that it would have passed the first time around.

Silver was now convinced that there had to be a showdown on policy and leadership, and that the only way to achieve it was to capture direct control of the largest of the Zionist bodies, the Zionist Organization of America. He resigned his charmanship of the American Zionist Emergency Council to campaign for the presidency of the Z. 0. A. Emanuel Neumann, his lifelong friend and in those days his second-in-command; Harold Manson and Harry Shapiro, who had been officials of the Emergency Council; and I managed the campaign, visiting Zionist districts and debating the opposition verbally and in the Jewish press. Silver was over- whelmingly victorious at the Zionist Convention of 1945. The Jewish masses demonstrated that they were with him and supported his policy of popular political expression and action. "Put not your trust in princes," was the rallying slogan. The opposition literally melted away. W e were now preparing to go to the Zionist Congress in Basle where, in 1946, the battle was to be joined on a larger front. The issue again was whether to engage in militant, public agitation on a worldwide scale including Palestine or to follow the Weizmann policy of reposing confidence in Winston S. Churchill's promises and in the good faith of the British Government; whether to attempt to achieve a united front of the Haganah, the Irgun, and other groups which were conducting the struggle for independence and for a Palestine open to hundreds of thousands of Jewish refugees, or to follow Weizmann's advice to placate the British by condemning the "terrorists." Silver led the Z. 0. A. delegation, and I was acting in the capacity of delegation whip. What transpired at the Congress is history. In a superlative address, he castigated British policy, scored Weizmann's reliance on British friendship, and pleaded with the Congress not to denounce the militants, whom he characterized as Jewish patriots. Repudiated by the Congress vote against him, Weizmann had no choice but to withdraw from the presidency.

124 AMERICAN JEWISH ARCHIVES, NOVEMBER, 1967

Silver emerged as chairman of the American Section of the Jewish Agency. He was now the undisputed leader of American Zionism and one of the most powerful Zionist leaders, perhaps the most powerful, in the world. The climactic hour of his career came with his dramatic and unforgettable presentation of the case for the Jewish State before the General Assembly of the United Nations in 1947, and then the two-thirds majority vote by which the Assem- bly adopted the report of its Palestine Commission setting up Jewish and Arab States. It was just prior to and following this epochal event that Silver made one of his few errors in political judgment and tactics. Afier his victories in the United States and at the Zionist Congress, he could have placed his supporters in every key Zionist position in this country. W e who were his advisers strongly urged him to do so. W e knew that David Ben Gurion, who had emerged after independence as the head of the government in Israel, feared that, if Silver became the president of the World Zionist Organiza- tion, he might decide to settle in Israel and become a dangerous political rival. Whether such an ambition was ever in Silver's mind is unknown, at least to me. My own guess is that he was quite ambivalent about it. At any rate, Silver decided to conciliate his erstwhile opponents by supporting them for a number of crucial leadership posts. The complicated details of the manoeuvering which followed need not be recounted. Using his American sup- porters, still smarting from their previous defeats, Ben Gurion took advantage of the earliest opportunity on a difference of policy to see to it that Silver was outvoted and thus forced from public Zionist leadership. I was with him on the night of that vote, taking the train back to Cleveland with him. He said very little. He was too stunned and unbelieving of what had happened so suddenly. I had an instinctive feeling that he was also in some measure re- lieved. The difficult decision about the future course of his life had been taken out of his hands.

In the meantime, of course, the State of Israel had been proclaimed and established in 1948 and the War of Independence fought and won. This is as good a place as any to dispose of a legend assidu-

ABBA HILLEL SILVER: A PERSONAL MEMOIR 12.5

ously cultivated by Silver's opponents, by President Harry S. Truman whom it suited, and by the B7nai B'rith which benefited from the public relations angle, namely, that it was B'nai B'rith member and haberdasher Eddie Jacobson's friendship with the President which caused him to defy the opposition of the State Department and to recognize Israel on the day of its proclamation as a state. Those kinds of political gestures simply do not take place. This was no miracle stemming from the coincidence that a man from Missouri named Truman happened to be President and his erstwhile partner and friend, Jacobson, happened to be a Zionist. What occurred was more prosaic but far more in line with the political realities. Truman was a candidate for President. He knew that the election of 1948 would be, as it was, uncomfortably close. He suspected that the Jewish vote in the populous states would be crucial. He knew all about, and as a politician respected, even if he was often visibly annoyed by, the pressure of the tremendously effective and responsive nationwide organization which Silver had created. He had an opportunity, by recognizing Israel, to make a grab for those votes, State Department or not. He saw his main chance and he took it. It was as simple and natural as that.

Silver settled back in Cleveland, as I had two or three years earlier in Toledo, to be what he was born to be, a rabbi. He wanted to write, and produced several fine books. Although no longer holding office, he was still the most prestigious Zionist personality in the country. He attended Zionist conventions and was carefully consulted on policy and leadership. Whether he hoped for a come- back and whether this was behind his constant urging of me to become a candidate for the presidency of the 2.0. A., I cannot tell. This counsel he kept to himself. He visited Israel frequently, and was immensely heartened by her remarkable growth and achievement. Relations benveen him and the prime minister, Ben Gurion, at first cold and hostile, later became more formally cor- rect, and in the last years of Silver's life there was something of a reconciliation between them. Because of his known friendship with President Eisenhower and Secretary of State John Foster Dulles, his services were often utilized, especially during the Suez crisis, by the Israeli Government and its embassy in Washington.

During the final years of his life, he traveled widely, wrote con- stantly, continued his studies in the Hebrew books which he loved so much, and enjoyed his family and the growing roster of his grandchildren. The last large project in which he engaged, sig- nificantly, was the expansion of the physical facilities of The Temple. He was especially interested in its lovely museum of Jewish art and antiquities. His formerly robust health and consti- tution had declined, unquestionably the price of the severe strain which he had placed upon them in the Zionist effort. He preached, but less frequently, and took a less active part in the administration of congregational activity, being content to leave this in the hands of his son Daniel, who had now joined him in the rabbinate of The Temple and in whose maturing abilities he took great pride. In January, I 962, I represented the Central Conference of American Rabbis on the occasion of the seventieth birthday tribute tendered him by the congregation and the Cleveland community. It was a remarkable outpouring of affection and esteem. An overflow con- gregation attended the Sunday morning service, and that evening the huge ballroom of the Cleveland Hotel was filled to capacity. As program chairman of the C. C. A. R., I also persuaded him to make what in my heart I felt would be his final appearance before that body which he had also served as president from 1945 to 1947. He was very reluctant, because public appearances were becoming a difficult chore for him as well as a severe drain on his emotional resources. The program was to take the form of a dialogue on the subject of their rabbinical careers between him and Solomon B. Freehof, his distinguished classmate and lifelong intimate friend. I believe that most of the large audience of rabbis who attended that evening at the Conference of 1963 in Philadelphia will recall it as an unforgettable experience. I last saw Rabbi Silver alive on Sukkoth of that year, when our grandchildren were consecrated, a service in which Daniel and he, my son and I, participated. On Thanks- giving Daniel called to tell me that his father had passed away. I recited the Kaddish at the graveside committal service, the final duty his first assistant was called upon to perform and the end of nearly half a century of association.

Isaac Leeser: Centennial Reflections

B E R T R A M W A L L A C E K O R N

When Isaac Leeser died in Philadelphia on February I, 1868, Mayer Sulzberger, his young disciple - destined to become the first professing Jew to serve on the Philadelphia bench, a leader in such Jewish institutions as the American Jewish Committee, and the first important American collector of Hebrew manuscripts and incunabula - wrote of his teacher in these eulogistic terms:

We honestly believe, that since the great Mendelssohn, no one follower of the Law of Moses, either in Europe or America, has done so much and so successfully to vindicate Jacob's sacred inheritance when aspersed, to diffuse it when neglected, to promote its study when it had almost died out, as our lamented friend. There have been greater Talmudists, there may have been more eloquent orators and more gracefbl writers; but among them all, there has been no greater genius, no better Jew, and no purer man than Isaac Leeser.'

Sulzberger's tribute reflected the sorrowing, zealous adulation of a young student-assistant for his master; but it missed the mark by far. Leeser ought not to have been compared to the learned, philo- sophical Moses Mendelssohn. It would have been equally erroneous to have matched him against Samson Raphael Hirsch, Abraham Geiger, Leopold Zunz, or any other magisterial European Jewish spokesman of the day. Leeser was in no sense a creative scholar or a profound thinker. If he had been either, he would have been ut- terly out of place in the American milieu. Frustration would have driven him mad. The crisis in nineteenth-century European Judaism required the development of towering academicians who strove to interpret or reinterpret traditional religious values in terms of con-

Dr. Bertram Wallace Korn is rabbi of Reform Congregation Keneseth Israel in Phila- delphia, and a past president of the American Jewish Historical Society. He presently serves as Visiting Professor of American Jewish History at the Hebrew Union College - Jewish Institute of Religion in New York City.

I Occident, XXV (I 867-68), pp. 600-60 I .

temporary philosophical ideas and intellectual categories. The prob- lem of the Jew in America demanded a different kind of direction. Leeser responded to that need. Sulzberger would have been more accurate if he had described Leeser as the first American Jewish leader who attempted to teach American Jews how to survive as Jews in a land where Judaism had not yet established roots.

But Sulzberger was too young to comprehend Leeser's achieve- ments. He viewed him on the level of intellectuality, rather than in the perspective of historic growth. Sulzberger had no personal knowledge of the sterile, unpromising condition of American Juda- ism in 1829, when young Isaac Leeser had responded to the call of Philadelphia's Mikveh Israel Congregation to become its hazean (cantor-minister). There were then ten to fifteen thousand Jews in the country, served by perhaps a dozen congregations: two per community in New York City, Philadelphia, and Charleston; one each in Baltimore, Richmond, Savannah, Cincinnati, and New Orleans. There was not even one "ordained" rabbi in the entire country. A few laymen had been well trained in traditional lore and law. Israel Baer Kursheedt, of New York City, was the most learned Jew in the land. But such men as he occupied no official position; perhaps they did not accept formal responsibility for the advancement of Judaism because they thought it hopeless even to attempt to stem the tide of ignorance, apathy, and assimilation which were characteristic of the American experience of Jews. Intermarriage was rampant not only among native-born Jews of the second and third generations, but even among newly arrived immigrants. This was a sign of the widespread feeling that Judaism had no future in this new society, that it had no role to play in the lives of the young adventurers who were coming to the United States to build a new being for themselves through their own grit and resourcefulness.

A few lay enthusiasts had attempted to arouse some interest in the creation of a Jewish boarding school which would assure the survival of Judaism through the indoctrination of the younger gen- eration in the traditional learning. Mordecai Manuel Noah, the journalist-politician of New York City, Moses Elias Levy, the Florida real-estate investor, and Jacob S. Solis, a devoted Jew whose

ISAAC LEESER : CENTENNIAL REFLECTIONS 129

efforts to make a living through storekeeping in various towns met with little success, were among those who tried to establish such an educational institution, but they spoke to deaf ears. The religious schools which were associated with the existing congregations were notable for the ineffectiveness of their instruction and for the indif- ference of most of their graduates to Jewish learning and ceremonial practice. At Charleston in 1824, the first attempt to create a new kind of Jewish congregation, stimulated by reports of reforms in theology and practice which had taken place in Europe and by the example of rationalistic Unitarian worship in America, floundered in a morass of practical problems: the congregation had no zealous, dynamic professional leader to guide its development; its amateur spokesman, the educator-dramatist-journalist Isaac Harby, left town to seek a better living in the North; although much interest in the experiment was evinced by liberal Christians, Jews in Charleston and other American communities looked askance at "The Reformed Society of Israelites." Most of the early efforts to confront the problems of Jewish education and adjustment met with apathy or hostility.

The situation of European Judaism was bad enough: the struggle against deeply ingrained prejudice and repression; the lack of edu- cational and occupational preparation of the Jewish masses for en- trance into contemporary society; the conviction of wealthy, well- educated Jews that they themselves had no alternative to paying the price of baptism in order to obtain the "ticket" (as Heinrich Heine called it) which would admit them to European society; the apparently overwhelming challenge of contemporary philosophical and social ideas to Jewish laws and customs which had remained unchanged for three or four centuries. But the situation was even worse in the United States. Here Judaism possessed no roots or patterns, no masses of Jews who would participate in a full Jewish life through habit. The absence of a mass base meant that each Jew had to be appealed to as an individual. People were not used to reinforcing each other's practice of Judaism in the home and par-

ticipation in the regular worship of the synagogue. Nor was there any hostile pressure on Jews from the outside to keep them loyal to their ancestral faith. Here neither church nor government looked at Jews from a jaundiced medieval tradition of suspicion and hatred. Here the Jew was the equal of his neighbor in the eyes of the law. No state religion made him, automatically, a second-class citizen. In this open market place of religion and philosophical ideas, the Jew could opt to be neither a practicing Jew nor Christian; he could become a secular man of Jewish birth. No Jewry had lived in this kind of climate of freedom since the days of pre-Christian Alexandria, when religion was to a great degree a formality, and a man could pursue his own way.

It was to this inauspicious, problematic Jewish community that Isaac Leeser came when he emigrated from Germany to Richmond in 1824 to work for his uncle, Zalma Rehine. Not yet eighteen years old, he had studied traditional Jewish subjects under rabbis of the old school and had obtained some secular knowledge at the Gym- nasium in Miinster. He must have had no thought of undertaking a career of religious leadership, or else he would have devoted further years of study to the foundations of traditional Judaism, the Talmud and the legal codes. In Richmond, he entered a private school and studied English for a few months, then learned the ways of a store- keeper from his uncle. But the attraction of the synagogue was strong: he volunteered to assist the Richmond hazzan in the con- duct of services, thereby learning the Sephardic minhag (rite), and taught the local children in the religious school classes. He seems also to have continued to study anything Judaic that he could find in a book. In I 828, he wrote a series of articles in defense of Jewish thought for a Richmond newspaper in answer to some slurs which had appeared in a British journal. The following year his name was placed in nomination for the Philadelphia position by Jacob Mor- decai, a Jewish farmer and educator with a good Jewish background, who lived near Richmond and whose recommendation carried much weight with his friends in Philadelphia. W e do not know if Mordecai wrote to Mikveh Israel without consulting his young friend, or if Leeser was privy to the correspondence. At any rate, he did con- sent to go North to conduct services so that the congregants might

ISAAC LEESER : CENTENNIAL REFLECTIONS '3 '

judge his suitability, although he made no pretense of being a learned rabbi, or of possessing the results of the long years of training which he believed necessary for genuine Jewish religious leadership. Some years later, he wrote to the Chief Rabbi of England:

Knowing my own want of proper qualification, I would never have con- sented to serve, if others more fitting in point of standing, information, or other qualities had been here; but this not being the case (as is proved by there being yet two congregations at least in this country without a regular hazzan), I consented to serve.2

This modest recognition of his own educational limitations, and a willingness to defer to other men more knowledgeable than he in traditional sources, were fixed aspects of his attitude through all his years of leadership.

But Leeser's ambitions for Judaism in America were not modest. The Philadelphians did not know him very well. If they had been more fully aware of his talent, tenacity, vision, and strength, they would probably have elected any other candidate then available for their pulpit. Behind Leeser's shy and awkward manner, and his homely visage, lurked a reserve of intelligence, insight, and crea- tive stubbornness which would give no peace to his congregants - and compelled them ultimately, in 1850, to sever relations with him. But during the twenty years of his service at Mikveh Israel, he contributed more to the creation of a viable American Judaism than any other Jewish religious leader has ever given.

From the very beginning of his ministry, he seems to have com- prehended American Jewry's need for education, communication, translation, publication, articulation, and unification - a ponderous list, indeed, but it was an accurate assessment of the empty silence of American Jewish life. Less than a year after his entrance into the pulpit of his congregation, Leeser instituted regular English preaching. His members resisted this innovation. Not until 1843

Jewish Encyclopedia, VII, p. 663.

did they adopt the practice as official congregational policy. His sermons were not mere commentaries on the weekly Scripture readings. T h e y were adult education lectures, following a thematic approach, through which he sought to introduce the worshippers to a comprehensive knowledge of the entire range of Jewish teachings. H e had brought with him from Richmond the manuscript o f his first book, The Jews and the Mosaic Law (not published until I 83 3), which grew out of his newspaper articles, but the first book that he saw through the press was a religious school text book, a trans- lation of Johlson's Instruction in the Mosaic Religion (1830). H e set out to create o r translate an entire library of basic Jewish books for American Jews. But he received little encouragement from his members and officers. Even the cultured Rebecca Gratz thought that he should pay more attention to his liturgical and pastoral re- sponsibilities, and abandon his literary pursuits:

. . . You have been so kind as to enquire about our young reader [hazzan], and I would rather have postponed the subject a little longer - but as everybody have their troubles I may as well tell you his. Before he came to Philaa he had written some essays in "defense of the Jews and Mosaic law," which gained him some reputation among a small circle of friends. It was his first attemr,t at authorshir, and he fell in love with his work - has

I

enlarged, improved, changed and liboured on it until it has almost become a volume which he greatly desires to see in print. I have read it, and al- though it gives me a good o~inion of his talents have advised him not to

P

pb lkh -5ut some other friknds have encouraged him, and he issued pro- posals to publish it by subscription. . . nor do I think his style sufficiently elegant to justify his claims to authorship. With these burthens on his shoulders, before he had got through the first difficulties of his new sta- tion, he had taken too much upon himself and does not seem to get along as happily as if he had reserved his whole strength and attention to the duties of the reading desk. But youth is apt to be proved, experience will aid in checking. or rather directing his enthusiasm to r,ror,er channels . . . he is certainly a Tery pious and woGhy man and takes;e;y hard the latitude allowed in matters of religion in this enlightened age. Fortunately he is a beardless vouth. Did he wear the chin of a rabbi. he would be scoffed at by his congregation . . .

3 Rebecca Gratz to Maria Gist Gratz, Lexington, Ky., April 18, 1830, Library of the American Jewish Historical Society.

ISAAC LEESER : CENTENNIAL REFLECTIONS ' 3 3

But no amount of discouragement could deter Leeser from a systematic effort to attempt to build the foundations of a strong, enduring traditional Judaism in America. In terms of synagogue decorum, and the provision of prayer translations for those who did not know the Hebrew language, Leeser departed from what we would call an Orthodox position; in all other regards, he was a strict traditionalist, adhering to the dictates, decisions, and docu- ments of the past. It was that kind of Judaism which he was deter- mined to preserve through his activity. Tenaciously and creatively he wrote, translated, published, and organized in a multitude of areas of Jewish religious life. It is difficult to believe that one man could have been so imaginative and productive. He was the first to perceive the need for such institutions as Jewish hospitals, orphan- ages, and community-wide charity federations on the local scene, and for united endeavors on the national level by congregations and rabbis, culminating in such institutions as teacher-training schools and rabbinical seminaries. The actual organizations and institutions which he succeeded in creating, and the educational and resource materials which he wrote or translated and published, are incredibly extensive: the first volumes of sermons delivered and published by an American Jewish religious teacher ( I 8 3 7) ; the first complete American translation of the Sephardic prayer book ( I 837); the first Hebrew primer for children ( I 8 3 8); the first Jewish communal re- ligious school ( I 839) ; the first successful American Jewish magazine- news journal ( I 843) ; the first American Jewish publication society ( I 845) ; the first Hebrew-English Torah to be edited and translated by an American Jew (1845) ; the first complete English translation of the Ashkenazic prayer book (1848); the first Hebrew "high school" (1849); the first English translation of the entire Bible by an American Jew ( I 853) ; the first Jewish defense organization - the Board of Delegates of American Israelites ( I 8 59) ; the first American Jewish theological seminary - Maimonides College (1867). Prac- tically every form of Jewish activity which supports American Jewish life today was either established or envisaged by this one man. Almost every kind of publication which is essential to Jewish survival was written, translated, or fostered by him.

'34 AMERICAN JEWISH ARCHIVES, NOVEMBER, 1967

That Leeser is deserving of a full-scale biography is obvious. It is characteristically tragic that no writer with adequate qualifica- tions, insights, and appreciation has yet attempted to trace the dramatic course of this man's life. W e use the words "character- istically tragic" for many reasons. The congregation which he served for twenty years never really understood his nature, sup- ported his endeavors, or applauded his successes. Most of his officers and members, over the years, would have been far happier if he had not seen his role and responsibility writ so large. When, in 1857, a new congregation was organized by his friends specifically to give him a regular platform and income, it was too late to help him undertake the arduous obligations which he had imposed upon himself for the past twenty-eight years - and almost half of the decade that remained of his life was consumed by the frenzy of the Civil War. Congregants who shared his vision in large measure would have helped reduce the pressures of time, money, and strength which constantly assailed him. No publisher, for instance, would undertake the risk of issuing his books; Leeser had to be his own publisher, business manager, proof-reader, salesman, agent. That he was willing to do all this, in addition to the creative aspect of his work, speaks volumes for his character, but it is an indictment of the Jews of his time and place. Another negative aspect of his career was the fact that he was allied with Americanized Jews of Sephardic orientation whose influence was constantly shrinking under the as- sault of increasing numbers of vigorous German Jewish immigrants. The more time that passed, the smaller his constituency became in relation to the entire American Jewish population. Had he served an Ashkenazic congregation, his influence might have grown with the years, rather than diminished. Riding the crest of the rising tide of liberal-thinking German Jews was Isaac Mayer Wise, who finally succeeded, after Leeser's death, in establishing the instru- mentalities for survival which Leeser had attempted to create: the Union of American Hebrew Congregations (I 87 3) ; the Hebrew Union College (I 875) ; the Central Conference of American Rabbis

ISAAC LEESER : CENTENNIAL REFLECTIONS ' 3 5

( 1 8 8 ~ ) . Leeser was struggling against the trend of the day, in at- tempting to maintain the sway of strict traditionalism; the times called for a liberal interpretation of the Jewish message and way of life. Only when that liberal viewpoint became radical were the traditionalist forces able to mobilize their resources for a rival or- ganizational structure. By then, Leeser had passed from the scene. Many volumes have been written about Wise. He was the founder of institutions, the father of an enduring movement in American Judaism. Leeser had no organizations to preserve his memory. His influence was responsible, through his own creative vision and the work of his disciples, for the establishment of the United Synagogue and the Jewish Theological Seminary of the Conservative move- ment, and for the creation of Gratz College and Dropsie College in Philadelphia. All of these were the undoubted fruit of his inspi- ration, though he was dead before they saw the light of day. Fewer sermons will be delivered about Leeser in this year of the centenary of his death, than are devoted to Isaac Mayer Wise every year. This reveals something about the fragmentation of American Jewish life, and our myopic loyalty to structures rather than to values, which both Leeser and Wise would deplore.

Yet the overtones of failure in Leeser's life-story should not be exaggerated. Many satisfactions came to him over the years. He was by no means alone. Some loyal friends and followers worked with him and supported him, men like Abraham Hart, the brilliant Philadelphia publisher, who helped him with the technical aspects of the publication society which he founded in 1845. Young men like Gershom Kursheedt, of New Orleans, Solomon Nunes Car- valho, of Charleston and Baltimore, and Mayer Sulzberger re- sponded eagerly to his leadership, took pride in disseminating his ideas and selling his books, carried his message to various parts of the country. Most of his colleagues in the rabbinate respected and admired him; they wrote to him constantly, soliciting his help in the solution of their problems and giving him insight into conditions in their own communities. The collection of some of the files of letters he received, now in the custody of Dropsie College, reveals the vasmess of his contacts throughout the country - in metropoli- tan areas, in small towns, and on the frontiers where his correspon-

136 AMERICAN JEWISH ARCHIVES, NOVEMBER, 1967

dent was sometimes the only Jew for miles around. No Jewish leader of the time was more highly respected throughout the land than Leeser; no one was invited to preach and to officiate at the dedication of more new synagogues than he. Only Isaac Mayer Wise came close to being his rival in this regard. Leeser never mar- ried, and was deprived of the affection and strength that a wife and children can give a man, but he had a huge family of Jewish followers throughout the United States. The effectiveness of his ministry was incalculable. While he was denied the strong, organized public sup- port which was his due, it is an undeniable fact that numerous individuals, families, institutions, and communities were strength- ened through his leadership, advice, and practical assistance. One of the most dramatic Jewish happenings of the nineteenth cen- tury - the bequest by Judah Touro, of New Orleans, of more than $too,ooo to Jewish agencies and instimtions in America and in Palestine -was the direct and indirect result of Leeser's labors, through his personal contacts with Touro and through the influence of his New Orleans disciple Gershom Kursheedt, who was in constant communication with his teacher.

Touro's beneficence was not Leeser's greatest single achieve- ment. If he could have done only one thing, and we were to decide from the perspective of these many decades later, we would have to single out Leeser's publication of his monthly journal, The Occi- dent. Quite aside from its usefulness as a historic record of the time, The Occident was the first instrumentality to give a sense of national belonging to the widely scattered children of Israel in the United States. In its pages he published the best sermons which were sub- mitted to him or which he himself translated from other languages; editorials on the pressing problems of Judaism, ranging from the church-state issue to the question of an educated rabbinate; articles which evaluated his proposals for the unification of American Jewry; debates on ideas of Reform and Orthodoxy; essays on Jew- ish history and literature; treatments of Jewish theological concepts; controversies with Christian missionaries; and news of every syna- gogue and Jewish organization in the country that was brought to his attention. The news was as important as the educational and inspirational material. The Occident reported on successful programs,

ISAAC LEESER : CENTENNIAL REFLECTIONS '37

experiments and developments in various parts of the country, stimulating other communities to strengthen their own institutions; spread far and wide the names of emerging lay and rabbinical lead- ers, and brought them into contact with each other; aroused local leaders to look beyond their immediate problems to the more funda- mental challenges of Judaism throughout the land; gave its readers a feeling of coherence and comradeship and overcame thereby the sense of isolation which was the natural result of great distances. Leeser helped American Jews to achieve a feeling of common ex- perience and hope, of working together in the present and facing the future together.

One may well ask what it was in Leeser's personality structure that made his career so unique. Unfortunately, thus far we know too little about Leeser's inner being to comprehend or explain the irrepressible drive which sustained him. Perhaps it was the loss of his mother when he was only eight years old. Perhaps it was the unattractiveness of his appearance that pushed him to make his mark -note Rebecca Gratz's comment that he was "ugly and awkward."4 Perhaps it was the same negative factor in his make-up which prevented him from marrying. While such psychological in- sights might help us to understand the sources of his dogged deter- mination to reach his goals, no character analysis can explain the remarkable perception which helped him to develop so swiftly an all-inclusive solution to the problem of Jewish survival in a free America. This came from brilliance of mind and sensitivity of spirit, not from the hunger to achieve.

While there was no model which Leeser or anyone else could adopt for the organization of American Jewry, both European Jewish developments and Protestant denominational achievements undoubtedly helped him to see the way more clearly. In Europe, a number of periodicals had been published in both the vernacular and in Hebrew; rabbinical organizations had been created; modern

4 David Philipson (ed.), Letten of Rebecca G7atz (Phila., I 9 ~ 9 ) ~ p. 108 (Nov. 4, I 8 29).

schools had been established; and communal and provincial con- sistories had functioned. All of these, of course, were based on the premise of existing communities and institutions. In America, every- thing had to be created from scratch. The American Protestant denominations had been struggling with the challenge of voluntarism ever since the disestablishment of state churches and had evolved a large number of institutional approaches with which Leeser was familiar. These no doubt helped shape his thinking, or at least made him aware of the variety of ways in which members of a religious group might be served on a national level.

Perhaps the contours of Leeser's program were inevitable. Per- haps Jewish survival and growth in America demanded these spe- cific institutions and projects. It may be that they would have been envisaged or developed, anyway, by one or another leader. The fact is that Wise succeeded where Leeser failed, and there is no reason to believe that Wise would not have developed the same concepts even if Leeser had never come forward with them. It is equally important to recognize that the Conservative and Orthodox movements followed the same pattern in their own organizational growth once Reform found the way. If such trends were built into the situation, so to speak, it is all the more remarkable that this one man, so very early, should have anticipated every detail of the network of organizations and relationships which obtain today - from communal day schools to graduate seminaries of theology, from city-wide federations of philanthropic groups to a national organiza- tion for the support of agricultural undertakings in Palestine, from journals of news and opinion to a Jewish publication society, from national rabbinical conferences to local boards of rabbis, from pulpit discourses for adult education to textbooks for children, and many other agencies and programs.

A Moses Mendelssohn would have served little purpose in America in 1829 when Leeser came to Philadelphia - just one hundred years after Mendelssohn's birth. The German-Jewish philosopher would have been hard put to develop a practical, prag- matic scheme of organization and communication on a local and national scale. Leeser established that pattern of organization - help for local communities through national agencies, and the support of

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ISAAC LEESER: CENTENNIAL REFLECTIONS I 4 I

national institutions through local congregations and other affiliates, all intertwined and interlocked on a voluntary level, developed pragmatically for the solution of specific problems. That pattern has proved to be a useful one ever since. But Leeser had little to contribute in such fields as theology and philosophy. His was not a profound, searching mind which could penetrate the intellectual and spiritual perplexities of his or our time. Now that American Jewry possesses the organizations and avenues of communication and education which were essential to its survival, the next chal- lenge awaits us -to nourish men of brilliant insight who will wrestle with the spiritual dilemmas of our time with the same courage and creativity that Leeser devoted to his tasks.5

5 Further data about Leeser's life and activities can be found in Hemy Englander, "Isaac Leeser," Yearbook, Central Conference of American Rabbis, XXVIII (1918), pp. 2x3- 52 -a detailed discussion of some of his convictions and beliefs; Korn, "The First American Jewish Theological Seminary: Maimonides College, 1867-1873," Eventful Years and Experiences (Cincinnati, 1954)~ pp. 15 1-2 I 3 ; Jacob Rader Marcus, Memoirs of American Jews, ~775-1865 (Phila., 1955)- 11, 58-87 -some excerpts from Leeser's descriptions of his travels to various Jewish communities; Maxwell Whiteman, "Isaac Leeser and the Jews of Philadelphia," Publications of the American Jewish Historical Soci- ety, XLVIII ( r g ~ g ) , 207-44.

N E W LOAN EXHIBITS

The American Jewish Archives is pleased to announce the availability of sixty-one new loan exhibit items. The material will be sent free of charge for a two week period to any institution in the United States and Canada. The only expense involved is the cost of return expressage. The items deal, for the most part, with the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Twenty to thirty of them make an adequate exhibit.

Inquiries should be addressed to the Director of the American Jewish Archives, Clifton Avenue, Cincinnati, Ohio 45220.

Jewish Marriage and Intermarriage in the Federal Period (1776-1840)

M A L C O L M H . S T E R N

The Jewish population of North America prior to the Revolution could be counted by hundreds. In 1790, according to a careful reck- oning of the - to be sure, far from complete - Federal Census for that date, there were 1,500 identifiable Jews.' By I 840, the number had increased to an estimated 15,000, the majority of them concen- trated in the cities of the Eastern seaboard." Even here the number of marriageable women in proportion to the men was low, and for those venturesome single Jews who sought their fortunes away from the urban centers, the prospects of a Jewish marriage were slim indeed. As a consequence, it is not surprising to note that, out of the 699 marriages involving Jews which my researches have un- earthed for the period, 2 0 I - 28.7 percent - were marriages be- tween Jews and non-Jews.3

In twelve of the 2 0 1 mixed marriages, there is evidence that the non-Jewish mate was converted to Judaism. As might be expected, these conversions took place usually when the couple was residing in a Jewish community large enough to support a formal congrega- tion. More conversions might have occurred, had the three rabbis required by Orthodox law been available to perform them. Prior to 1840, however, there were no ordained rabbis residing in North America. The congregational lay leadership attempted to interpret very stringently such Jewish laws as they could follow.4 In general,

Dr. Malcolm H . Stem, who is Director of Placement for the Central Conference of American Rabbis, serves as Genealogist o f the American Jewish Archives, which pub- lished his Americans of Jewish Descent in 1960.

I Ira Rosenswaike, "An Estimate and Analysis of the Jewish Population in the United States in I 790," in Publications of the American Jewish Historical Society, L (1960)~ 23 ff.

American Jewish Year Book: ~ 6 6 0 (Philadelphia, I 899), p. 28 3 .

3 Malcolm H . Stern, Americans of Jewish Descent (Cincinnati, 1960), passim.

4 Hyrnan B. Grinstein, The Rise of the Jewish Community of N e w York, 16~4-1860 (Phila- delphia, 1947)~ pp. 81-99, 543 (note 14).

JEWISH MARRIAGE AND INTERMARRIAGE IN THE FEDERAL PERIOD I 4 3

they opposed conversion, but in several instances, under pressure from the families involved, it was sanctioned. While the circum- stances surrounding most of the twelve conversions are unknown, the above-mentioned factors were probable in every case.5 Of the mixed marriages, by the way, six were cases of "miscegenation" - three with mulattoes, two with Indians, and one with a N e g r ~ . ~

5 Stem, "The Function of Genealogy in American Jewish History," in Essays in Ameri- can Jewish History (Cincinnati, 1958), Appendix 11: Converts to Judaism Through Marriage Before 1840, pp. 89 ff.

Irving I. K a a , The Beth El Story (Detroit, 1955), pp. 45-46; Bertram W. Korn, The Jews and Negro Slavery (Elkins Park, 1961), pp. 49-50.

A POSTER SERIES ON THE 1700's

T H E AMERICAN JEWISH ARCHIVES

announces the publication of its third series of three posters - 18" by 24" -

featuring episodes in eighteenth-century American Jewish life.

These new posters, and the two earlier series - Jewish participation in the

Civil W a r and Jewish immigrants from Eastern Europe - are available without

charge for display by all schools, libraries, congregations, and organizations or

agencies interested in American Jewish history.

Inquiries should be addressed to the Director of the American Jewish Archives,

Clifton Ave., Cincinnati, Ohio 45220.

The Mestizo Jews of Mexico

S E Y M O U R B . L I E B M A N

An American authority on Mexico has stated that most historical accounts of modem Mexican history are "folklore with foomotes." Folltlore and myths are, of course, an integral part of Mexican history. The national emblem, used on the Mexican flag, reflects an Aztec legend concerning the place where Tenochtitlin (now Mexico City) should be founded. As a result of the appearance of this "sign" (an eagle perched on a cactus with a serpent in his mouth), the city was founded at its present location in I 3 2 5 . The legend of the miraculous appearance of the Virgin to an Indian peasant in I 5 3 I was one of the most important factors in facilitating the conversion of the Indians to Catholicism. The Virgin of Guada- lupe is today the supreme Catholic symbol of Mexico. There are, to be sure, many who question the miracle, and included among these doubting Thomases are three priests and a bishop as well as many noted historians.'

The "Indian Jews" of Mexico, too, through a conhsed mixture of myths, legends, distorted history, and wishhl thinking, claim brotherhood with the world community of Jews. The unraveling of some of their accounts -which are replete with inconsistencies and historical inaccuracies -constitutes the theme of this article.

Jews first came to Mexico with Hernari Cortts in 1 5 2 1 and have lived there continuously ever since. This is so despite the fact that, from 1493 to 1 8 0 2 , their presence in Spanish America was illegal owing to a series of decrees issued by the various monarchs of Spain and the Supreme Council of the Spanish Inquisi- tion. Isabella la Catdlica, Queen of Castile, who issued the first

Mr. Seymour B. Liebman, who teaches at Miami-Dade Junior College and the University of Miami, is the author of A Guide to Jewish References in the Mexicmz Colonial Era, 15zr-1821 (Univ. of Pennsylvania Press. 1964).

I See Alma Reed, "The Virgin of Guadalupe: Historical Background," The Mexico Quar.tn1y Review, I (Summer, 1962), 175.

THE MESTIZO JEWS OF MEXICO '45

of these decrees, hoped to insure that the Indies discovered by Christopher Columbus would be as Judenrein, as devoid of Jews, as she and her spouse Fernando had tried to make her realm of Castile and his of Aragon. Nonetheless, despite them, their suc- cessors, and the Inquisition, the discovery and colonization of each place in the New World were immediately followed by the arrival and settlement of Jews, primarily from Spain and Portugal. These Jewish settlers - a number of whom, though ostensibly Catholics, practised their ancestral faith in secret -are the people termed anusim (a Hebrew word, meaning "forced ones") or Marranos. Recorded now, in many instances, for the first time, the tales of the martyrdom, heroism, and ingenuity of these Jews in their battle for survival enrich the pages of Jewish history.

Since the story of Mexican Jewry is so largely unknown, it is easy to understand why so many tourists and journalists have un- wittingly accepted the claim of some Mexican Mestizos to descent from early Jewish settlers and have been moved to write about the "Indian Jews," who are, in fact, neither Indians nor Jews, but something else - Mestizos. In colonial times, a Mestizo was the offspring of an Indian mother and a Spanish father. In modern times, however, it is impossible to differentiate, biologically, be- tween Mestizo and Indian. An Indian, as used herein, is one whose ancestry includes no one of European or Caucasian extraction. A Mestizo is neither an Indian nor a Caucasian, though, of course, his ancestors have resided in Mexico for many generations; his bloodlines are of mixed origin and he is a member of the group which constitutes the majority of the Mexican population.

There are in Mexico several different groups calling themselves Israelitas, and this has caused confusion. In English-speaking countries, Jews are termed also Hebrews or Israelites. In Mexico, a Jew is known as a Judio or an Israelita. Two private Jewish schools in Mexico City are called the Colegio lsraelita and the Nuevo Colegio I~raelita.~ One of the Jewish newspapers is La Prensa Israelita, and there is also a Centro Deportivo lsraelita (Jewish Sport Club). Fur-

l The word colegio refers to elementary or secondary school rather than college. The schools mentioned above are secular. They teach Yiddish and Hebrew.

thermore, an Israelita, a Jew, must be distinguished from an Israeli, a citizen of the State of Israel who may be Jewish, Christian, or Moslem. The problem is complicated by the fact that two Protestant sects in the United States called the Church of God have branches in Mexico where they are known as the "Iglesia de Dios." The congregants of these churches - Mestizos, for the most part - call themselves Israelitas and claim that they are the true descendants of the biblical Jacob, who was given the name of Israel when he wrestled with an angel of the Lord, as is related in the Book of Genesis.

The Iglesia de Dios - with which the Mestizos were affiliated before they adopted Judaism - believes in Jesus, Mary, the Immac- ulate Conception, and the like. Still another group calls its con- gregation Bet-El and Casa de Dios (House of God). The disciples of this group have branches in Mexico City, Guadalajara, Puebla, and Veracruz. Numbering over three thousand, they are mainly of the lower middle class, are independent of other religious groups, seek no publicity or affiliation with the Jewish community, and are unknown to tourist guides. They admit that they were Christians who adopted Judaism, but still believe in the New Testament Apostles as good men in the chain of Hebrew prophets. Since they admit that they have never been converted to Judaism, they will not be discussed. This article will be devoted to those groups which profess to be authentically Jewish, have cloaked themselves in varying claims of descent from Jewish forebears, and of which much has been written. The names of the forebears of these groups have changed, but claims as to the time of the arrival in Mexico of these forebears is uniform - the sixteenth century.

Some of the Mestizo Jews assert that they are descendants of Luis de Carvajal, the governor and conqueror of that area which is now northeast Mexico. Others claim the governor's nephew and namesake Luis de Carvajal, el mozo (the younger), as their forebear. Still others say that their ancestors were part of the group of Jews who journeyed to the New World with Governor Carvajal. A few are more vague and say that they know only that their ancestors arrived before I 596. Another part of the legend states that their Spanish Jewish ancestors fled the wrath of the Inquisition about

THE MESTIZO JEWS OF MEXICO I47

1596 and lived in the mountains and wilderness of Mexico in Indian villages. T h e alleged descendants of these refugees aver that they did not know until the 1920's and 1930's that any other Jews lived in Mexico.

The date 1596 is important in Mexican history, especially with reference to the Jews. An auto-da-fe' held on December 8 of that year involved over one hundred Judaizers, of whom nine were burned at the stake. Among these were Luis de Carvajal, el mozo, his mother, and three sisters.

The Orthodox Jewish interpretation is simple: only a child born to a Jewish mother, unless she is married to a man other than the father of the child, is a Jew. A non-Jew may be converted under rabbinic supervision pursuant to Jewish law on the subject. This is and has been the rabbinic answer for centuries. It was restated by Moses Maimonides during the twelfth century in his Hilkot lssure Biah, and his writing is consistent with the talmudic order Kodashim. The culmination of a woman's conversion is her immersion in a ritual bath in the presence of authorized witnesses. An Orthodox beth din, or religious court, usually consisting of three rabbis, then issues a certificate signifying that the woman has fulfilled all the requirements and is to be regarded as a Jewess. T h e court also renames her - usually Sarah, daughter of Abraham. It is almost impossible to be accepted as a Jew, even by Reform or Conservative rabbis, merely by adopting the Jewish religion and performing its precepts. The distinction between mere adoption of Judaism and formal conversion is an important point in this study of the brown- skinned Mexicans who seek a Jewish religious identification.

Regardless of all the articles sentimentalizing and accepting the Judaism of the "Mestizo Jews," there is but one valid criterion - Jewish law. Under Catholic law, no person is accepted as a Catholic simply by attending mass and fervently adhering to Catholic cus- toms. Such a person cannot be married in a Catholic church, or be buried in a Catholic cemetery, or be the recipient of other Church sacraments. Similarly, no person can bestow upon himself the reli-

gious status of a Jew. However strict his observance may be, no Orthodox rabbi, and few Conservative rabbis, will agree to officiate at his marriage or burial. Interment in a Jewish cemetery is denied to non-Jews. Even the liberal trend among some Reform rabbis of adding adoption as an entrance to the brotherhood of Jews is subject to community acceptance - and the Mexican Jewish communities do not accept the "Mestizo Jews" as genuine Jews.

An important factor in the survival of Judaism has been adherence to the law of lineage despite persecution, absence of a religious hierarchy, or - prior to the establishment of the State of Israel - lack of a "land," a place where the cultural aspects of Judaism could be sustained and nourished without the assimilative pressures of a non-Jewish majority group. Individuals cannot enter Judaism at will or whim. The integrity of Jewish lineage has been basic to the concept of Jewish peoplehood, so that there has never been an amorphous group of Jews. T h e condemnation of intermarriage has been consistent for nearly 2,200 years. In The Structure of Spanish History, the Spanish historian ArnCrico Castro wrote: "The people who really felt the scruple of purity of blood were the Spanish Jews . . . there is a punctilious concern for family purity . . . as a consequence of the persecution in the fifteenth century, he became still more acutely aware of his exclusive particularism."3 Stress is laid here upon Spanish Jews, because the "Mestizo Jews" claim them as their ancestors.

Since many "Mestizo Jews" claim descent from the Spanish Jews who came to Nueva Espaiia - colonial Mexico - during the sixteenth century, some background history for colonial Mexican Jewry is in order. T h e majority were Sephardim who came from the Iberian peninsula. When CortCs captured Tenochtitlin, there were Jews in his company of conquistadores, and the identity of at least four has been clearly established. Among them were Hernando Alonso, Gonzalo de Morales, and Diego de Ocaiia. T h e first two

3 AmGico Casuo, The Structure of Spanish History (Princeton, 1954)~ p. 5 z 5.

TI-IE MESTIZO JEWS OF MEXICO I49

were burned at the stake in 1528 because they were found guilty of Judaizing. Prohibitions against the settlement of Jews, Moors, and other "heretics" in the New World had been issued for many years prior to I 52 I . The first edict that applied directly to Mexico was issued in January, I 52 3 , and the last is dated September I 6, I 802. The Mexican historian Alfonso Toro has written:

In spite of the legal prohibitions, there were many Jews who came to the New World and who had taken part in its discovery and conquest and also in the formation of the colonial society. They were to be found in all the social classes and in all the professions and official positions.4

Notwithstanding all the edicts and the trials of Jews by bishops and Inquisitors, "the Jewish community continued to grow in Mexico City, Pachuca," and other places, according to Dr. Richard E. Greenleaf.5

Conversos and their descendants discreetly practised the old Jewish rites. The word marrano was never used in the Inquisitional trials in Spain or Mexico. In addition to nuevos cristianos (New Christians) and conversos, Jewish apostates were called hebreo- cristianos. Conversion to Christianity, however, failed to give them equal rights with cristianos viejos (Old Christians.)

Francisco Ferndndez Castillo states that there was a Grand [Chief] Rabbi in Mexico about I 5 50 and "that a m o n g the Spaniards of the colony there were more J e w s than Catholics, although none wanted to denounce their presence." (Italics in the ~r ig ina l . )~ Robert Ricard, in his article, "Pour une 6tude du Judaisme Portugais au Mexique Pendant la Phiode Coloniale" (A Study of Portuguese Jews in Mexico during the Colonial Period), wrote:

Taken altogether, the reading of these Inquisitional documents gives the impression of a real swarm of Portuguese Jews. Therefore, it is not sur-

4 Alfonso Toro, Los Judios en la Nueva Espafia (Mexico, 193z), p. xxiii. All translations are my own, unless otherwise noted.

5 Richard E. Greenleaf, Zuma'rraga and the Mexicm Inquisitiun (Washington, D. C., 1961), p. 99.

Francisco Fernindez Castillo, Libros y Libreros del Siglo X V I (Mexico City, 1914)~ p. 584.

prising that a Mexican Dominican priest, Fr. Hernando de Ojea, took an interest in the situation. And it seemed serious enough to him to cause him to publish in 1602 . . . an apologetical work intended to bring about a conversion of the Mexican Jews, which he entitled The Coming of Christ, His Life and Miracles, etc.7

T o paraphrase a clichC, "The Spanish Jews were like all other Spaniards -only more so." If a Spaniard was proud, the Spanish Jew was prouder, because he felt that his religion gave him, even if only in his own estimation, a little higher status. This is relevant to the improbability of sexual relationships between Jewish women and Indian males.

T h e entry of Jews into Mexico continued unabated. Henry C. Lea writes :

. . . during the quiescent period of the Tribunal [this ended in 16421 the class of New Christians, who secretly adhered to the ancient Jewish faith, increased and prospered, accumulating wealth through the opportunities of the colonial trade which they virtually monopolized. *

The great Chilean historian of the Mexican Inquisition, JosC Toribio Medina, reported that Fernando Rodriguez, a victim of the auto- da-fk of 1647, lived in Veracruz and that his home had served for more than forty years as a hospitality center for Jews arriving in Mexico. They rested there for a few days before beginning the arduous trip from Veracruz to Mexico City. Duarte Rodriguez used his house in Veracruz as a meeting place for the Jews of that city in the seventeenth century.9

In I 862 - forty years after the end of Spanish rule - there was a meeting in Mexico City of more than IOO Jews to discuss the building of a synagogue. In 1889, Francisco Rivas Puigcerver, Director of the Department of Ancient Languages of the Preparatory School of the Mexican National University, began the publication of a newspaper in Mexico City called El Shbado Secreto, Periddico

7 Revue d'Histoire Modevne (Paris), August, 1939, pp. 519 et seq.

8 Henry C. Lea, The Inquisition in the Spanish Dependencies (New York, 1922), p. 229.

9 JosC Toribio Medina, Historia del Tribunal del Smto Ojicio de la Inquisicii de MLxico, ampliada por Julio Jimhez Rueda (Mexico, 1952), p. I 16.

THE MESTIZO JEWS OF MEXICO '5'

Judaizante ("The Secret Sabbath, A Jewish Newspaper"), which was the "organ of the Sephardis of America" and in which he declared that he was a Jew. The name of the paper was subsequently changed to La L u z del Shbado ("The Light of the Sabbath") and then to E l Sdbado ("The Sabbath"). In the issue of February 2 3, 1889, under the headline "A Los Miembros Sanos de la Colonia Israelita" ("To the Sincere Members of the Jewish Community"), appeared the plea: "We exhort you to remain in the Mosaic faith and not to imitate certain circumcised perverse ones [of our faith] who deny their race, their people and their God."

One colonial Mexican family must be treated in detail because two groups of "Mestizo Jews" claim descent from these people. The family is that of Carvajal, who arrived in Mexico around 1580 together with others of Jewish descent under the aegis of Governor Luis de Carvajal.

Luis de Carvajal y de la Cueva was born in 1539 at Mogodorio, Portugal. He was the son of New Christians, and nothing has ever been disclosed to reveal that they were not sincere converts to Catholicism. His paternal grandfather was Gutikrrez Visquez de la Cueva, and Luis always believed his parents to be noble Old Christians. He left his parents' home at the age of eight, when his father took him to the Abbot of Sahagh, who was a relative and who educated him. He had been baptized, received communion, and religiously observed all Catholic rites. Luis7 maternal uncle Francisco Jorge de Andrada was a captain-general for the king of Portugal and later became an Augustinian monk. Luis' brother Domingo was a Jesuit monk. His sister Francisca Nliiiez de Carvajal, however, married a man of converso background, Francisco Rodriguez de Mattos. In 1558, Luis married Doiia Guiomar de Ribera, who, though she was of Jewish ancestry, never revealed that fact to her husband. They had no children, and Carvajal denied having any

lo See Proctsos dt Luis dt Carvqal el Mow (Mexico, 1935)~ and also my essay on Hernando Alonso in J m m l of Inter-American Studies, V (No. 2, April, 1963)~ 291. M y forthcoming work, "The Enlightened," also contains relevant data.

illegitimate children. His marriage was unhappy because of in- compatibility, and his wife had refused to accompany him in 1566 on his first visit to the New World, where he gained fame as a naval captain, admiral, and fighter and tamer of Indians. The absence of children - heirs - undoubtedly was another cause of his marital unhappiness. His sister's marriage had produced nine living offspring.

Carvajal wanted his sister and her family to accompany him to Mexico after he obtained a contract from the king of Spain. The contract, dated May 31, 1579, permitted Carvajal to bring with him, as colonizers, IOO families, but there was no provision that such colonizers had to have certificates of limpieza de sangre (purity of blood). Previously required for all who went to the New World, such a certificate attested that its holder was an "Old Christian," and that his forebears, or at least the three preceding generations, on maternal and paternal lines, had been Catholics. The omission of the certificates in Carvajal's case is usually interpreted to mean that Carvajal was a Judaizer and had obtained special permission for his coreligionists to join his expedition to the New World. There are, however, certain facts overlooked by most writers who place too much stress on the exemption. T o begin with, practically all expeditions of exploration and conquest, including Carvajal's, were privately financed. T h e king of Spain granted only the right to explore and promised certain rights to the leader of the expedi- tion.I1 By I 579, moreover, many Spaniards had heard discouraging reports from Mexico. Indian troubles had developed in the northern part of the country, and no gold was to be found lying about in the countryside. Paragraph 8 of the Royal Contract with Carvajal reads:

. . . on the confines of your territory of Pbuco . . . are [certain] pueblos . . . these people were formerly Christianized, but for five years they have been in rebellion, destroying churches and doing other damage. The Viceroy has sent captains and soldiers to reduce them [the Indians]. These captains have tried hard, but have been unable to pacify the region. You are, therefore, obligated to bring these Indians to peace and Chris- tianity within eight years from this date.

Silvio Zavala, The Spanish Colonization of America (Philadelphia, 1 9 4 ~ ) , PP. 60, 69.

THE MESTIZO JEWS OF MEXICO '53

As appears from the above provision, no attempt was made to deceive Carvajal about the conditions with which he was to be confronted. H e had, in any case, been in the Pinuco area previously and had personal knowledge of the deplorable conditions prevailing there. Another provision in his contract required Carvajal to found a certain number of towns in the area within a specified time.

Carvajal's grant was named the New Kingdom of Ledn and ran from Tampico to what is now San Antonio and zoo leagues - 600 miles - westward from the Gulf of Mexico. I t was one of the largest ever given. Possibly, the size was intended to offset the dangers. Carvajal was to receive the hereditary title of governor general.12 H e promised his brother-in-law Rodriguez de Mattos to name his son Luis, el mozo, his heir. Rodriguez thought that the province would assure the hture of Luis, el mozo, and he very likely thought also that the New Kingdom would be far from the long arm of the Inquisition. The Holy Office of the Inquisition had been formally established at Mexico City in November, 1571, with Dr. Pedro Moya de Contreras as the Chief Inquisitor, and autos-da-fe' had already been conducted, but few crypto-Jews had been involved. The possibility of his son's becoming governor may have been the inducement offered by Rodriguez de Mattos to many other crypto-Jews to form a part of the approximately seventy- five men of converso background that were to join the expedition. Those seventy-five who joined the entourage aided in supplying funds to outfit the enterprise.

Before they sailed, Carvajal's wife Doiia Guiomar asked her niece Isabel, daughter of Rodriguez de Mattos, to attempt to bring Carvajal to Judaism after their arrival in the New World when the time and place for such an attempt would be propitious. The oppor- tunity did not come for Doiia Isabel until 1586, when the governor visited her parents' home. Upon hearing her words, the uncle, a devout Catholic,l3 struck his niece so hard that she was thrown to

" Philip Wayne Powell, Soldiers, Indians and Silver (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1 9 5 z ) , p. 1 7 2 .

'3 Santiago Roel, Nuevo Ledn, Apuntes Histdricos (Monterrey, 1 9 3 8 ) , p. 24, clearly indicates that the governor was a devout Catholic.

the opposite wall. From a conversation with his nephew about the same time, he deduced that Luis, el mozo, had leanings toward Jewish beliefs and that his brother-in-law, who had died two years previously, had been buried in accordance with Jewish rites. The governor confessed his suspicions to his personal priest, changed his will, and disinherited his nephew. He had failed, he subsequently explained, to report his suspicion's concerning his niece and nephew to the Inquisition in Mexico City because, during the period 1586- 1587, he was busy fighting the Chichimecs in a region far from the Mexican capital.

Although Governor Carvajal was originally accused in 1589 by the Inquisitional fiscal of "observing the law of Moses," the fiscal, after several hearings, modified the charge to being "an aider and abettor and harborer of Jewish apostates." The ultimate verdict was that he was guilty as an "aider, abettor, and harbourer and concealer of Jewish apostates from the Holy Catholic faith." He was abjured de wehementi and sentenced to serve one year in jail and then to be exiled for six years. He died during the year of his incarceration, I 59 I .I4

In 1590, Luis, el mozo, was convicted of heresy and sentenced to four years in a monastery where he was to be reindoctrinated into Catholicism. He had circumcised himself in I 587, about a year after being told by his parents that he was of Jewish extraction. His family had left the New Kingdom of Ledn. Many others, if not all, of the Marranos who had come with the governor had moved to Mexico City, Taxco, or other towns outside of Ledn. Life had proved too hard and too dangerous in PLnuco and the area to the north and west. On December 8, 1596, Luis, el mozo, was burned at the stake with his mother and three sisters because they had "relapsed" to Judaism from Catholicism. Mariana, another sister, was saved for the auto-da-fe' of I 60 I . Luis, el mozo, always denied having children. His surviving sister, Anica, was burned in the auto-da-fe' of 1649. Isabel and Leonor, two other sisters, never had any children. Catalina's daughter, Leonor, was thirteen years

'4 Torno 11, Expediente 3 , Ramo de la Inquisici6n del Archivo General de la Naci6n de MLxico [AGN].

THE MESTIZO JEWS OF MEXICO 155

old in 1601, when she was reconciled by the Inquisition. Later marrying a Catholic, she lived and died as a devout member of that Church. Several of her descendants - including a son, a grand- daughter, and two great-grandsons - took holy orders. Two brothers of Luis, el mozo, succeeded in escaping: Baltazar to Italy, and Miguel to Salonica. Changing their family name to Lurnbroso, as had Luis, el mozo, one became chief rabbi and the other a famous d o c t ~ r . ~ ~

During the second trial of Luis, el mozo, he implicated I z I other Marranos, including those who had come to New Spain with his uncle. Practically all were still in Mexico, and they were arrested. They received their punishment (usually jail, a fine, and the wearing of a sambenito, though a few were sent to the galleys). Less than ten were exiled from New Spain. The vast majority continued to live openly in Mexico City after 1596.

The number of Spanish and Portuguese males, Jews and non- Jews, in Mexico during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries far exceeded the number of Caucasian females. The Indian was a slave and was not considered an equal in the eyes of many encomenderos, hacendados, and even some members of the Church. Caucasian women had their choice of mates among white men. Indians were not Jews, and any woman of Jewish ancestry who chose to marry a Christian could have her choice among the Spanish men.

In 1605, Pope Clement VIII granted grace to all those recon- ciliados penanced by the Holy Office. Fifteen "reconciled," former practicing Jews, filed a petition to go free. Numerous other in- stances can be given of the existence of Jews and of autos-da-fe' involving Jews from 1601 to I 795. In only two Inquisitional trials, however, is there any mention of sexual relationship between a Jew and an Indian. Both of these trials took place during the seven- teenth century; one of them involved Tom& Treviiio de Sobre- monte. Though the "Mestizo Jews" claim descent from the early arrivals, it is to be doubted that they know of the uninterrupted existence of Jews in Mexico between 1596 and the modern era.

IS See Note 10, supra.

156 AMERICAN JEWISH ARCHIVES, NOVEMBER, 1967

There is no national Mexican Jewish community organization. The three principal Jewish communities are in the capital, in Monterrey, and in Guadalajara. None of them recognize the "Mestizo Jews" as coreligionists, but this fact does not prevent the members of the Mestizo Jewish communities from registering as "Israelitas" in the decennial government census whose categories are "Catdlico," ( < Protestante," and "Israelita." (Note the use of this word, instead of Judio or Hebreo.) The "Mestizo Jews," according to the most optimistic estimate, number no more than "a few thousand," but such a figure is completely unrealistic, for these figures have in- cluded the group "Bet-El" or "Casa de Dios," which itself numbers over 3,000. According to Jack Starr-Hunt in the New York Post of November I , 1945, and the "American Friends of the Mexican Indian Jews" as of January, 1944, there were ('500 souls (Mexican Indian Jews) in Mexico City and as many in the country towns of the Republic."

The Mestizo Jewish communities visited by tourists are generally those of Mexico City: Calle Caruso of Colonia Vallejo, which has recently split into two, the dissident group lacking any permanent headquarters; and Venta Prieta, in the State of Hidalgo. Toluca, too, is mentioned as a location for a group, but there is only one "Mestizo Jew" there. Another example is Apam,16 but the one who used to reside there moved away about 1952. He affirmed that he and his deceased wife were the only ones in Apam who had claimed descent from Jews. Monterrey and two or three other places have been named in various articles, but the naming of these places resulted from hearsay or from secondary and tertiary sources. Many of those who write about these people cannot speak Spanish, have had no knowledge of Mexican history -and particularly the Jewish phase of that history- and have lacked a critical and scientific approach which includes the ability to sifi evidence and to

16 See my essay, "A Dying Branch," in Jewish Spectator, XXVII (No. z, Feb., 1962), 92. Toluca was mentioned to me by Shimon Amir, First Secretary of the Israeli Embassy in Mexico from 1956 to 1960.

THE MESTIZO JEWS OF MEXlCO I 59

separate the chaff from the wheat. None, except Dr. Raphael Patai, have evidenced any knowledge of the history of the Iglesia de Dios and the connection of the leader of the Mexico City Mestizo group with it.

While the Vcnta Prieta and Mexico City groups include some individuals who claim descent from Jews preceding the nineteenth century, many others admit that their parents or grandparents were "converted" to Judaism. It is obvious that they equate conversion with adoption. All admit that there has been continuous inter- marriage with non-Jews. Dr. Patai reported: "Some of these p e w Christians] . . . scattered and hid in outlying towns and villages, marrying - for lack of women of their own kind - native Indian girls, and passing on the heritage of their faith to the children."17 Dr. Patai, however, in reporting the above account told to him in 1949, forgot that a child of a pagan or Christian native Indian woman cannot be a Jew, even if the father were a Jew. In 1964, Dr. Patai interviewed these people again, and the people were then willing to considcr conversion. According to the Jemsaim Post of May 16, 1965, Dr. Patai finds that "they have accepted the story of their Jewish ancestry and Marrano descent as a pious fairy tale." None of these individuals or groups possess any material evidence of the practise of Judaism except that which they received from tourists or the recognized Jewish community during approximately the Iast twenty-five years.

More has been written about the Venta Prieta people, and more pictures have been taken of them, than of any other Mestizo Jewish group. So widespread is the community's fame that in April, 1963, representatives of ABC Radio and Television and a reporter for Life went to interview and photograph its people in order to exhibit to American audiences their observance of the Jewish Passover.

' 7 Raphael Pami, "The Indias Irnelitas de Mixico," Thr Mmrrh Journal, XXXVIII (Winter, 1950). 54.

Venta Prieta is a Mexican village, about a mile and a half from Pachuca, the state capital. Its principal Jew, or elder, lives about fifty feet off the highway, and the synagogue is about IOO feet beyond. In 1940, Marie Syrkin, a school principal in New York and later a professor at Brandeis University, visited Venta Prieta because she had heard of the "Indian Jews." She went with an interpreter, and she comments: "Conversation came hard even for those of our party who knew Spanish." She tells of an old woman, unnamed, but obviously Sra. Trinidad Jirdn de Ttllez, who sat with her at dinner and told her that "her father had been scalded to death in boiling oil for Judaizing. This had happened before I 9 I o, when Judaism was still proscribed." (The last phrase is an obvious historical error, since freedom of religious conscience was enacted in I 857.) She gave the Jewish population of Venta Prieta as "twelve Jewish fa mi lie^."^^

Dr. Patai interviewed Sra. Trinidad nine years later. She was then eighty-five years of age, but he found-her decisive in her statements. She told him that her father had lived in Morelia, that he and his family had been the only Jews there, and that, when his Christian neighbors discovered his faith, they "sewed him into the skin of a newly slaughtered bull and threw him into a cauldron of boiling water, where he died a miserable and painful death." Her father Ramdn Jirdn, the second, married a local girl from Pachuca. Trinidad herself claims to have married, in 1879, Manuel Ttllez, "who came from another Indian Jewish family," and that they settled in Venta Prieta. Patai also interviewed Gertrudis, the sister of Trinidad. She stated "unfalteringly" that her grandfather lived in Zamora, State of Michoacin - almost I 50 kilometers from Morelia - and that

He and his wife, Petra Diaz, as well as my own parents were Catholics. I, too, am a Catholic. My grandfather was of Spanish descent. His parents wished him to become a priest, but he did not want to and ran away from home. His father pursued him, caught him, and as a punishment forced him to dress in a bull's skin.

18 Marie Syrkin, "Jewish Indians in Mexico," Jewish F m t i e r , VII (No. lo, Oct., 19401, 13-15.

THE MESTIZO JEWS OF MEXICO 161

She said that he later ran away for good and settled in Real del Oro, also near Pachuca.

Patai wrote: "I succeeded in finding irrefutable documentary proof that the Indian Jewish congregation in Mexico was organized as a result of, or at least as a step subsequent to, the secession of one of their present leaders from the Iglesia de Dios." Patai, with whom I conferred, was referring to Baltazar Laureano Ramirez, who had resided in Pachuca in the early 19zo's and was a constant visitor to Venta Prieta. Patai wrote that the relationship between "them [the Mexico City group led by B. Laureano Ramirez] and Venta Prieta is strained and even hostile." The Venta Prieta group disowned Laureano Rarnirez sometime in the mid-1940's and later discharged its second leader about 1961, because it learned, after eighteen years, that he was an associate of Laureano Ramirez. Ramirez had formed a branch of the Iglesia de Dios in Venta Prieta, while he lived in Pachuca. As late as 1938, he was preaching to the group in Venta Prieta under the banner of the Iglesia de Dios, whose members are called "Israelitas." According to Patai, "Some members of the Venta Prieta community did not conceal that they were proselytes converted to Judaism or half-converted [sic]

7 7 to it. . . . In 1948, the total Jewish population, Patai found, comprised

"eight Jewish families" and "number only a few dozens." Still, a pamphlet entitled Indiun Jews in Mexico, published about 1944 by the short-lived "American Friends of the Mexican Indian Jews," has this to say:

It would be difficult to assert how many descendants of the Carvajal family are alive today, although there are a great many Indians in Mexico who take pride in their lineal descent from the Carvajal family. Their typical Indian features and their decidedly Jewish facial expression they attribute to the fact that in the days of the Carvajals intermarriage between the Jews and the Indians was rife. Camajal himself subscribed heartily to the theory, which still prevails strongly in Mexican high quarters, that the Indians were the Lost Ten Tribes of Israel. (Italics added.)

The historical ignorance perpetuated by the author of the foregoing, the late Rabbi Morris Clark, has been approached by few writers on the "Mestizo Jews." A later article by Rabbi Joseph H. Gurnbiner,

162 , AMERICAN JEW~SH ARCHIVES, NOVEMBER, I 967

however, indicates that Rabbi Clark came to revise his views. In 1956, Gumbiner gave an account of his interview with Laureano Ramirez, whom he found using for Sabbath services a "large Spanish Bible which contained both Testaments, no Jewish version being available in Spanish." Ramirez also said that there were no prayer books, because "the present Spanish translation of the Hebrew is rotten." (Latin American Jews have been using the Old Testament with a Spanish translation since at least 1912.) Gumbiner asked Rabbi Clark why the organization "American Friends of the Mexican Indian Jews" had passed out of existence. Rabbi Clark's reply was summarized as follows:

After several vears of effort in their behalf. Rabbi Clark lost confidence in the value of the project, primarily because he came to believe that the Jewishness of the Indian Mexican Jews was of recent genesis, and that they had no connection with the colonial historv of the marranos as they claimed. and that the internal administration of th&r affairs was not wha; it should have been. The present attitude of Rabbi Clark is shared by my friend in Mexico City, who said he believed that there was no need for Jews in Mexico or the United States to be concerned about this group. (Italics added .)I9

An article in the Mexico City magazine Hoy, of October, 1939, on the Venta Prieta people failed to state that any of the inter- viewees had made claims of descent from any Carvajal. It does state that the Jews were obliged to marry "con mujeres indias, mestizas o criollas" -with Indian and Mestizo women or with the daughters of Spanish Catholics. There was only one person called Carvajal among the Venta Prieta people. In an interview with me, he denied any knowledge either of his descent or that of any family in Venta Prieta or Mexico City from any colonial Carvajal. The name Carvajal, of course, is and has been common in Spain and in Latin America. It is a good Old Christian name.a0 A Carvajal was president of Mexico for six weeks in 19 I 5, and there was a General JosC Maria Carvajal. T h e Mexican National Archives have records of several monks named Carvajal, as well as of a bigamist.

19 "The Indian Jews of Mexico," American Judainn, V (Jan., 1956), 10-12.

See Lucien Wolf, Jews in the Canary Islands (London, 1926).

THE MESTIZO JEWS OF MEXICO 1 ~ 3

An old cemetery - estimated in 1949 to have been between fifty and seventy-five years old - was used by the ancestors of the "Mestizo Jews" of Venta Prieta. It was examined by an Amer- ican who is an authority on folklore and by a Mexican Jew. Both informed me of what they had seen. The tombstones had borne crosses, and none predated 1875. At this period of history, how- ever - after I 875 - it would have been possible to leave off the crosses or substitute the insignia of any other religious group. The cemetery has now been abandoned, and when Rabbi Shlomo Goren, Chief Chaplain of the Israeli Army, visited Venta Prieta, Enrique TCllez, the community's present spokesman, begged off with many excuses from taking us there.

Protestant Evangelical Churches were founded at Pachuca in 1873, and at Real del Monte, another neighboring pueblito, in the years 1874 and 1876. Missionaries and evangelists were working diligently in the region, and among them were many Mexican residents of the area as well as American missionaries. Conversions were numerous in the Pachuca area for various reasons. The local silver mines were owned by English-speaking people. The Americans and English there sponsored the building of Protestant churches and the erection of a school. They aided in the propagation of their sect. Pastor Olivera, who served in Pachuca for three years, from 1928 to 1930, never heard of any judios in Venta Prieta or in any other part of the area during his pastorship there. The annual re- ports, conferences, minutes, etc., of the Methodist Episcopal Church for the period from 1887 to 1930 make no mention of the existence of lsraelitas who professed Judaism, or of judios, or of anything to attest to their presence. Members of the church who were inter- viewed stated that the existence of such a group, if known, would have been noted in the reports. Leonard S. Ingram, a missionary of the "brethren," has evangelized in Mexico since I 896 and has been in the Pachuca area many times, but he, too, never heard of judios or Israelitas there prior to 1940."

Significant is the statement of Shimon Amir, an Israeli diplomat

Olivera supplied this information in a personal interview in Feb., 1963; Ingram sup- plied me with his information in Jan., 1963.

I 64 AMERICAN JEWISH ARCHIVES, NOVEMBER, 1967

who served in Mexico for four years, from 1956 to 1960. Writing to me in 1961, he said:

I have met the leaders of the Jewish community of Venta Prieta. . . . On various occasions . . . I have tried to obtain from them a precise account of their descent. None of them could show anv document which could serve as a basis for any exact conclusion. As i n alternative, I tried to examine their Jewish ancestry, in the form of individual "case studies." Some of them admitted . . . that in their childhood they had been converted to Protestantism and in a later stage to Judaism. A few stated that they had been born Jews, but only one - the leader of the community in Venta Prieta - could remember that his grandmother had arrived in Venta Prieta "because of being persecuted in the North of Mexico" where she had resided beforehand. rMorelia is not in the North of Mexico. but so rapidly do legends changi!]

On the whole, the members of this group, when not confronted indi- vidually, pretend being descendants of the Spanish marranos who arrived after the Conquest. Another assertion often repeated was that there were in Mexico numerous nuclei of these Jews. After my insistence, I once received a list of these nuclei. . . . Some of them I did not find at all. [In Toluca, he found one who was living as a Crypto-Christian]. . . . According to what he told me, he was born a Roman Catholic, later con- verted to Protestantism, and still later to Judaism, as a result of "mis- sionary" work done by the V. P. [Venta Prieta] group. . . . During my four years stay in Mexico, I was approached a number of times by other self-professed Jewish groups, but on examining their beliefs and customs, I found that they were members of some splinter Protestant sect.

Worth noting, too, is Laureano Ramirez7 statement in an interview with a reporter for a leading American weekly magazine about November 8, 1956: "In all synagogues (Pachuca, Guerrero, San Luis Potosi, Cuernavaca and Nuevo Ledn), we practice religion as it is practised in Nonetheless, as a five-time visitor to Israel and as one conversant with religious practices there, and as one who has attended the services at Calle Caruso conducted by Laureano Ramirez and has interviewed at least ten others who have attended these services, I can state that there is only a vague

la Though the interview never appeared in print, the reporter showed me a copy of the story which he submitted to his editor.

THE MESTIZO JEWS OF MEXICO 1 ~ 5

similarity between religion "as it is practised in Israel" and as it is practised by the disciples of Laureano Ramirez.

In 1957, Baltazar Laureano Ramirez wrote to Rabbi David Polish: "Since we are under the sun we practice Brith Milah [cir- cumcision] in our own children. . . ."23 In 1958, however, repre- sentatives of the Mestizo groups approached an official of the Ashkenazi Kehilla, the Mexican Jewish community organization for those of Eastern European descent, with a request to have them pay for circumcision for their congregants. The matter was sub- mitted to the stadt-rabbonim, the official rabbis for the Kehilla, and the stadt-rabbonim determined that the people were not Jewish and, therefore, not entitled to religious circumcision. (Rabbi Goren held likewise after his superficial investigation.) They volunteered to help them through a conversion proceeding, if they desired it, on an individual basis, since sincerity in desiring conversion and knowl- edge of fundamental Judaism are basic req~irements.~4 O f course, neither "Rabbi" Ramirez nor "Rabbi" Salazar, of Venta Prieta, could accept this proposition on behalf of their flocks because it would have been tantamount to an admission that they were not already Jews.

The Mexican journalist Ledn Wainer-Kahn, who was a school- mate of a son of Ramirez', wrote:

Most of the Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jews do not accept the Judaism of the old members of the Iglesia de Dios, who now pass themselves off as Jews. Sometime back, in 1939, I learned of a Protestant group who had been converted to Judaism under the direction of Licenciado Baltazar Laureano Ramirez. His son, Laureano Ramirez and later Laureano Luna (he later changed his name), informed me of the transformation. . . . Next they enwrapped themselves in the myth; the new Jews wrote their own history, they formed great ideas about themselves and the early days of the conquest of Mexico. Of course, they did not delay in attempting to pass themselves off as descendants of Luis de Carvajal, el Mozo. As a result of this tale, they touched the hearts of many good people and re- ceived economic aid without any delay.*s

Copy in the American Jewish Archives.

14 Rabbi Jacob Avigdor so advised me by letter.

"Son Judios porque Quieren Serlo" [They are Jews Because They Want to Be], La Vida en M h i c o (April 14, 196z), p. 8.

Patai, too, commented: "In the Jewish group the lack of religious zeal contrasts remarkably with their ardent wish to be accepted as descendants of the ancient Jews."

These people who had left Catholicism for a Protestant sect, the Iglesia de Dios, and who then switched from being "Israelitas" to "judios," obviously want roots. Mexicans love tradition. Their switching of religions and sects had left them with a desire to have firm identification. They cannot revert. They must save face. Anyone who has studied such noted Mexicans as Octavio Paz, Samuel Ramos, and Santiago Ramirez can readily understand this. A passage from The Labyrinth of Solitude by Octavio Paz, one of Mexico's most notable sons, illustrates the problem:

W e [Mexicans] tell lies for the mere pleasure of it, like all imaginative people, but we also tell lies to hide ourselves and to protect ourselves from intruders. Lying plays a decisive role in our daily lives, our politics, our love affairs as well as our friendships and since we attempt to deceive ourselves as well as others, our lies are brilliant and fertile. . . . Our lies reflect both what they lack and what we desire, both what we are not and what we would like to be.z6

Dr. Robert Ravicz, an eminent anthropologist fluent in Spanish, has studied the Venta Prieta group for the purpose of doing a socio- logical study on them and their relationship with their non-Jewish neighbors. He has confirmed that, rather than telling the truth, these "Mestizo Jews" tell tourists what they think the tourists want to hear. Dr. Ravicz informed me in May, 1963, of some new proselytes who had left the Iglesia de Dios to adopt Judaism. Of course, they did not go through the formal Jewish ceremony of conversion.

W e must now turn our attention to a Church, a philanthropic group, and three men. The Church is the Iglesia de Dios; the group is the "American Friends of the Mexican Indian Jews,"

26 Translated by Lysander Kemp (New York, 196 I ) .

Dr. Ravicz supplied this information in a personal interview.

THE MESTIZO JEWS OF MEXICO 167

which had a brief existence; and the men are Baltazar Laureano Ramirez, the late Rabbi Morris Clark, and the late Chaim (Henry) Shoskes.

The Church of God, whose Mexican branch is the Iglesia de Dios, has a history which traces itself back to Moses. The Church identifies itself as a Sabbatarian Protestant movement and contends, in A History of the True Church:

From the time of the exodus of the twelve tribes of Israel from Egyptian bondage to the advent of our Saviour, the church was called "Israel," this term having originated through the experience of Jacob wrestling with the angel. . . . That Isaiah's prophecy was fulfilled in the change of name from Israel to the Church of God is further seen by reading Acts zo:z8. . . .

The Mosaic laws were and are part of the basic dogma of this Church. "The flesh of swine was placed under ban," and the "Passover, or the Lord's Supper," was to be "on the fourteenth day of the first Jewish month (Nissan, also known as Abib), i. e. on the evening of the Passover." In 1932, "with the assistance of Elder Henry Cohen, a Hebrew-Christian, they published I 50,ooo gospel tracts in the Hebrew language," and headquarters were established in Palestine. The date of the Church's establishment in Mexico does not appear, but a convention held at Saltillo in 1925 was comprised of various existing churches in Mexico and was attended by Baltazar Laureano Rarnirez. Members of the Iglesia de Dios wear in their lapels a six-pointed star, which the Jews call "The Star of David." The History reveals that Mexico was repre- sented at Salem, West Virginia, on November 4, 1933, in response to the call to choose, by lot, the Twelve and the Seventy. Head- quarters in the various countries were also chosen, among them Mexico City. Raymond Saenz of Mexico was one of the Twelve, and eight Mexicans were among the Seventy.

As the Publicacimes de la Iglesia de Dios - Constitucih, Gobierno y Doctrina de la Iglesia de Dios - testify, the Church holds that Jesus is the Saviour, Redeemer, and Messiah and that he, as a Son of God, was born of the Virgin. Included in its dogma is the total acceptance of all Christian Scriptures and other Christian concepts. On the last page of the official publication of the Iglesia de Dios in

the 1930,s appears the following: "NOTA: Para mds infomnes dirijase a1 S&or Laureano B. Ramirez, Apartado Postal 1 ~ 2 7 , Mkxico, D. F." (For more information you are directed to Sr. B. Laureano Ramirez. . . .) In November, 1961, Dr. Patai stated, in referring to a pamphlet written by "Sr. Rarnirez" in September, 1948, that it "is of a polem- ical character, criticizing the Iglesia de Dios, for its non-monotheistic character. . . . What is interesting is that as recently as 2 0 - 30 years ago, he was a leader of the Iglesia de D i ~ s . " " ~ Dr. Patai, at that time, did not know that Laureano Ramirez had been separated from the Iglesia de Dios in Mexico City during the 1930's by the Reverend Zeferino Laureno Ramirez, minister of the Iglesia de Dios, for reasons explained in March, 1963, to Dr. Paul Nathan. Baltazar would, then, naturally write polemical literature against the Iglesia. Having once converted the Mestizos from Catholicism or agnosticism to Protestantism, as exemplified by the Iglesia de Dios, he was later involved in switching them to Judaism.

A letter, dated January 26, 1962, from Chaplain (Rabbi) Joshua L. Goldberg, U. S. Navy (Ret.), stated in part:

I was introduced to Mr. B. L. Ramirez in Mexico City. . . . I visited the synagogue of the Mexican Indian Jews and preached there.. . . I did not go too deeply into the scientific details of their history. I understand that one of the Conquistadores, who was a Marrano, upon reaching Mexico, reverted with his family to Judaism and treated his Indian slaves so well that they accepted the family's religion. . . . I know, however, that Dr. Henry Shoskes, of HIAS, claims to be the discoverer of the group and had written on the subject. . . . Frankly, I had it in mind to go again to Mexico, and then I would have given myself the opportunity to look into the matter more dee ly, for the self-annoinred Rabbi, B. L. Ramirez, who is a lawyer and the f actotum of the synagogue, did not leave me with the impression that he's a missionary in the name of the God of Israel. . . . (Italics added.)

Mr. Shoskes wrote of Baltazar Laureano Ramirez:

The rninistro could not read the ancient text of the parchment and asked me with some embarrassment to read in his place a few verses from the portion of the week. . . . The most plausible theory is that the present-day Jewish Indians are the descendants of the Spanish Marranos who came to

2 8 In a letter from Dr. Patai to me.

THE MESTIZO JEWS OF MEXICO I 69

Mexico in the sixteenth century to escape from the Inquisition in Spain. These refugees were for the most part men, who married native women. In the course of generations, the descendants of these Marranos lost their Semitic features and became outwardly indistinguishable from their neigh- bors. . . . They had ceased to practice circumcision after the Inquisition was established in Mexico, as the circumcised Marrano was burned at the stake; but they have revived this rite in recent decades.=g

Now, there are innumerable Inquisitional procesos involving Jews which reveal that circumcision had been effected during the entire Mexican colonial period ( I 5 2 1-1 8 2 I). T h e verdict after I 642 was usually exile, return to Spain, jail, and confiscation of all property. T h e stake was reserved for relapsos or some obstinate prisoners who refused to admit heresy. Circumcision was not the crime. Circumcision was sought as corroboration of guilt. Its presence was proof of heresy. It is impossible to discern differences between the punishment imposed on Jews bearing the Mark of the Covenant and on those who had no such mark, but were still found guilty of observing the Law of Moses. Attention should be directed to the last sentence in the quoted passage from Shoskes' book and to Laureano Ramirez' statement in his letter to Rabbi Polish: "Since we are under the sun we practice 'Brith Milah' [circumcision] ."

It would seem that many writers repeat garbled versions from Toro's La Familia Carzlajal, and B. Laureano Ramirez may owe his account to what he may recall from having read i t and from what he learned about Judaism from Rabbi Morris Clark and from Shoskes. Rabbi Clark acted as a teacher of Judaism for the Mexican lawyer. They had met sometime in the 1930's, coincidentally about the time the Mexican was going from Protestantism to Judaism, but still using the name of Iglesia de Dios in Venta Prieta. I think that Rabbi Clark, who helped sponsor Baltazar Laureano Ramirez, had partially atoned for the extreme naiveti: or deception that he had perpetrated, or for the fulfillment of a desire to participate in something unique or sensational. Unfortunately, his atonement as represented by his letter to Rabbi Joseph H. Gumbiner never re- ceived the publicity it deserved.

' 9 Your World and Mine (New York, 1 9 5 2 ) ~ pp. 207-9.

On March zo, 1944, a letter was mailed, and the stationery on which it was written contained the names of many officers and of the National Advisory Board of the "American Friends of the Mexican Jews." Those listed were prominent in the American Jewish community, and equal distinction applied also to most of the Mexican sponsors. When, in 1961, verification was sought of their affiliation with the group, prominent people like Rabbis David de Sola Pool, Solomon B. Freehof, and Maurice N. Eisendrath all denied any knowledge of affiliation with the "American Friends of the Mexican Indian Jews." Dr. Nahum Goldrnann vaguely remem- bered being asked to help, but he had never heard further from them. Several of the Mexican sponsors "disaffiliated" themselves for reasons similar to those set forth by Rabbi Morris Clark.

Mrs. Murray Campbell, author of an article on the Venta Prieta group, stated that she clearly remembered asking them what other like groups there were in Mexico and where there were other synagogues. The answer was Venta Prieta and Pachuca (actually the same) as well as Apipilulco and Cocula. Most pertinent was their significant omission of any reference to Licenciado Ramirez and his Mexico City "synagog~e."3~

Baltazar Laureano Ramirez is the leader of the Calle Caruso synagogue. They are inextricably entwined. The synagogue has had three names: Congregacidn de Elohim (Hebrew for Congrega- tion or Church of God, a literal translation of Iglesia de Dios); Bnei Elohim; and, finally, Kahal Kodesh Bnei Elohim, its present name.

The editor of the United Israel Bulletin, a free-lance news sheet not affiliated with the State of Israel, published a lengthy article on Lawyer Rarnirez.31 The self-ordained "Rabbi, Mohel and teacher"

3 0 Visidn (November 17, 1961), p. 37.

31 "Mexican Israelites Champion Mosaic Faith," United Israel Bulletin, VII (No. to, March, 1956), I , 3 .

THE MESTIZO JEWS O F MEXICO '7'

gave me, as well as four tourists present at the time, copies of an issue of this periodical. "This is the truth," he said, and he must be adjudged to have approved the contents. The article states that "Rabbi" Ramirez "attends to the religious needs of his people, such as circumcision, marriages, etc. . . ." The editor then attributes to "the amiable Ramirez" the revelation that in the Monterrey region of northern Mexico

live hundreds of thousands of Mexican Catholics who consider themselves descendants of Hebrews. Some of the leaders, he said, had often come to him and requested that he establish a synagogue in their midst.

There is a three-story Jewish community center building in Mon- terrey, plus a private school that goes through high school and a large, beautiful synagogue. The leaders of the Monterrey Jewish organizations stated that no Indian or Mestizo group or any Catholics claiming descent from Jews had ever approached them for mem- bership, help, teaching, conversion, or association of any kind.

A man named "Camajal" -the only one in the entire group alleging this as his name - has a son who gave an interview to a reporter for the National Jewish Post.3' The young boy, "Javier (Shimon) de la Vega Carvajal," asserted that his "father is a Mexican Indian who has converted to Judaism. . . . His grandfather's mother came to Mexico when she was young. She married twice, the second time to a Catholic. Shimon's grandfather is the son of the first husband, presumably a Jew." (Italics added.) This grandfather was interviewed by me. Born a Catholic, he had himself circumcised and formally converted in 1942. He publicly stated in 1963 that he knows "of no drop of Jewish blood" in his ancestry.

Though all accounts of the Mestizo Jews contend that the Carvajal family had been destroyed by the end of the sixteenth century, Anica, the youngest daughter of Rodriguez de Mattos, was burned in person in El Gran Auto-da-Fe' of April I I , I 649, when she was sixty-six years of age and a widow.

While some have written about the similarities between Chris- tianity and Indian beliefs, it is also easy to show analogies between

3' "Mexican Indian Jew Studies in N. Y. Yeshiva," National Jewish Post and Opinion, Sept. 30, 1960, p. 3.

Jewish practices and those of the Indians. Washing, confession, fasting, offering of the first fruits, and the system of jurisprudence were Jewish as well as Indian and Christian customs. In fact, Bishop Diego de Landa and Fray Antonio Vhsquez Espinosa, among many others, wrote in the seventeenth century of the similarities between the Indians and Jews.33 Blood was of great importance to the Aztec Indians prior to the Conquest. Their gods required blood so that they could give life to the people. For many years during the colonial era, Mexico City had the greatest concentration of Judaizers in the country. The Jewish ritual slaughtering of chickens, including letting the blood run into the earth, and the circumcision ritual which caused some drops of blood to flow, must have re- called to the Indian pre-Christian rites. As early as 1540, Juan de Baeza was tried by the Inquisition for Judaizing, and during the proceedings it was adduced that he had circumcised some children, one of whom was an Indian child.

Many of the accused Judaizers, including the women, showed exceptional heroism. Julio JimCnez Rueda, while erroneously re- ferring to Jews as a race, wrote that they "bore the torture [of the Inquisition] with great valor, not only the men, but also women like Ana Vaez who suffered all the turns of the cord and the jars of water which they [the Inquisitors] were accustomed to force into the accused, without informing on any of their friends."34 The autos-da-fe' were public holidays. People were ordered to come, and they had to bring their servants, too. Indians were compelled to watch. They noted that Jewish men and women, among others, were going to the stake and being burned for their faith. T o the Indian of Central Mexico, this was an enactment of the legends and stories which he had heard from his elders about the merit of dying bravely for one's gods. The martydom evidenced in the autos-da-fC and the scourging or lashing which Jewish women en- dured in the streets for their religion must have made a deep im- pression on the Indian or the disenfranchised or bastard Mestizo.

33 Antonio V6squez de Espinosa, Descripcidn dc la Nueva Espaiiu en cl Siglo XVII (Mexico, '944) > PP. 49 C t xeq.

34 Hcrejfas y Supersticiones en la Numa Espaiia (Mexico, 1 9 ~ 6 ) , p. 109.

THE MESTIZO JEWS OF MEXICO '73

The Indian and the Jew were both objects of religious persecution by the Spanish overlords. What greater bonds of brotherhood could there be than those of the shared religious significance of blood and of persecution? It does not strain one's credulity to imagine a Jew circumcising an Indian and saying, "Now we are blood brothers. All you see and hear in this household is secret." In 1605, Gonzdlo de Tal and Alonzo Gonzdlez, servants of Alonso de Rivera, were accused before the Inquisition of "practicing certain Jewish acts."35

The Israeli diplomat, heretofore quoted, advanced this hypothesis :

It seems that the main group is the Venta Prieta group, which some time in the past has conducted some missionary work. [This was part of the Iglesia de Dios activity.] . . . They are not the descendants of the Marranos. . . . It is possible that some of the 'conquistadores' secretly kept, for some time, some Jewish customs, which were seen and later copied by the servants of their entourage. These Indian Jews might be the descendants of these servants. Most probably, while practising these customs, they were never aware of their meanings, and their relation to Judaism. After the laws of the Reforma in the second half of the XIX century, Protestants started to conduct missionary work, and probably reached some of these Indians practicing Jewish customs. After being acquainted with the Old Testa- ment, perhaps they [the Indians] discovered the similitude of their own customs with those of the Bible and started to consider themselves Jews. This hypothesis is based on affirming some relation between these Indian Jews and the Protestants.

It is necessary to recall the growth of Protestantism in the Pachuca area as early as 1874, the favorable climate that existed for its diffusion in that part of the State of Hidalgo, the distribution of copies of the Old Testament and the dissemination of the informa- tion contained therein. Several have stated that the tunes they heard sung by the "Mestizo Jews" as late as ten years ago were P~otestant tunes. Subsequently they adopted for their devotions the Ashkenazic liturgical music taught them by a Mr. Chernifsky. In the I ~ ~ o ' s , the Colonia Vallejo group used as their cantor MoisCs Rubinstein, a European-born Jew.

Dr. Adolfo Fastlicht, a member of the Mexican sponsors of the "American Friends of the Mexican Indian Jews," stated that, when

3s Tomo z 8 I , Expediente 61, AGN.

'74 AMERICAN JEWISH ARCHIVES, NOVEMBER, 1967

he first had contact with these people, he heard them singing hymns in praise of Jesus as well as Moses. His affiliation as a Mexican sponsor was at the urging of Rabbi Morris Clark. He disavowed the group shortly after a shipment of prayer and other books arrived for the "Mestizo Jews" from the United States and he ascertained the manner of the disposition of some of the books.s6 The Enciclo- pedia Judaica Castellana also corroborates the Protestant origins of the "Mestizo Jews":

Beside the religious congregations of the Sephardim and Ashkenazim, there is a group of proselytes who are called Indian Jews. The members of this group are no more Indians than the remainder of Mexican citizenry. There has also arisen a pretension, with all the exaggeration of sensa- tionalism, that this group consists of descendants of the secret Jews of the sixteenth century. This is an exaggeration.

The Jewish group to which we refer came in great part from the Protestant sect, Iglesia de Dios, who began their activities in Mexico during the past century. Part of the members of this sect consider them- selves spiritual Jews, circumcised in their hearts, and venerate Jesus of Nazareth, neither as a God or son of God, but as a prophet. As a con- sequence of disputes and for other reasons, some affiliates of the sect decided to consider themselves Jews and have lived as such for some two decades. Their children learn to read Hebrew, and the cult uses the Jewish devotionals. The balance of their Protestant dependence is found in their hymns.37

The art of cross-examination, deftly and subtly employed, often reveals what Carl L. Becker has so aptly stated: "Passionate faith and expert rationalism are apt to be united." Furthermore, "It is not always possible to press what William James called 'the irre- ducible brute facts7 into the neat categories prescribed by faith."38 The Mestizo Jews have faith; like most Mexicans, they passionately believe what they say - but "the irreducible brute facts" refute the antiquity of their membership in the category of faith which they have adopted for themselves.

36 From a personal interview with Dr. Fastlicht in Oct., 1962.

3 7 Enciclopedia Judaica Castellana (Mexico, 1948), VII, 446.

S 8 Carl L. Becker, The Heavenly City of the Eighteenth Century (New Haven, I932), p p 8-9.

Book Review

SCHAPPES, MORRIS U. A Pictorial History of the Jews in the United States. Foreword by the Reverend Dr. David de Sola Pool. New Revised Edition. New York: Marzani & Munsell. 1965. xii-xiii, 339 pp. $7.50

Marzani & Munsell are to be congratulated upon the issuance of this revised and expanded edition of Morris U. Schappes' superb Pictorial History of the Jews in the United States, first published in 1958. The new edition includes, as an added feature, a short foreword by the Reverend Dr. David de Sola Pool, rabbi emeritus of Congregation Shearith Israel of New York and a prominent American Jewish historian in his own right, who notes that Schappes "presents a vivid story of what Jews have con- tributed to the country over three centuries."

While the revisions in the text are minor, consisting, for the most part, of corrected misprints, Schappes has added a chapter which he entitles, "Postlude: Past the Mid-Century," in which he presents the most important trends in American Jewish life during the past fifteen years and evaluates the various problems which currently confront the American Jewish community.

Schappes is no dry-as-dust chronicler of a dead past, but a historian with a philosophy of history and a set of values which he uses in judging men and issues of the past. The reader may find his views set forth ex- plicitly in the Introduction to his pioneering volume, A Donimer~tary History of the Jews in the United States, 1 6 ~ 4 - 1 8 7 ~ (New York, 1950; revised edition, 1953), and implicitly throughout the present volume. Schappes sees the conflict of classes and existing economic systems as the context within which Jewish life and thought unfold in different countries and periods, and he regards Jewish history as intimately related to the history of non-Jewish society. He describes the history of Jewish culture in the United States, both religious and secular, with a sure mastery, and although he himself is a secularist, his treatment of religious thought and practice is quite fair. He traces the manifestations of anti-Semitism in American society from the very beginnings of colonial history to the present, but he also portrays, and in a very skillful manner, the great advances made by Jews, with the cooperation of their non-Jewish friends, in combatting prejudice and discrimination and in securing political, economic, and social equality. Although he indicates the parts played by Jews on both sides of such events as the Revolutionary War and the Civil

War, and in the prolonged debate on slavery, he does not hesitate to condemn or praise the opinions and actions of Jews and others which, from his point of view, have impeded or furthered the progress of justice and human dignity.

Schappes devotes more space than do other historians to such matters as the history of Jewish secularism, Yiddish culture, and the Jewish labor movement. Although he has been criticized for doing so, he deserves praise rather than censure for throwing light upon aspects of American Jewish history which are all too frequently overlooked or treated superficially by others. On the other hand, as Dr. Pool points out, the volume offers a well balanced treatment of every significant phase of American Jewish history, including the synagogue, Zionism, Hebrew, and Jewish education.

Although, in his final chapter, Schappes does not minimize the serious- ness of many of the problems facing the American Jewish community today - anti-Semitism, intermarriage, Negro-Jewish relationships, and the problem of assimilation - the view which he presents is a positive and affirmative one. Based upon his analysis and evaluation of the role of cultural pluralism in American life, and of the continuance of the prophetic tradition and liberalism in Jewish life, he has confidence in the ability of the American Jewish community to solve its problems, to continue its ethnic and religious identity, and to contribute its share, indeed, more than its proportionate share, as in the past, to the building of a more democratic and a more just American society.

Our author's sympathies, it should be made clear, are with the Left, and he has undoubtedly been influenced by Marxist thought. Still, one need not agree with all his opinions and interpretations of American Jewish history to see that he has written a thoughtful history, based upon thorough research and a knowledge of primary and secondary sources, with photo- graphs which illumine and enliven the text, and that he has thereby made an important contribution to our knowledge of the history of the Jew in the United States. Boston, Mass. LOUIS RUCHAMES

Dr. Louis Ruchames is Professor of History at the University of Massachusetts, Boston.

A Note on the History of the Jews of St. Eustatius

I . S . EMMANUEL

The American Jewish Archives, April, 1967, pp. 60-77, carried an article by Dr. John Hartog: "The Honen Daliem [Dalim] Congregation of St. Eustatius." For this work Hartog made use of important manuscript notes given to him by the late Jossy M. L. Maduro of Curacao, who had devoted forty years of his life to gathering archival material on the Jews of the Netherlands Antilles. Hartog also made use of two important studies by Holland's foremost scholar - Professor L. Knappert. These studies are:

I. "Een Heksen-proces op St. Martin, A. D. 1711'' (West Indische Gids [= W I G ] , Amsterdam, 10th year, 1928-29), pp. 241-64 - about the Jews, pp. 255-56.

2. "Geschiedenis van de Nederlandsche Bovenwindsche eilanden in de 18e eeuw" (WIG, Amsterdam, I ~ t h year, 1929-30), pp. 353-86, 42 1-36, 51 3-41, 559-74 - about the Jews, pp. 5 I 8, 5 36-38.

Hartog made full use of Professor Knappert's footnotes -not always correctly - and neglected to cite either Knappert or Maduro.

COMPARISON OF THE HARTOG FOOTNOTES WITH THOSE OF PROFESSOR KNAPPERT, AND M Y CORRECTIONS OF THE HARTOG NOTES

Foomote [ =Fn.] 2, p. 61. Prof. Knappert "Een Heksen-proces . . . 17 I I" (WIG, gave the archive as "ibid." Apparently not 1928-29, p. 255) mentions the Juda realizing what the ibid. was, Hartog failed Obediente and Salomon Nunes Netto to give the archive number. visit to St. Eustatius in 17 I I. Knappert's

footnote I , p. 256, reads as follows: "Testimony of two of the Jewish nation, Curacao, January 24, 1714, ibid., fol. 414." [N. B. -The ibid. stands for West Indische Comp. Archive, Brieven en Papieren van St. Eustatius, portfolio no. 2,-fol. 414.1 Hartog omitted-the sec- ond part of this note: "A similar decla- ration was made by Pieter Heyliger and others in St. Eust. on Feb. I 7, I 7 14, ibid., folio 444."

Fn. 3, p. 61. Hartog copied the Knappert "Geschiedenis . . . r 8e eeuw" ( W I G , footnote incorrectly and omitted the 1929-30, pp. 537-38, note I of p. 538: pagination. "[Letter of the] Chamber of Amsterdam

Dr. I. S. Emmanuel is the author of Precious Stones of the Jews of Curacao, Curacaun Jewry, 1656-1957 and Masavot Saloniki. His history of Curacaon Jewry is soon to appear.

177

to [Everard] Raecx, Sept. 18, 1730, [folio] 340, W [est] . I [ndlsche]. C[om- pany]. [Archive] 473."

Fn. 5, p. 62. Hartog mistook the pagina- Ibid., p. 538, note 3, reads as follows: tion for the archive number. H e omitted "Chamber of Amsterdam to [Governor giving the archive of the Governor Faesch Isaac] Faesch, Feb. 2 3, I 737 and Nov. 2 I , letter to the W.I.C. Council. 1739, [folio] 341, W.I.C. [Archive] 474.

Up to July 9, 1738, the synagogue was not yet [built]. [Letter of] Faesch to the [Council ofl Ten of this date, port[folio]. no. 5, fol. 141r." It was Knappert who stated. on the basis of the archives he consulted, that the synagogue plot was so situated that Jewish religious services would not disturb those of t i e Christians.

Fn. 8, p. 63, Journal of a Lady of Quality. WIG, ibid., p. 538, note 6, edition of 1923, Hartog omitted the ~agination. p. 136; edition of 1921, pp. 135-36, ac-

cording to the Maduro notes.

Fn. g, p. 63. Hartog Inistook the pagina- WIG, ibid., note 4: "[Letter of the] tion for the archive number. Chamber of Amsterdam to [Governor]

De Windt, Dec. 19, 1760, [folio] 342, W.I.C. [Archive] 475."

Fn. 13, p. 65. Hartog omitted the volume Teenstra, vol. 2, p. 252, reads as follows: number and pagination of the Teenstra "Van de vroeger bestaan hebbende Syna- book. goge, op het Oosteinde der Achterstraat,

aan de Zuidzijde, is niets meer overig dan eenige puinhopen, die boven het hooge onkruid uitsteken."

Fn. 6, p. 62. Hartog cites the "Memorias Information given by Maduro, exactly: Curiel" in the archives of MikvC Israel, "Memorias Curiel," 18 Tebet, 5498; Curasao. As a former rabbi of that con- "Memorias Senior," 18 Tebet, 5498. As gregation, I know they were not there. I stated in my Precious Stmes of the Jews

of Curafao (1957, p. 566), these important records never formed part of the Mikvk Israel Archives. They are the property of the estate of the late S. A. L. (Mongui) Maduro, of Curaqao.

A NOTE ON THE HISTORY OF THE JEWS OF ST. EUSTATIUS

Fn. 7, p. 62; fn. 12, p. 65. These letters Information given by Maduro. were for many years in the possession of the late Jossy Maduro who passed them on to me. There is no copy of them extant. Where did Hartog examine them?

Fn. 8, p. 63. Part of this note was given by Maduro. Hartog omitted the pagination; it is p p ' 3 5-36.

Fn. 10, p. 64. Hartog omitted the Pam- Hendrik Garanan, Engelsche Tieranny phlet number as given by Maduro. (Amsteldam, MDCCLXXXI), kept at the

Royal Library, The Hague, pamphlet no. 19729.

At p. 60, footnote I , Hartog cites my "New Light on Early American Jewry," AJA, VII, 1955, without giving ~agination, as source that an Amsterdam Jew, Jacob Loew, had relatives in St. Eustatius about 1656. I do not know of any such person.

At p. 61, Hartog incorrectly gives the Jewish population as twenty-two souls - among them, five women. According to the archives consulted by Professor Knappert, there were twenty-one Jews, including four women ("Geschiedenis . . . 18e eeuw," PP. 5'8, 537).

IN RE THE EPITAPHS IN THE JEWISH CEMETERY OF ST. EUSTATIUS (AJA, APRIL, 1967, PP. 67-77)

The Reverend Mr. R. J. Willingham, a Methodist clergyman on St. Eustatius, copied for Hartog seventeen epitaphs from the Jewish Cemetery of St. Eustatius (ms., American Jewish Archives). Hartog published them. Jossy Maduro sent me seventeen epitaphs from St. Eustatius, English and Portuguese texts, with several photos of the inscriptions. All these epitaphs appear in the second volume (appendix 24 D) of my forthcoming book, "History of the Jews of the Netherlands Antilles" (at the printer's since November, 1966). I compared the Maduro copy with the Rev. Willingham epi- taphs, with the Florence (Mrs. Robert) Abraham notes copied for Dr. Jacob R. Marcus, and with photos taken by Mr. Samuel Strouse (all the material, save the Maduro notes, at the American Jewish Archives).

With all due respect for Rev. Willingham, these epitaphs published by Hartog should be re-published, inasmuch as both he and Dr. Hartog are non-Jews and are not expert Hebraists, and as a consequence, there were many errors in the Hebrew epitaphs. In two instances whole lines were omitted. In another instance the deceased's name was omitted. In two other instances there is a discrepancy between the Hebrew and secular dates. In still another instance the deceased's name was changed. The emenda- tions made in the Hebrew texts are not always accurate. Even the English and Portuguese texts often are rendered incorrectly.

As to the epitaph of Mrs. "Nnah [Hannah] Mears wife of Mr. Samson Mears" (d. 1768). I should like to make an observation. The Rev. Willingham specifically stated that this inscription probably does not belong to the Jewish Cemetery of St. Eustatius (p. 67). Hartog did not notice that Samson Mears (p. 62) was the husband of this very "Nnah Mears," and that in 1772 he served as treasurer of the St. Eustatius Jewish community (according to Maduro's notes).

In conclusion, the Honen Dalim Synagogue of St. Eustatius was not a two-storied . - - building as Hartog states (p. 62). The stairs led to the women's gallery on the style of Curafao's Mikvt Israel Synagogue.

THE ARCHIVES SEEKS MATERIAL ON ARAB-ISRAELI WAR

A sizeable file of material documenting the Western Hemisphere's reaction

to the Six-Day W a r of June, 1967, between Israel and the Arabs is in the process

of being amassed at the American Jewish Archives. Readers are alerted that

contributions to this file will be very welcome here.

The Archives wishes to acquire unpublished material like letters from Amer-

icans abroad during the crisis as well as published items like editorials and

letters to the editors of Western Hemisphere newspapers and periodicals.

Organizational statements and releases would also be most useful, as would

photographs of Americans in Israel and of demonstrations relating to the crisis.

Should any of our readers have received letters or clippings from abroad in

regard to the involvement of Western Hemisphere individuals, communities,

and governments, the Archives would be glad to have them, or copies of them,

for its files.

Index

AARON, MRS. MARCUS LESTER, 96 "Abba Hillel Silver: A Personal Memoir,"

107-20, 123-26 ABBOTT, WILLIAM R., 48 ABC Radio and Television, I 59 ABRAHAM (family), I O I

ABRAHAM DE SEML (SAMUEL), St. Eusta- tius, N.A., 77

ABRAHAM, FLORENCE (MRS. ROBERT), I 77 Abraham Lincoln and the Jews, 89 ABRAHAM, SIMON, 99 ABUZA, CHARLES Z., 99; MOSES C., 99 ABRAMOWITSCH, SHALOM JACOB (MEN-

DELE), 3 Actors, 88 Adjustment, I 29 ADLER, CYRUS, 88 ADLER, LIEBMANN, I O I

ADLER, SELIG, 92 Admirals, 63, 79, 152 Adoption of Judaism, 147-48, I 59, 166 Adult education, I 3 2, I 38 Adults, 6 I , I I 3 Aeronautics, 86 Agencies, Jewish, I 36 Agnosticism, 168 Agriculture, 16, 57, I 38; see also Farms Alameda, N. Mex., roo Alaska, 23-24, 99, 104; see also Fairbanks,

Juneau, Nome "Alaska Outfitters," Seattle, Wash.,

23-24 Albany, N. Y., 89 Albuquerque, N. Mex., 34 Alcan Highway, 104 Alexander Kohut Memorial Foundation,

1 0 3 Alexandria, Egypt, I 3 0 ALONSO, HERNANDO, 148, I 5 I ALTMANN, ALEXANDER, 10 I

America, American life, American people, Americans, I , 3, 6, 9, 11, 25, 28, 41, 52, 59. 78, 81-83, 86-91, 94, 98, 102, 115, "7, 119-20, 127-29, 133, 136-38, 144, 151, 1.59, 163; see also North America, Un~ted States

American Association for State and Local History Committee on Awards, 3 3

American Christian Palestine Committee, 119

American Council for Judaism, I 20

American Federation of Actors, 99 American Federation of Labor, 86 American Friends of the Mexican Indian

Jews, 156, 161-62, 16667, 170, 173 American Hebrew (New York City), 95 American Jewish Committee, 88, 103,

118, 127 American Jewish Conference, 96, I 18 American Jewish Historical Society, New

York, N. Y., 127 American Jewry, American Jews, 33, 37,

82, 85, 89, 91, 96, 101, 120, 124, 128, 131-37, 141, 17% 175-76

American Judaism, 80, 105, I 28, I 3 I , 135 American Zionism, American Zionists,

American Zionist movement, 79-83? 88, 105, 124

American Zionist Emergency Council, I 17, 119, 1 2 3

Americanization, I 34 Americans of Jewish Descent, 142 AMIR, SHIMON, 156, 163-64 Amsterdam, Holland, 60-61, 95, I 75-77;

Jews of, 60 ANDRADA, FRANCISCO JORGE DE, I 5 I Anshe Chesed Congregation, Cleveland,

Ohio, 92 ANSKI, S.; see Rapoport, Solomon S. Anthologies, r I 5 Anthropology, anthropologists, 89, 166 Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith,

I01

Anti-Jewish prejudice; see Anti-Semitism, Prejudice

Anti-Nazis, 98 Antiquities, I z 6 Anti-Semitism, anti-Semites, 82, 85, 90,

100-102; see also Prejudice Anti-Zionism, anti-Zionists, 79, 9 I , 96 Anusirn; see Marranos Apam, Mexico, I 56 Apathy, 128 Apipilulco, Mexico, I 70

Apologetics, I 50 Apostates; see Conversos, Marranos Apostles, Christian, 146 APPELBAUM, MEYER, 94; SAUL B., 94;

MRS. SAUL B., 94 Appleton, Wis., 92 Apprentices, apprenticeship, 2 2

Arab States, Arabs, I 20, I 24 Aragon, Spain, 145 Architects of Caservat ive Judaism, 88 Archives. 62, 175-77 ARENDT, HANNAH, 88 Argentina; see Buenos Aires Arizona, 104 Ark, z I Arkansas; see Little Rock Army, 56, 95; see also Military service,

Soldiers, War ARON (family), 101; MRS. LAZ, 99 Art, the arts, 25, 86, 90, 126 Artef, 86 Ascamoth, 63 Ashkenazi Kehilla, Mexico City, 165 Ashkenazim, 63, 134, 165, 173-74; prayer

book, I 3 3 ; see also German Jews Assimilation, I 28, 148 Assistant rabbis, I I 1-12, I 14 Atheists, 58 Athletes, 88; see also Sports Atom bomb, 3 3 Attorneys general, 48 Attorneys; see Lawyers AUB, JOSEPH, 34 AUER (family), I O I

AUGUSTINIANS, I 5 I Austin, Tex., 58 Australia, 2 I

Authors, 83, 170; see also Journals, Lit- erature, Writers

Autobiographies, 79, 90, IOO

Auto-da-f6, 147, 150, 153-55, 169, 171-72 Auto-emancipation, 8 z Automobiles, 3 3 AVIGDOR, JACOB, 165 Aztecs, 144, 172

BAAR, JACOB, 7 8 BAESA, JOSEPH, 61 BAEZ SEVILLA, SIMON, I04 BAEZA, JUAN DE, 17 2

Bainbridge, Ga., 93; B'nai B'rith Lodge, 93; City Council, 9 3

BALBOA, SAMUEL D'ISAAC MENDES; see Mendes Balboa, Samuel $Isaac

Balfour Declaration, 8 I Baltimore, Md., 94, 98, 128, 135; County,

94 BAMBERGER, BERNARD J., 101

Bankers, banks, 54, 58 Baptism, Christian, I 29, I 5 I Bar Mitzvah, 6, 14-15, 26, 47 BARBER, JOSIAH, 92 BARNARD, HARRY, review of T h e Political

Wor ld of American Zionism, 79-83 BARON, MRS. JOSEPH L., 98 BARRON, CARL F., 98 BARROWAY, HARRY LEWIS, 99 BASINGER, MRS. PAUL J., 95 Bavaria, 52; Jews of, 34 BECKER, CARL L., 174 BEER-HOFMANN-LENS, MIRIAM, 94 BEER-HOFMANN, RICHARD, 94 Belief, religious, 57, 164, 17 I Beliefs, Jewish; see Judaism BELL (family), 99; ETHEL VICTOR, 99;

GERALD S., 99; IRVING A., 99; MORRIS L.7 99

Bellewe, Va., 47-49; High School, 41, 47

BELLOW, SAUL, 88 Belmont Avenue, Brooklyn, N. Y., 26 Bench; see Judges BEN-GURION, DAVID, I 10, 124-25 BEN HORIN, MEIR, 78 BENJAMIN, JUDAH, St. Eustatius, N.A., 62 BERG, HOWARD O., 94 Berlin, Germany, 34, 5 2

BERLIN, ISAIAH, 87 BERMAN, I. B., Toledo, Ohio, 94 BERNSTEIN, HERMAN, 95 BERNSTEIN, PHILIP S., 94, 97 Bet-El; see Casa de Dios Beth din, 147 Beth El Congregation, Detroit, Mich.,

1, 34, 37-40 Beth Elohim Congregation, Charleston, s. c. , 92, 95

BEVIN, ERNEST, 85 Bible, biblical (Old Testament) references,

38, 49, 82, 94-95> 132, 1467 162, 1.73; crlticlsm, 34; Jewlsh Publication Soclety Bible, 8 5; translations, 1 3 3 ; see also New Testament, Old Testament, Pentateuch, Torah

Bibliography, 86, 89 BIDDLE, FRANCIS, 87

INDEX TO VOLUME XIX 1 ~ 3

Bikur Cholom Congregation, Seattle, Wash., 20

BILLIKOPF, JACOB, 97 Biographies, biography, 79, 83-86, 93,

96, 98, 100, 134 Birch Society; see John Birch Society Birmingham, Mich., 101 ; Temple, lor

L.

Bishops, 144, 149, 172 BLANK, AMY K. (MRS. SHELDON H.),

94, 1 0 2

Blood, I7 2-7 3 BLOOM, JESSIE S. (MRS. ROBERT), 99, 104 BLUM, LEON H., 57 BLUMENTHAL, EDITH, 94 BLUMENTHAL, HART, 94; WALTER HART,

94 B'nai B'rith, Independent Order of, 93,

97, I 2 5; Anti-Defamation League, 10 I ; Bainbridge, Ga., Lodge, 93; Hillel Foundations, 93 ; District Grand Lodge No. 2, 97; Simon D. Goodman Lodge No. 726, Fairmont, W. Va., 93; Spring- field, Ill., Lodge No. 67,. 93

Bnai Elohim, Colonia Valle~o, Mexico, 170 Bnai Sholem Congregation, Omaha, Neb.,

9 2 Board of Delegates of American Israelites,

'33 Boarding schools, I 28 Bolsheviks, 85 BOND, FRANCIS, and ISIDORE ZIMMERMAN,

Punishment Without Crime, 9 I Bookkeepers, 2 2

Books, I I , 32, 34, 48, 78-1, 96, 11 1,

125-26, 130, 132, 134-35, 142, 167, 169, 174, 176; see also Authors, Text- books, Writers

Borchu (prayer), 38 Bowery, New York City, 3 I Boycotts, 98 BRANDEIS, LOUIS D., 8 I , 83, 88, 1 0 2

Brandeis University, Waltham, Mass., 160 Brazil; see Dutch Brazil Bremen, Germany, 52 Breslau, Germany, 5 2

BREUER, ERNEST H., 95 Bricklayers, 56 BRICKNER, BARNETT R., I I 6 British; see England, Great Britain British White Paper (1939), 117, I 19 Brith Milah; see Circumcision Broadway, New York City, 25 Bronx, The, New York City, 3 I Brooklyn, New York City, 26, 3 I , 33,

85, 89-90; Brownsville, 26-28, 33; Eastern Parkway, 26, 28, 30; Pitkin Avenue, 26

BUBER, MARTIN, 94 BUCHANAN, JAMES, 95 Budapest, Hungary; see Pest Buenos Aires, Argentina, 103 Buffalo, N. Y., 92; Council of Jewish

Congregations, 92 Burials; see Funerals Burlesque, 33 Burnings; see Auto-da-f6 Business, businessmen, businesswomen, 5,

7-8, 11, 22, 24, 27, 44-45, 56, 94, 96; see also Dealers, Economic life, Mer- chants, Storekeepers, Trade, Whole- salers

Butcher shops, 20, 25 BUTZEL, MARTIN, 40

Cable cars, 23 CAHAN, ABRAHAM, 3 2

CAHNMAN, WERNER J., Intermarriage and Jewish Li fe (review), 78-79

Calaveras County, Calif., 102

California, 24, 102 , 104; see also Calaveras County, Los Angeles, Mariposa County, Petaluma, San Diego, San Francisco

"Call to Detroit, A," 34, 37-40 Calle Caruso, Colonia Vallejo, Mexico

City, 156, 164, 170 Camden, N. J., 99 CAMERON, WILBERT, JR., 10 I

CAMPBELL. MRS. MURRAY, 170 . . Camps, I 17 Campus; see Colleges, Universities Canada. Canadians. I I , 16, 19, 87, 8 9 9 0 ;

Jews of, 78,87; s;e also ~ r e n c h Canadians, Klondike. Manitoba. Montreal, Toronto, ~ancouver , victoria, Winnipeg

Canadian Pacific Railroad, 10

CANTER, IACOR, 76 Cantor; see Chazan Capital punishment, 9 I ; see also Auto-da-f6 Captains (naval), I 5 2

CARCIA, IACOB, 77; RACHEL, 77 Card playing, I 17 CARDOZO, BENJAMIN N., 95; MICHAEL H.,

9 5. Caribbean Sea, 2, 60; see also West Indies Carlsbad, N. Mex., IOO

Carnegie Hall, New York City, 85

CARRASCO, ANTONIO, 103 ; FRANCISCO, I03 CARVAJAL (family), I 5 1-55, 161-62, 169,

17 1 ; ANICA, 154; BALTAZAR, 155; CATA- I.INA, 154; DOMINGO, 15 I ; FRANCISCA N i r B ~ z DE, I 5 1-52 ; ISABEL, I 54; JAVIER

(SHIMON) DE LA VEGA, I 7 I ; Josh MAR~A, 162; LEONOR, 154; LUIS DE Y DE LA

CUEVA, 146, 151-54, 161; LUIS DE, EL

Mozo, 146, 153-55, 165; MARIANA, 154; MIGUEL, 155

CARVALHO, SOLOMON NUNES, I 3 5 Casa de Dios, 146, 156, 167; see also

Iglesia de Dios Castile, Spain, 144-45 CASTILLO, FRANCISCO FERN~NDEZ, 149 Castle Garden, New York City, 5 CASTRO, AM~RICO, 148 "Catholic Israel," 98 Catholicism, Catholic Church, Catholics,

46, go, 144-45, 147, 149, 151-56, 160, 166, 168, 171; see also Christianity, Mexico, Roman Catholics

Caucasians, 145, 155 Cemeteries, 62, 67, 72, 92-4, 147-48,

163, 177-78 Census, 65, 156; see also United States

Census Central Conference of American Rabbis,

95, 104, 107, 114-15, 126, 134, 142 Central European Jews, 63 Centro Deportivo Israelita (Jewish Sport

Club), Mexico City, 145 Ceremonies,. 4-5, 26, 57-58, 129, 166;

see also Rel~gious observance, Rltual Chancery Court, Richmond, Va., 94 Chaplains, 163, 168 Charity; see Philanthropy Charleston, S. C., 92,95, 102, 128-29, 135 Charters, 94 Chazan, 65, 130, 132, 173 Cheder; see Hebrew schools Chemistry, 50 CHENKIN, ALVIN, 78 CHERNIFSKY, MR., Pachuca, Mexico, r 7 3 Chesapeake, Va., 92 Chicago, Ill., 34, I O I

Chichimecs, I 54 Chief rabbi; see Grand rabbi Children, 4-8, 10, 12-16, 23, 26-27, 31,

39, 42-43, 47, 51, 55-56, 617 649 96, 130, 133, 138, 147, 151-529 1549 1599 1729 I74

Chileans, I 50 China, 21

Chinook Indians, 19 Choir, 38 Christian Wahnschaffe, 97 Christianity, Christians, Christianization,

39, 62, 80, 84, 89, 129-30, 136, 146, 149, 152, 155, 159-60, 167, 171-72. 176; see also Catholicism; Church, the; Gen- tiles, Greek Orthodox Church, Iglesia de Dios, Methodists, Non-Jews, Prot- estants, Roman Catholics, Unitarians

Christmas, 52 Church and state, I 36, I 38; see also State

churches Church groups, I 19 Church of God; see Casa de Dios, Iglesia

de Dios Church, the; churches, churchgoers, 21,

57-58, 130, 147, 155, 163 CHURCHILL, WINSTON S., 84, I 2 3 CHYET, STANLEY F., 97, 1 0 2 , 104 Cincinnati, Ohio, 34, 37, 41, 43-44, 9 3 ,

96, 100-104, I 28; Jewish Commumty Council, 96

Circumcision, 26, 154, 165, 169, 171-73 Cisterns, 57 Cities; see Urban areas Citizens, citizenship, I , z I , 24, 56, 59, I 30 Civic groups, I 19 Civil engineers, 95 Civil Guard, Curacao and St. Eustatius,

N.A., 63 Civil life, 84, 99 Civil rights, 96 Civil W a r (United States), 45, 47-48,

103, 134 CLARK, MORRIS, 161-62, 167, 169-70, 174 Classes, the, 175-76; see also Gentry,

Labor, Lower middle class, Masses, the; Middle class, Social life, Workers

"Classical" Reformers, I I 3 CLAVA, BENJAMIN MOSES, 102

Cleburne, Tex., 58 CLEMENT VIII (pope), I 5 5 Clergy, 5 I, 60, 80, 83-84, 177; see also

Priests, Rabbis Cleveland, Ohio, 92, 100, 107-8, I 15-16,

I 24-26; Cleveland Hotel, I 26; see also Temple, the

Clifton Meadows Corporation, Cincinnati, Ohio, 97

CLINET, JOHANNA, 6 I ; NOEL, 6 I Clothiers, clothing business, clothing trade,

I 5 ; see also Garments Clubs, zz, 92; see also Social life

INDEX TO VOLUME XIX

Cocula, Mexico, 170 Codes, I 30 Coffee, coffee industry, 42 COHEN, MRS. ABE, 101

COHEN, HENRY, 167 COHEN, ISRAEI., 79 COHEN, JACK J., 78 COHEN, JACOB X., 95; MRS. JACOB X., 95 COHEN, JAKE, 5 2

COHEN, M., Detroit, Mich., 40 COHEN, SOLOMON PEIXOTTO, 95 Cold Springs (San Jacinto County), Tex.,

45. 56 Colegio (elementary or secondary school),

'45 Colegio Israelita, Mexico City, 145 Colleges, 4, 25, 51-52, 144-45; see also

Universities Collegiate Institute (high school), Canada,

I 2

Collingwood Avenue Temple; see Shomer Ernunim Congregation

Colonia Vallejo, Mexico City, 156, 170, 173

Colonial period (American), 145; (Mexi- can), 149-51, 162, 169, 172

Colonial trade; see Trade Colonization, colonizers, 145, 15 2

Colorado; see Denver, Trinidad Columbia College, New York City, 25 COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER, 145 Coming of Christ, The, His Life and

Miracles, I 50 Commentary (New York City), 88 Commerce, commercial life; see Economic

life Commissioners of Indian Affairs, Middle

Department, 93 Communal leaders, 97; see also Community

service Communal regulations; see Ascamoth Communion, Christian, I 5 I Community, Jewish; see Jewish community Community service, communal life, 54 Com osition, 49 ConLerate Army (Civil War), 56 Conferences, rabbinical; see Rabbinical

conferences Confession, I 7 2

Confirmation, 14, 26, I I 5-1 6; manuals, "5

Confiscation, 169 Congregacibn de Elohim, Colonia Vallejo,

Mexico, 170

Congregation Aaron, Trinidad, Colo., 93 Congregation of Israel, Omaha, Neb., 92 Congregations, 6, 20, 34, 37-40, 47,

60-70, 73-77? 90, 92-95, 103, 1079 1097 113, 117, 126-29, 131-34, 141-42, 174; see also Synagogues, Temples

Congress (of United States), Congress- men, I I 9, I z 3 ; see also House of Repre- sentatives, Senate

Connecticut; 100; see also Hartford, Stam- ford

Conquest, 152, 164-65, 172 Conquistadores, 148, 168, 173 Conscience, freedom of; see Freedom Conservative Judaism, Conservatism, Con-

servative movement, Conservative Jews, 88, 108, 135, 138, 147-48

Consistories, I 3 8 CONTRERAS, PEDRO MOYA DE; see Moya

de Contreras, Pedro Controversies, religious, I 36 Conversion, converts, 78, 97, 102, 142-43,

146-47, 149-51, 159, 161, 163-65, 171 Conversos, 149, 151, 153-54; see also

Marranos COOPER, ELI L., 93 CORETS, MRS. MARK, 98 Corruption, 84 CORT~S, HERNXN, 105, 14.4, 148 Cotton, 58 Coucouz~s, DEMETRIOS A.; see Iakovos COUGHLIN, CHARLES E., 90, I03 Council of Jewish Women, Cincinnati,

Ohio, 93 Court, religious; see Beth din Courts, 24, 55-56; seealso Chancery Court,

Supreme Court COUZENS, JAMES, 83 COWEN, CHARLES, 97 Credit, 57 Creed, 47; see also Doctrines Crime, criminals, z z , 9 I Cristianos viejos (Old Christians), 149,

151-52, 162 CRONBACH (family), 95; ABRAHAM, 95;

MRS. ABRAHAM, 95 Cross, 163 Crypto-Christians, I 64 Crypto-Jews, I 53 ; see also Marranos Cuernavaca, Mexico, I 64 CUEVA, GUTI~RREZ VXSQUEZ DE LA; see

Vdsquez de la Cueva, Gutierez Culture, 4, 25, 32, 56, 82, 86, 89-90, 96,

148

Curacao, Curacaons, 61-63, 65, 175-76, 178; Jews of, 62, 65, 175

Currency, I I , 2 3; see also Money CUSHING, RICHARD, I O Z

Customs, 129, 141, 164, 17273; see also Ceremonies, Religious observance, Ritual

Czarist Russia, Czars; see Russia

Dairy business, 16 Dallas, Tes., 103 DALSHEIMER, HELEN (MRS. HUGO), I O Z

Dancers, 88 Dancing, dances, dance halls, 7, 2 1-12

DANTE, 87 Davening, 10

DAVID BEN HAMENKI LENI PREGER (?), St. Eusratius, N.A., 75

DAVID, MRS. JACOB, 95; THEODORE W., 95 DAVID, SION, 100

DAVIUSON, ROBERT VANCE, 48 DAVIS, MRS. LEWIS F., 3 Day of Atonement; see Yom Kippur Day schools, I 38 Dayton. Ohio, 97, 99; Hadassah, 98 DE FONSECA, MOSES; see Fonseca, Moses de DE GRAAFF, JOHANNES, 60 DE HAAS, JACOB, 88 DE HULLU, J.; see Hullu, J. de DE LA MOTTA, ABRAHAM HISQUIAU, 74 DE LEON, HAIM, 70 DE LEON, HANNAH, 73; PHILIP BEN-

JAMIN, 7 3 DE LEON, SALOMON, 62 DE LIMA, JOSEPH D'ISHAC MESQUITA; see

Mesquita de Lima, Joseph d'Ishac DE LION, DAVID HAIM HEZECIAH, 73;

EMMANUEL, 7 3 ; JUDITH, 7 3 DE MOLINA, ANNA VIEIRA; see Vieira de

Molina, Anna DE MOREIRA, MARGUERITA; see Moreira,

Marguerita de DE PAZO, JOSEPH BUZAGLO, 74 DE PINNA, ELIAU, 65 DE WINDT, JAN, 63, 176 Deaf, the, 98 Dealers, 19; see also Business, Merchants,

Trade Death, 26 Debates, 123, 136 Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, I I

Decorum, synagogue, I 3 3 Decrees, 144-45, 149

Defense, defense agencies and organiza- tions, 96, 130, 132-33

Delaware; see Wilmington DELGADO, ISHAC DIAZ, 62 DELGADO, JACOB DIAZ, 65 Demagogues, 90 Democracy, 78, 82 Democratic Party, Democrats, I I 8 Denmark, 60 Dentists, dentistry, 2 3, 86 Denver, Colo., 94, 96, 104 Department of State (United States); see

State Department Depressions, 28 Detroit, Mich., I , 34, 37-40, 90, 103 DEUTSCH, GOTTHARD, 94 Devil's Lake, N. Dak., 94 Devotionals; see Liturgy Dialogue, Jewish-Christian; see Jewish-

Christian dialogue Diaries, IOO

DIAZ, PETRA, I 60 Diet, 48 Dietary laws, 99; see also Kosher food DIMOV, OSSIP, I04 Diphtheria epidemics, 42 Diplomats, diplomacy, 89, 102, 163, 173;

see also Public office Discrimination, 95, IOO

Disestablishment of state churches, I 38 Displaced persons, 92 District Grand Lodge No. 2, B'nai B'rith,

97 Dissertations, 34 Divorce, divorces, 6 Doctors; see Physicians Doctrines, 47; see also Creed Documents, 93-94, 98 Doings and Undoings, 88 DOMINICANS, I 50 Dowry, 8-9 Dramatists, I 29 Dropsie College, Philadelphia, Pa., I 3 5 DULLES, JOHN FOSTER, I 5 DUPONT (family), 10 I

Dutch Brazil, 60 Dutch, the, 2, 60-61 ; language, 64 Dynamite, 3 3 DZIALYNSKI (family), 99

East, Eastern seaboard (United States), 22, I42

INDEX TO VOLUME XIX 187

East River, New York City, 25 East Side, New York City, 25, 28-30, I I r Easter, 5 z Eastern Europe, I , 3, 32; Jews of, 18,

63. 165 Eastern Parkway, Brooklyn, N. Y., 26,

28, 30 EBAN, ABBA, 94 Economic life, economics, 23, 41, 44-45,

56, 5879 , 89, 165 Economic reform, I I 8 Edge, The, 87 Edicts; see Decrees Editorials, r 36 Editors, 32, 88, 91, 95, 170-71 Education, 4, 11, 14, 39, 47-48, 50-52.

78, 82, 91, 95, 1 1 2 , 128-29, 141; seealso Schools

Educators, 78, I 29-30 EFRON, BENJAMIN, 103 EFRON, DANIEL, 98 EGELSON, LOUIS I., 95; MRS. LOUIS I., 95 EHRLICH, IRVIN, 93 EICHHORN, DAVID MAX, 78 EIDLIN, HAROLD, 10 I

EINHORN. DAVID, 34 EINSTEIN, ALBERT, 84 EISENDRATH, MAURICE N., 170 EISENHOWER, DWIGHT D., I 18, I 25 E l Sa'bado (Mexico City), I 5 I El Sabado Secreto, Periddico Judaimte

(Mexico City), I 50-5 I

Elementary schools; see Schools ELIOT, CHARLES WILLIAM, 97 Emancipation of slaves, 43, 94 Emanu-El Congregation, Dallas, Tex., 103 Emigrants, emigration; see Immigrants EMMANUEL, ISAAC S., 92, 95; "A Note

on the History of the Jews of St. Eustatius," 175-78

Employment, I I , 24, 59, 95-96 Enciclopedia Judaica Castellma, 174 Encomenderos, I 55 Encyclopedia of Jews in Sports, 88 ENELOW, HYMAN G., 95 England, the English, 7, 9, 12, 52, 64-65,

131,,163; Jews of, 101; see also Great Britain

English language, 32, 38-39, 52, 56, 89, 130-31, 133, 145, 163. 177

"Enlightened, The," I 5 I Epidemics, 42 Epitaphs, 177-78; see also Tombstones Equality, equal rights, 61, i 30, 149

Eretz Israel; see Israel (state), Palestine ESPINOSA, ANTONIO VXSQUEZ; see Visquez

Espinosa, Antonio Essays, 78, 86-88, 90, 100, 132, 136 Estates, 6, 55, 102, 104 Ethics, 2 3 ETTING, ELIJAH, 93 Europe, Europeans, 28, 52, 61, 81, 84,

86, 99, I 11, 127, 129, 137, 145; Jews, Judaism of, 84, I 18, 127, 129, 137, 173; see also Central Europe, Eastern Europe

Evangelists, evangelization, 163 EVANS, MRS. J. H., Atlanta, Ga., 97 Evanston, Ill., 98 EVELINE, AUNT (Kempner family servant),

Galveston, Tex., 42-43> 48 Evil, 84 Exile, 169 Exploitation; see Labor Exploration, I 52

FACKENHEIM, E ~ L L., I O Z

Factories, 29, 57 FAESCH, ISAAC, 62, I 76 Fairbanks, Alaska, 99 Fairmont, W. Va., 93 Faith, 57-58, 174 Familin Cawajal, La, I 69 Family, families, family life, I , 4, 42-43,

55, 59, 64; see also Limpieza de sangre Farms, farmers, 7, 16, 130; see also

Agriculture Fascism, 82 Fast days, fasting, 57, 172 FASTLICHT, ADOLFO, I 7 3-74 Fate, Jewish, 82 Father Coughlin and the N e w Deal, 90 Fathers, 159 FAULKNER, WILLIAM, 9 I Federation of Jews of Lithuanian Descent,

96 Federations, I 3 3, I 38 FEIBEL, RUTH C. (MRS. ADOLPH H.), 93 FEIBELMAN, JULIAN B., 101

FELDMAN, ABRAHAM J., 100

Felix Frankfurter: A Tribute, 87 Felix Frankfurter Reminisces, 79 Felix M. Warburg Collection, American

Jewish Archives, Cincinnati, Ohio, too FELLMAN, BLANCHE, 46 FELSENTHAL, BERNHARD, 34, 37 FERNANDO (of Aragon) , r 45

Festivals; see Jewish holidays Feudalism, 82 FEUER, LEON I., 95, 99, 105; "Abba

Hillel Silver: A Personal Memoir," 107-20, 123-26

Fiction, 87 FILLER, LOUIS, 86 Financiers, finance, 3, 58, 87 FINEMAN, IRVING, 79 Fines, 56, 155 FINKELSTEIN, TAVEL, 6-8, 16 Fires. 4q . . <

First fruits, 172 First World War, 84, 86-87, 98 Fish, 8 Flag, American, 60; Mexican, 144 Florida, 00. I 28 Folk songs; 89 Folklore, 144. 163 Folksbuehne, 86 Folkways, 86 FONSECA, MOSES DE, 65 Food, 5, 26-27, 30-31 Forests, z I Fort Orange, St. Eustatius, N.A., 60 Foundations, 86 France, the French, French language, 42,

499 51-52, 657 899 98 FRANK, LEO, 101

FRANKEL, ZACHARIAS, 95 FRANKFURTER, FELIX, 79, 87, 95 Free enterprise, 56 Free speech, 84 Free Synagogue, New York City, 85, 95 Freedom, I 3, 59; religious, I 60 FREEHLING, ALLEN, 101

FREEHOF, SOLOMON B., 88, 102, 126, 170 French Canadians, 89 FREUDENTHAL, LEOPOLD, 100

FRIEDENWALD, HARRY, 79 FRIEDLAENDER, ISRAEL, 88 FRIEDMAN, ARTHUR, 2, 106; LEO, 2, 106 FRIEDMAN, LEE M., 96 FRIEDMAN, NEWTON J., 96 Frontier, zz Funerals, 108, 115, 126, 148, 154 Fur trade, fur traders, furs, 8, 16, 19, 90;

see also Skins FURTADO, DAVID, 62 Fiirth, Bavaria, 34, 37

G Galleys, I 55 Galveston, Tex., 41-42,44-45, 47-49. 103

GAMORAN, EMANUEL, 100; MRS. EMAN- UEL, 100

Garments, 29; see also Clothiers GARNEAU, FRAN~OIS-XAVIER, 89 "Gay White Way," New York City, 25 GEIGER, ABRAHAM, 34, I 27 Genealogists, genealogy, genealogies, 95-

96, 99, 1 0 1 7 142 General Services Administration, National

Archives and Record Service, Washing- ton, D. C., 102-3

Generals, 162 Geneva, Switzerland, 84 GENSS, H., Seattle, Wash., 20

Gentiles, 85; seealso Christianity, Non-Jews Gentry, 2 2

Geography, 49 Georgia; see Bainbridge, Savannah Germany, German language, 4, 32, 34,

37-39? 49, 51-52> 977 100, '30; Jews of, I 11 34, 84, 879 1347 138

Get; see Divorce Ghetto, 25, 28-29, 32, 104 GIBBON, EDWARD, I I

GIDE, A N D R ~ , 89 GINZBERG, LOUIS, 88, 98 GLICKSON, DAVE, 94 God, gods, 26, 57, 84-85, 113, 151.

167-68, 172 Gold, gold rushes, 16, 2 3-24, I 52; see also

Money, Silver GOLDBERG, JOSHUA L., 168 GOLDBERG, MRS. RUTH, 99 GOLDENSON, SAMUEL H., 98 GOLDFADEN, ABRAHAM, 104 GOLDMAN, ROBERT I?., 96 GOLDMAN, SOLOMON, 108, I 16 GOLDMANN, NAHUM, 110, I70 GOLDMARK (family), 96; LLGoldmark-

Stern Letters," 96 GOLDSTEIN, ISIDORE, 24; ROBERT, 23-24 GOLDWATER, BARRY M., 98 GOMPERS, SAMUEL, 86 GONZ~LEZ, ALONZO, I7 3 Good Friday, 5 2

GORDIN, JACOB, 104 GORDIS, ROBERT, 90 GORDON, ALBERT I., review of Inter-

marriage and Jewish Life, 77-79 GOREN, SHLOMO, 163. 165 GORENSTEIN (GOREN) , ARTHUR (ARYEH) ,

9' Gotharn Book Mart, New York City,

88-89

INDEX TO VOLUME XIX

Gottingen, Germany, 52 Governesses, 42-43 Government, I 30 Governors, 60.62-63,9 I , 94, 146, I 53-54,

176 GRAEBER, ISACQUE, 9 I Grand rabbi, 149, 155 GRANT, ULYSSES S., 94 GRATZ, BARNARD, 93; REBECCA, I 3 2, I 3 7 Gratz College, Philadelphia, Pa., 13 5 Great Britain, the British, British Govern-

ment, 12 , 21, 63, 81, 85, 90, 120, 123, 130; see also England

Great Union Flag (early American flag), 60

Greek language, 49 Greek Orthodox Church, 102

GREENHUT, JOSEPH B., 96 GREENLEAF, RICHARD E., 149 GRESSER, MRS. WILLIAM, 97 Grocers, grocery business, 43-44, 57 GROSSMAYER, MAX, 94, 96 Groups, 159, 164, 173-74 Guadalajara, Mexico, 146, 156 Guadalupe, Mexico, 144 Guerrero, Mexico, I 64 GUGGENHEIM (family), 86; see also John

Simon Guggenheim Memorial Founda- tion

"Guide for Rational Inquiries into the Biblical Writings," 95

Gulf (of Mexico) Coast, 41-42, 47, I 53 GUMBINER, JOSEPH H., 161-62, 169 Gunpowder, 3 3 Gymnasia, I 30

HABER, MRS. BENJAMIN, 93 Hacendados, I 55 Hadassah, 98 Haftarah, 38 Haganah, I z 3 Hall of Records, Annapolis, Md., 94 HALPERIN, SAMUEL, The Political World of

American Zionism (review), 79-83 HALPERN, SEYMOUR, 100

Hamburg, Germany, 52 HANDELSMAN, BERTRAM, 94, 96 Handicrafts, 2 0

HARBY, ISAAC, 129 HARCOURT, BRACE & HOWE, 97 Harlem, New York City, 3 I Harris County, Tex., 56

HARRIS, DONALD, 93 HART, ABRAHAM, I 3 5 Hartford, Conn., IOO

HARTOG, JOHN, 175-78; "The Honen Daliem Congregation of St. Eustatius," 60-70, 73-77, 175-78

Harvard University, 97 Hasidim, Hasidism, 9 I , 102, I 15 Hat, 39 Hate movements, hatred, 87-88, 130 Hate Reader, The, 87-88 HAYES, CHARLES W., 4 4 HAYS, JOSEPH, 100

Hazzan, Hazzanim; see Chazan Hebreocristianos; see Hebrew-Christians Hebreos, 156 Hebrew language and literature, Hebrews,

8, 14, 38-39? 85, 94, 108, 111-13, 117, 126-27, 133, 1379 145, 1629 1679 171, '741 '77

Hebrew-Christians, 149, 167 Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society; see HIAS Hebrew schools, 14-15, 23, 26 Hebrew teachers, 4; see also Melamed,

Teachers Hebrew Union College, Hebrew Union

College -Jewish Institute of Religion, Cincinnati, Ohio, 34, 9597 , 101-4, 107-8, 112, 117, 134; Biblical and Archaeological School, Jerusalem, 96

Hebrew University, Jerusalem, 102-4 HEIDENHEIM, WOLF, 38; Machzor, 38 HEIDENHEIMER, SAMSON, 103 HEINE, HEINRICH, I 29 HELLENTHAL, SIMON, 24 HENRIQUES, ABRAHAM RODRIGUES; see

Rodrigues Henriques, Abraham HENRIQUEZ, DAVID D'ISAAC PRETTO; $66

Pretto Henriquez, David d'Isaac Henry Hurwitz Menorah Association

Memorial Collection, 96 Heresy, heretics, 149, 154, 169 Heroism, 145, 172 HERTZ, RICHARD C., 102

Herzl Press, 79 HERZL, THEODOR, 84, 96. Herd Year Book: Essays m Zionist History

and Thought, 88 HEYLIGER, ABRAHAM, 65; PIETER, 175 HIAS, I I , 168 Hidalgo, Mexico, 156, 173 Hierarchy, 148 High Holy Days, 20, 24, 38, 101

High schools, 12, 23, 41, 47, 133, 171

HILBORN, WALTER S., I O Z

Hilkot Irrure Biah, 147 HIRSCH, SAMSON RAPHAEL, 34, I 27 History, historians, 2, 12, 3 3, qq, 49. 60,

82-83,89,93.96, 105, 108, I 11, r 17-18, 136, 144-45, 147-50, 156, 159, 162, 167, 175-78

History of the Jews, A, 89 History of the Jews in Canada, 89 History of the True Church, A, I 67 HITLER, ADOLF, 82, 84-85 HOFHEIMER, HENRY, 97, 103 HOHEB, JAEL, 68; SAMUEL, JR., 62, 64 Holidays; see Jewish holidays Holland, 52, 175; see also Dutch Brazil;

Dutch, the HOLMES, JOHN HAYNES, 80, 83-85 Holy Land; see Israel, Palestine Homiletics, 102 ; see also Sermons "Honen Daliem Congregation of St.

Eustatius, The," 6070 , 73-77, 175-78 Honesty, 56 Hospitals, 90, I 3 3 Hotels, 39, 44-45 House of God, 146 House of Representatives (of United

States), 119; Foreign Affairs Com- mittee, I 19-20; see also Congress

Households, 57 Housewives, 26 Houston, Tex., 56 Hoy (Mexico City), I 62 HUGHES, CHARLES EVANS, 97 HULLU, J. DE, 66 Human beings; see Man Humor, I I I

Hungarian Jews, 3 Hurricanes, 62-63 HURVITZ, NATHAN, 9 I HURWITZ, HENRY, 96 HURWOOD, DAVID L., 96 Hymns, 38, 174 Hypocrisy, 57

I I, The Jew, 90 IAKOVOS, ARCHBISHOP (Demetrjos A.

Coucouzis), 102-3 Iberian peninsula, Iberians, 62, 148 IBN SAUD, I I 8 Identity, religious, 147 Idiots First, 86 Iglesia de Dios, 146, 159, .161, 165-70,

173-74; see also Casa de Dlos

Ignorance, I 2 8 Illinois; see Chicago, Evanston, Peoria,

Springfield Illness; see Sick, care of Illustrations: East European Immigrants,

Arrival of, in the United States, 18; Jacobson, Eddie, 139; Kempner, Harris, 53; Kempner, Isaac Herbert, 54; Kohler, Kaufmann, 35; Leeser, Isaac, 140; Ramirez, Laureano, I 57; Rosenbaum, Bella W., 17; St. Eustatms, ruins of the 18th-century synagogue of, 71; St. Eustatius, tombstone dated 1760, in the old Jewish cemetery on, 72; Silver, Abba Hillel, 1 2 1 ; Truman, Harry S., 122, 139; Venta Prieta, Mexico, Synagogue, 158; Weil, Frank L., 1 2 2

Immigrants, immigration, I , 3, 5-6, 11,

18, 26, 32, 41, 56, 59, 61, 89, 128, 130, 1 347 '447 149-50

"In M y Lifetime" (Rosenbaum), 3-16, '9-3 3

In Return, 90 Incunabula, I 27 Independence, I I 8, I z 3-24 Independent Man, 8 3 Indian Jews in Mexico, I 6 I "Indian Jews," Mexico, 105, 144-~CS,

160-62, 168, 173-74; see also Mestlzo Jews

Indianola, Tex., 42 Indians (American), 7, I 6, 19-20, I 43-45,

147, 150, 152, 155, 159, 161-62, 168, 171-74

Indifferentism, religious, 37, I 29 Individuals, 129, 148, 159, 164-65 Industrialists, 54, 90 INGRAM, LEONARD S., 163 Injustice, 59 Innovations, 37, r 3 I ; see also Reform

Judaism Inquisition, Inquisitors, 63, 103, 144-46,

149, r 53-55, I 69, 172-7 3; Mexican, ro3,, 150

Inscrlptlons, 60 Institute of Contemporary Jewry, Hebrew

University, Jerusalem, 95 Institutions, I 13, I 27-28, 133, I 35-38,

141 Instruction, 6, I 29 Instruction in the Mosaic Religion, I 3 z Integrity, 59 Intellectuals, intellectual life, 80, I z 8 Interest, 58

INDEX T O V O L U M E XIX I g r

Interethnic marriage, 78; see also Inter- marriage

Interfaith relations, 89; see also Jewish- Christian dialogue

Intermarriage, 78, 91, 128, 142-43, 148, 159, 161

Inte7ma77iage and Jewish Life (review), 78-79

Inte7ma77iage - Interfaith, Interethnic, In- terracial, 79

Interracial marriage, 78; see also Negro- white marriages

Investments, 57 Irgun, I 23 "Isaac Leeser: Centennial Reflections,"

127-38, 141 Isaac M. Wise Temple, Cincinnati, Ohio,

I 0 2

ISABEL, AUNT (Galveston, Tex., midwife), 43

ISABELLA LA CAT~LICA, 144-45 Isolationism, 90 Israel ( ~ e o ~ l e ) , Israelites, 145, 168; see

also Jewry Israel (state), Israeli Government, Israelis,

79-80, 84, 91, 99-100, 111, 118-19, 122 , 124-25, 139, 146, 148, 163-65, 170, 173; army, 163; see also Jerusalem, Palestine

Israelitas (of Mexico), 145-46, 156, 161, 163, 166

Israelite Anshe Church Society (Anshe Chesed), Cleveland, Ohio, 92

Israelite Society, Cleveland, Ohio, 92 ISSERMAN, FERDINAND M., 103 Italy, 155

JACK, THOMAS L., 47 JACK, TOM, 47-48 JACOB (biblical patriarch), I 46 JACOBSON, EDDIE, 125, 139 JAFFA (family), 94 Jails, 154-55, 169 JAMES, WILLIAM, I 74 Jargon, 4 Jaskrow, Poland, 55 Jerusalem, Israel, 94; Post, 159 JESUITS, 46, I 5 I J ~ s u s OF NAZARETH, 98, 146, I 50, I 67, I 74 Jewelry, jewelry business, 16, 24 Jewish Agency for Palestine, I 24 Jewish Cemetery, St. Eustatius, 177-78

Jewish Cemetery Association, Ramsey County, N. Dak., 94

Jewish-Christian dialogue, 10 I ; see also Interfaith relations

Jewish Commonwealth, 1 17, 1 19; see also Israel (state), Palestine

Jewish community, 9 1 ~ 9 2 , 98, 100-101,

103, 130, 135, 137-38, 142, 146, 148-49, 156, 159, 16445, 170-71, 178; see also Jewish life

Jewish Community Center, Hartford, Conn., 104

Jewish Community Council, Cincinnati, Ohio, 96

Jewish education; see Education Jewish Folk Songs in Yiddish and English, 89 Jewish history; see History Jewish holidays, 40, 57; see also High

Holy Days, New Year, Passover, Suk- koth, Yom Kippur

Jewish Indians; see "Indian Jews," Mexico; Mestizo Jews

Jewish Institute of Religion, New York City, 103

Jewish law, 129, 142, 147 Jewish life, 2, 26, 57, 78, 84, 89, 91, 109,

1 1 2 , 129, 131, 133, 135; see also Jewish community

"Jewish Marriage and Intermarriage in the Federal Period (1776-1 s40) ," 142- 43

Jewish Newsletter, 9 I Jewish people; see Jewry, Peoplehood Jewish Pilg~image, A, 79 Jewish publication society (Leeser's), I 38 Jewish Publication Society Bible, 85 Jewish Sport Club, Mexico City; see

Centro Deportivo Israelita Jewish State; see Israel (state), Zionism Jewish teachings; see Judaism Jewish Theological Seminary of America,

New York City, 96, 98, 135 Jewish Theology, 34 "Jewish vote," I z 5 Jewish W a r Veterans of the U. S. A., 98 Jewry, Jews, 3, 5-8, 20, 22-26, 28-29,

32, 41, 47. 59-65, 78, 80-81, 84-85. 88-92, 96, 98, 100, 104-5, 113-14, 118, 1 2 0 , 122-23, 127-30, 132, 134, 136, 142-5 I , I 54-56, 159-60, 162, 164-67, 169, 17 1-77; see also Ashkenazim, Cen- tral European Jews, Conservative Ju- daism, England, Hungarian Jews, "Indian Jews" (Mexico), Latin America, Lithu-

1 9 2 AMERICAN JEWISH ARCHIVES, NOVEMBER, I 9 6 7

ania, Mestizo Jews, Orthodox Judaism, Portuguese Jews, Reform Judaism, Secu- larist Jews, Sephardim, Spain, Turkish Jews, Ultra-Orthodox Jews, World Jewry

Jews and the Mosaic Law, The, I 3 z Jews in Suburbia, 79 Jews in Transition, 79 J I M ~ NEZ RUEDA, JULIO, I 7 2

J I R ~ N , GERTRUDIS, 160; R A M ~ N , 11, 160 J I R ~ N de T ~ L L E Z , TRINIDAD, 160 Jobs; see Employment JOHLSON, JOSEPH, I 3 z John Birch Society, I O I

John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foun- dation, 86

JOHNSON, LYNDON B., 96 Joint Resolution of Congress on Palestine,

120, 1 2 3

JOSEPH, FRANK E., 100

Joseph Krauskopf Memorial Award, 94 JOSPE. ALFRED, 93 Journal of the Fictive Life, 87 Journals, journalists, 96, I 28-30, I 3 3, I 36,

138, 145, 162, 164-65; see also News- papermen, Periodicals

Judaism, 39, 47, 57, 82, 85, 97, 101-2,

I 13, 128-29, I 32-33, I 36-37, 142, 146- 48, 150, 153-54, 159-61, 163-65, 168- 69, 171-73; see also "Classical" Re- formers, Conservative Judaism, Europe, Modern Judaism, "Muscular Judaism," Orthodox Judaism, Reconstructionism, Reform Judaism, World Union for Progressive Judaism

Judaizers, Judaizing, 147, 149, 152, 160, 172

Judges (biblical book), 85 Judges, justices, 24, 58, 95, 98, I 27 Judios, 145, 156, 163, 166 Juneau, Alaska, 24 Jurisprudence, I 7 2

Justice, 59, 82

K

KABAKOFF, JACOB, 88 Kabbalah, 104 Kaddish, I 26 Kaftan, 29 Kahal Kodesh Bnei Elohim, Colonia

Vallejo, Mexico, 170 KAHN, EMANUEL M., I 0 3

KAICHEN, TROY, 100

KALISCH, ISADOR, 95 KALLEN, HORACE M., 83,96 Kamenets Podolski, Russia, 4, 6 KAPLAN, ARTHUR B., 92 KAPLAN, KIVIE, 96 KAPLAN, MORDECAI M., 88 KARP, ABRAHAM J., 103 KAUFFMAN, RACHEL (MRS. JULES), 100

KAUFMAN & RUNGE, 56 Kedushah, 38 Kehillah, New York City, 91 KELLER, JOSEPH H., 97 KELLEY, JAMES H., 92 KEMPNER, ABE, 42; DANIEL W., 42, 52,

5 5 ; ELIZABETH SEINSHEIMER, 42 ; HARRIS (HERSCHELL), 41-2 3, 55-59; ISAAC HERBERT, I, 54; My Memories of Father," 41-5 2, 54-59; JOE, 48; SIDNEY, 42

KEMPNER, B., Little Rock, Ark., 49 KENNEDY, RUBY JO REEVES, 78 Kentucky; see Louisville Kentucky Historical Society, Frankfort,

Ky.7 94 KERMAN, JOSEPH, 99 Kest, 8 9 Kiddush, I 17 KIEFFER, ELIZABETH, 92 Kings : see Monarchs KLEIN, STANLEY, 10 I

KLENICKI, LEON, I03 Klondike, Canada, z 3-24 KLUTZNICK, PHILIP M., 103

KNAPPERT, L., Holland, 17577 Knowledge, I I

KOCH, MRS. MORRIS, 96 KOHLER, KAUFMANN, I , 34-35, 31-40,

103; Jewish Theology, 34 KOHUT, ALEXANDER; see Alexander Kohut

Memorial Foundation KOHUT, REBEKAH (MRS. ALEXANDER), 97,

1 0 3 Kol Nidre (~rayer), 10

KOLLER, ISRAEL B., 92 KOPALD, S. L., JR., Memphis, Tenn., 97 KORN, BERTRAM W., 97, 105; "Isaac

Leeser : Centennial Reflections," I 27-38, '4'

Kosher food, 20, 25; see also Dietary laws KRAKAUER (family), 2 3 KRAUSKOPF, JOSEPH; see Joseph Krauskopf

Memorial Award KURSHEEDT, GERSHOM, I 35-36; ISRAEL

BAER, 128

INDEX TO VOLUME XIX I 9 3

KUSWORM, SIDNEY G., 97 KUTZ, HATTIE (MRS. MILTON), 97 KUTZIK, ALFRED J., 9 I

Labor, laborers, labor unions, 29, 56, 86, 88; exploitation, 84

Labyrinth of Solitude, The, I 66 LACHMAN, SAMSON, 97 LACHMAN, SAMUEL, 103 Ladies Benevolent Society, Temple Beth

El, Pensacola, Fla., 92 LAFOLLE~TE, ROBERT M., I I 8 Lake Austin, Tex., 96 Lancaster, Pa., 92; County, 92 Land, 7, 57-58, 92, 94, 103; see also

Real estate LANDA, DIEGO DE, I 7 2

LANDSBERGER, FRANZ, 97; MRS. FRANZ, 97 Language, languages, 4,49 Latin language, 49 Latin America, 162; Jews of, 105, 162;

see also Spanish America LAUREANO RAM~REZ, BALTAZAR, 98, 157,

I 61-62, I 64-65, 167-7 I ; son (LAUREANO LUNA) of, 165

LAURENO RAM~REZ, ZEFERINO, I 68 LAUTERBACH, JACOB Z., 94 LAVATER, JOHANN CASPAR, 10 I

Law, lawsuits, 7, 50-52, 58, 128, 130; see also Jewish law, Mosaic Law

Lawyers, 3, 23, 47-48? 55, 58, 87, 97, I 68-70

Laymen, 109, 128, 137, 142 LAZARUS, EMMA, I LEA, HENRY C., I 50 Leaders, leadership, Jewish, 105, 112,

I 17-18, 120, 124, 131, 136-37, 159, 171 Learning, Jewish, 11, 15, 85, I 12, 126,

I 28-30; see also Scholars Leases, 94 Lecturers, lectures, 83, 87, 90, 96, 99,

101-2, 104, 132; see also Sermons, Speeches

LEESER, ISAAC, 88, 105, I 27-38, 140-41 Legacies, 95 Legal Codes; see Codes Legends, 144, 172 LEGERSE CO., 56 LEHMAN, EMIL, 79 LEHMAN, HERBERT H., 9 I, 97 LEHRER, LEIBUSH, 9 I Le6n, New Kingdom of, I 5 3-54

LEON, RUTH HOPE, 99 LEON, SALOMON DE; see de Leon, Salomon Level Sunlight, 90 LEVIN, ALEXANDRA LEE, 79 LEVINSON, ROBERT E., 1 0 2

LEVY, HERBERT S., 93 LEVY, MOSES ELIAS, I 28 LEVY, SOLOMON, 69 LEWIS, THEODORE N., review of Rabbi

and Minister, 83-85 LEWISOHN (family), 97; LUDWIG, 97;

A Night in Alexandria, 97; LOUISE W. (MRS. LUDWIG), 97; THELMA SPEAR. 97

Lexington, Va., 51 Liberalism, liberals, 34, 91, I 29, 1 34-35,

148 Liberty; see Freedom Libraries, librarians, I I , 48, 95, I 32 LIEBMAN, SEYMOUR B., 98, 100, 103-4;

"The Mestizo Jews of Mexico," 144-56, 159-74

LIEBSCHUTZ, THOMAS P., I03 Life, 49-50; see also Jewish life Life (magazine), I 59 LIFSON, DAVID S., The Yiddish Theatre in

America, 86 LILIENTHAL, MAX, 34, 37 LIMA. JOSEPH D'ISHAC MESQUITA DE; see

Mesquita de Lima, Joseph d'lshac Limpieza de sangre, 148, I 52 LINCOLN, ABRAHAM, 89 Lineage, 148 LIPSKY, LOUIS, 8 I LIPSTON, MRS. SIDNEY, 3 Liquor trade, 20, 44 Literature, litthateurs, 32, 80, 83, 89-90,

I 36; postbiblical, I 15; talmudic, 88; see also Hebrew language and literature, Yiddish

Lithuania, Lithuanians, Litvaks? 7, 28 LITTAUER, LUCIUS N.; see Luclus N. Lit-

tauer Foundation Little Did I Know, 89-90 Little Rock, Ark., 49 Liturgical music, liturgy, 38, 115, 173-74;

see also Piyyutim, Prayer Litvaks; see Lithuania Livelihood, living, I 3 Liverpool, England, 9 Lobby, lobbying, 120

Lodging houses, 2 I

LOEW, JACOB, 60, 177 Loggers, 2 1-2 2

LOMASK, MILTON, Seed Mmey , 86

London, England, 98-99, 101

Long Island, N. Y., 64 Lore, Jewish, 128 LORGE, ERNST M., 95 Los Angeles, Calif., 100, 103 Lost Ten Tribes of Israel, 161 Louisiana; see New Orleans Louisvi!le, Ky., 96 Lower middle class, 146 Lucius N. Littauer Foundation, 91 LUMBROSO (family name), r 5 5 LUNA, LAUREANO; see Laureano Ramirez,

Baltazar Luz del Sdbado (Mexico City), r 5 r

MAAS, SAMUEL, 1 0 3 Maccabem, The, I 00

MACDONALD, MAGGIE, I z Machzor, 14, 38 MACK, JULIAN W., 8 I, 8 3 MACKAY, J. KEILLER, 90 MACLEISH, ARCHIBALD, 87 MADURO, JOSSY M. L., 175-77; S. A. L.

(MONGUI) , I 76 Magazines; see Journals, Periodicals MAGNES, JUDAH L., 97 MAGNIN, EDGAR F., 103 Mahamad, 65 MAIER, JOSEPH, 78 Mail service, mails, 56 MAILER, NORMAN, 88 Maimonides College, Philadelphia, Pa., I 3 3 MAIMONIDES, MOSES, 147 Maine, I I 7 MALACHY, YONAH, 88 MALAMUD, BERNARD, Idiots First, 86 MALAMUD, MOISHE, 6, 10, 14-1 5 Mama Made Minks, 90 Man, mankind, 84-85, 104, 112-13; see

also Men, Women MANDEL, BERNARD, Samuel Gmpers: A

Biography, 8 6 Manitoba, Canada, 6, 14, 33 MANLEY, EDNA, 97 MANN, FREDERICK Z., 93 MANNER, EDNA B., 1 0 3 MANSON, HAROLD P., 99, I 2 3 Manufacturers, 3 3 Manuscripts, 95736, 103-4, I 27, I 32 MARCUS, JACOB R., 97, 99, 177 MARGOLYES, SIMON, 94 Mariposa County, Calif., 1 0 2

MARK, JULIUS, 98 Marranos, 145, 149-51, 154-55, 159, 162,

I 64, I 68-69, I 73-74; see also Conversos Marriage, marriages; marriage certificates,

3, 6, 8, 26, 40-41, 44, 46, 56, 78-79. 97, 100, 102, 110, r 15, 142-43, 147-48, 151-52, 155, 159-60, 162, 169, 171; see also Interethnic marriage, Intermar- riage, Interracial marriage

MARSHALL, GEORGE C., I 20

MARSHALL, LOUIS J., 92 Martyrdom, 145, 172 MARX, MARX, 44-45; MARX & KEMPNER,

43-45> 56 Marxism, I 75-76 MARY (in Christianity), 146 Maryland; see Baltimore, Pikesville Masawot Saloniki, I 7 5 MASON, S., Providence, R. I., 96 Masons, 94, IOO

Mass (in Catholic Church), 46, 147 Massachusetts; see Newton, Waltham Massacres, 82 Masses, the, 1 2 3, I 29 Matagorda, Tex., 42 Mathematics, 49 MATTOS, ANICA DE, 17 I ; FRANCISCO RO-

DR~GUEZDE, 151,153,171; ISABELDE, 153 MAY, MRS. ALBERT J., 99 Mayors, 24 MCDONALD, JAMES G., 100

MEARS, [HA] NNAH (MRS. SAMSON), 67, 178; SAMSON, 62, 67, 178

MEARS, OTTO, I03 Mechanicsburg, Pa., 104 MEDENA RICO, PEDRO, 104 Medicine, 42; see also Physicians Medieval period, I 30 MEDINA. 10sk TORIBIO; see Toribio Me- , -

dina, JosC MEDRES, I., Tzwishn Tzway Velt M i L

chmes, 86-87 Melamed (Hebrew teacher), 4, 7, 14 Memoirs, 3, 79, 99-100, 105, 107-20,

123-26 Memorias Curiel, MikvC Israel Congre-

gation, Curalao, 62, 176 "Memories of Captain Greenhut," 96 Memphis, Tenn., 96 Men, 142, 147, 150, 155, 169, 172 MENDELE MOCHER SEFORIM; see Abramo-

witsch, Shalom Jacob MENDELSON, WALLACE, Felix Frankfurter:

A Tribute, 87

INDEX TO VOLUME XIX

MENDELSSOHN, MOSES, 101, 127, I 38 MENDES BALBOA, SAMUEL D'ISAAC, 61 Menorah Association, 96 Menorah Journal, 96 Merchandise, 5, 2 3 Merchants, 6, 11, 16, 22-23, 28, 44,

56-57, 60, 64-65; see also Business, Dealers, Storekeepers, Trade, Whole- salers

MESQUITA DE LIMA, JOSEPH D'ISHAC, 6 I Messiah, Messianism, I I 3, 167 Mestizo Jews, Mestizos, 105; Cornrnu-

nity, Mexico City, 98; "The Mestizo Jews of Mexico," !44-56, 159-74

Methodists, Methodlst Episcopal Church, 60, 163, 177

Metropolitan areas; see Urban areas Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

City, 2~ Metropol~tan Opera House, New York

City, 25 Mexican Indian Jews; see "Indian Jews,"

Mexico; Mestizo Jews Mexican Inquisition; see Inquisition Mexico, Mexicans, 42, roo, 105, 144-57,

I 59-74; Catholics, 17 I ; Indians, 17 I ; Jews of, 145, 148, 150, 156-57. 163; National Archives, 162 ; Nauonal Uni- versity, Mexico City, 150; see also Apam, Apipilulco, Cocula, Colonia Vallejo, Mexico City; Cuernavaca, Guadalajara, Guadaloupe, Guerrero, Hi- dalgo, Mexico City, Michoach, Mon- terrey, Morelia, Nuevo LeQ

Mexico City, 98, 144-46, 150. 153-56, 159, 162, 167-68, 170, 172

Mexico, Gulf of; see Gulf Coast MEYERS, LAWRENCE, 96 MEZVINSKY, SHIRLEY, The Edge, 87 M i Komocho (prayer), 38 Miami-Dade Junior College, Miami, Fla.,

'44 Michigan, 83; see also Birmingham, De-

troit, Royal Oak Michoacan, Mexico, 160 Middle class, 87 Middle East, 82 Midwest (United States), I , 16, 20, 22,

I01

Midwives, 43 Migration; see Immigrants MIHALY, EUGENE, 97 MikvC Israel Congregation, Curasao, 62,

657 176, 178

Mikveh Israel Congregation, Philadelphia, Pa., 128, 130-31

Militarism, 84 Military service, 56; see also Army, Sol-

diers, War Milton and Hattie Kutz Distinguished

Service Chair in American Jewish His- tory, Hebrew Union College, Cincin- nati, Ohio, 97

Milwaukee, Wis., 98 Miners, mining, 22, 163 Minhag America, 3 8 Ministers; see Chazan, Clergy, Priests,

Rabbis Minnesota, 88 Minyan, 10

Miracles, 144 Miscegenation, 143 Misheberach (prayer), 38 Mission Halls, Seattle, Wash., z I Missionaries, Christian, 136, 163, 173 Missouri, I z 5; see also St. Louis Mitzvot, 38, 85 Mixed marriage; see Intermarriage, Inter-

racial marriage Modern Judaism, 80 Modern period, modernity, 82, 104, I 38 Mogodorio, Portugal, I 5 I Mohel, 170 MOISHE (the Melamed), Winnepeg; see

Malamud, Moishe MOLINA, ANNA VIEIRA DE; see Vieira de Molina, Anna

Monarchs, 144, 1 5 1-52 Monasteries, I 54 Money, 86; see also Currency, Gold,

Silver Monks, I 5 I , 162 Montana Territory, 44 Monterrey, Mexico, I 56, I 7 I Montreal, Canada, 89 Mmtreal fun Nechten, 86 MOORS, 149 Mora, N. Mex., loo MORAIS, SABATO, 88 MORALES, GONZALO DE, 148 Morality, moral law, morals, 23, 39 MORDECAI, JACOB, 130; MORDECAI M.,

94 MOREIRA, MARGUERITA DE, 103

Morelia, Mexico, 160, 164 MORGENSTERN, JULIAN, 103 MOSES (biblical lawgiver), Mosaic Law,

Mosaic laws, 127, 132 , 154, 167, 169,

174; religion, 132, 151; see also Penta- teuch, Torah

Moslems, 146 Mothers, 147 MOYA DE CONTRERAS, PEDRO, I 53 "Mr. Second Avenue"; see Schwartz,

Maurice MUIR, ROSS L., and CARL J. WHITE, Over

the Lung Term, 87 Mulattoes, 143 Municipal Market, Seattle, Wash., 26 Miinster, Germany, I 30 Musaf, 38 "Muscular Judaism," 88 Museums, 90, 126 Music, 86, 89, 102; see also Folk songs,

Songs MUTNICK, MRS. SYLVIA BERLIN, 92 M y Life (Rosenbaum), 3 "My Memories of Father" (Kernpner),

41-52, 55-59 MYERSON, MRS. DOROTHY, 103 Mysticism, 104, I I 3 Myths, I44

Nashville, Tenn., 3 NATHAN, PAUL, 168 Natiunal Jewish Post, I 7 I National Union for Social Justice, 103 Nationalism, Jewish, I 13 Navy, Navy Department (United States),

60; 152 Nazism, Nazis, 82, 97-98; see also Hitler,

Adolf NEBEL, AEIRAHAM L., 92,95 Nebraska; see Omaha Needle trade, 29 Negroes, 42-43, 46, 48, 59, 88, 98, 143;

see also Slave trade Negro-white marriages, 79 NEMEROV, HOWARD, Journal of the Fictive

Life, 87; Poetry and Fiction, 87 Netherlands, 65; Antilles, 60, 175 NETTO, SALOMON NUNEZ; see Nunez

Netto, Salomon NEUMANN, EMANUEL, 99, I 23 Neumann Memorial Publication Fund, 2,

I 06 New Christians; see Marranos New Deal, 90 New England, 89 New Jersey, 102; Department of Educa-

tion, I o 2 ; see also Camden

New Kingdom of Le6n; see Le6n New Mexico; see Alameda, Albuquerque,

Carlsbad, Mora, Santa Fe New Moon, 38 New Orleans, La., 44, 47-48, 92, 99,

101, 128, 135-36 New Spain: see Nueva Espafia New Testament, 146, 162; see also Jesus

of Nazareth New World, 145-46, 149, I 52-53 New Year (Rosh Hashanah), 38, 55, 103 New York (City), 3, 6, 12, 25, 28-29,

33,43-44r56,63786-88,9~,95 ,97-~oo, 115, 119-20, 128, 160; Bowery, 31; Broadway, 25; Carnegie Hall, 85; Castle Garden, 5; County Lawyers' Associa- tion, 97; East Side, 25, 28-30, I I I ; "Gay White Way," 25; Kehillah, 91; Metropolitan Museum, 25; Metropolitan Opera, 25; Orchard Street, 30-3 I ; Post, I 56; Public Library, z 5; Second Avenue, 86; Stock Exchange, 87; see also Bronx, Brooklyn

New York (State), 95; State Library, 95; see also Albany, Bronx, Brooklyn, Buffalo, Long Island, New York (City), Rye, Saratoga Springs, Westchester County

NEWMAN, EDWIN S., The Hate Reader, 87-88

Newspapermen, newspapers, 24, 3 2, 56, 95-99, 102-3, 108, 118, 130, 132. '45. I 50-5 I, I 70; see also Journals, Periodicals

Newton, Mass., 79 NIETO (family), 98; JACOB, 98 Niggu~f, 39 Night m Alexandria, A , 97 NOAH, MORDECAI MANUEL, I 28 Nome, Alaska, 2 3 Non-Catholics, 46 Nonconformists, nonconformism, 9 I Non-Jews, 20, 80, 89, 108, 119, 122, 142,

147-48, 155, 159, 166, 177; See also Christianity, Gent~les, Moslems

Nonkosher food, 20, 26 Nonmonotheism, I 68 Non-Sectarian Anti-Nazi League, 98 Non-Zionists, 80, 82 North (United States), I 29-30 North America, 60, 142; Jews of, I

North Dakota, 94; see also Devil's Lake, Ramsey County

"Note on the History of the Jews of St. Eustatius, A," I 7 5-78

NOVEK, RALPH, 89

INDEX TO VOLUME XIX

Novels, 87, 89, 97; see also Short stories, Stories

Nueva Espaiia, 148, I 55 Nuevo Colegio Israelita, Mexico City, 145 Nuevo Lebn, Mexico, 164 Nuevos cristianos; see Marranos NUNEZ NETTO, SALOMON, 61, 177 NURENBERGER, J. A., 97

OBEDIENTE, JUDA, 61, 175 Obituaries, 103 OCAGA, DIEGO DE, I 48 O ~ ~ i d e n t (Philadelphia), I 3 6 Occupations, 129 Offerings, synagogue; see Mitzvot Officeholding, officeholders; see Public

office Ohio, General Assembly, 92; see also

Cincinnati, Cleveland, Dayton, Toledo Oil mills, 58 0 JEA, HERNANDO DE, I 50 OLAN, LEVY A., 103 Old Christians; see Cristianos viejos Old Country, Old World, 3, 6-8, 14, 86;

see also Europe Old Testament, 162, 1 7 3 ; see also Bible,

Pentateuch, Torah OLIVERA, PASTOR, Pachuca, Mexico, I 63 Omaha, Neb., 92; Hebrew Club, 92 Opportunists, 58 Oppression; see Persecutions Oranjestad, St. Eustatius, N.A., 62 Orators, 84, 107, I 12

Orchard Street, New York City, 30-3 I

"Ordained" rabbis, I 28 Ordination; see Semikah Oregon; see Portland Organ, 38 Organizations, I 36-38, 141. I 56, 17 I Orphanages, orphans, 5, 8, I 33 Orthodox Judaism, Orthodox Jews, Or-

thodox movement, 6, 20, 25, 34, 37-38, 130, 133, 135-36, 138, 142, 147-48

Orthography, 49 OSNESS, MRS. A. M., Dayton, Ohio, 98 Out-marriages; see Intermarriage Over the Lung Term, 87 Overseers, 6

Pachuca, Mexico, 149, I 60-61, I 63-64, 1707 '73

Pacific Coast, Pacific Northwest, 15-16? 197 24

Pacifism, pacifists, 84 Pagans, I 59 Pale of Settlement, Russia, 26 Palestine, 81-82, 85, 111, 117-20, 123,

136, t38, 167; Jewry, 82, rot, 1 2 1 ;

Palestlne Commission, United Nations, I 24; see also Israel (state), Jerusalem

Pamphlets, 9 ~ , 9 5 3 6 , 161, 168 Phuco, Mex~co, I 52-54 Parents, 78 Parliament, English, 64 Parson's Cavalry Brigade (Civil War), 56 Particularism, 148 PARTRIDGE, IRVING EMERSON, 100

PARZEN, HERBERT, 88; Archite~ts of Cm- servative Judaism, 88

Passover, 7, 25, 57, 108, 159, 167 PATAI, RAPHAEL, 88, 159-61, 166, 168;

Herzl Year Book, 88 Patents, 96 PAUL VI (pope), I03 PAZ, OCTAVIO, 166 PEARSON, DREW, 9 1

Peasants, 144 Pedagogy, I I 3 Peddlers, peddling, 6-8, 19, 30 Pennsylvania; see Lancaster, Mechanics-

burg, Philadelphia, York Pensacola, Fla., 92 Pentateuch, 21, 65; see also Bible, Law,

Torah Peoplehood, Jewish, 148 Peoria, Ill., 96 PEREIRA, ISRAEL, 76; RACHEL, 76 PERETZ, ISAAC LOEB, 32 Periodicals, 32, 95, 97, 133, 137, 171;

see also Journals, Newspapermen Persecutions, 13, 29, 59. 64, 148, 173 Pesach; see Passover Pest, Hungary, 96 Petaluma, Calif., loo PETUCHOWSKI, JAKOB J., 103 Philadelphia, Pa., 9334 , 9 6 3 7 , 102,

126-28, 130-32, 135, 138 Philanthropy, philanthropists, 24, 45. 57,

59, 82, 90, 111, 133, 136, 138 Philately, 104 PHILIPSON, DAVID, 59 Philosophers, philosophy, 5 I , 90, 127-30,

138, 141 Photographs, 86, 9536 , 99, 177; see also

Illustrations

Physicians, 23-24> 43, 155 PICK, EMIL, 93 . . - Picnics, I 2, i 17 Pictorial History o f the Tews in the United

States, A (re;ie&), 1 ~ i - 7 6 Piety, 85 Pikesville, Md., 102

PINHAS MOSHEH BAR YEHUDAH, St. Eusta- tius, N.A., 68

PINNA, ELIAU DE; see de Pinna, Eliau Pioneer Place, Seattle, Wash., 2 r Pioneers, 22, 33, 53, 81, 104 Pitkin Avenue, Brooklyn, N. Y., 26 PIUS XII (pope), 84 Piyyutim, 38 Planters, 45 PLAUT, W. GUNTHER, 88; MRS. W.

GUNTHER, 10 I

Plays, playwrights, 25, 103-4; see also Dramatists, Theatre

PODET, MORDECAI, 93 PODHORETZ, NORMAN, Doings and Un-

doings, 88 Poetry, poets, poems, 32-33, 87-88, 97,

103-4; see also Piyyutim Poetry and Fiction: Essays, 87 Poland, Poles, 4-5, 7, 55, 57, 59; Jews of,

1, 58; language, 4 Polemics, polemical literature, I 68 POLISH, DAVID, 98, 104, 165, 169 Political science, scientists, 80-8 I , 88 Political World of American Zionism, The

(review), 79-83 Political Zionism; see Zionism Politics, life, politicians, 2 2 , 24,

59, 89, 98, 109, I 18, 123, 125, 128 POLL, SOLOMON, 9 I POLLOCK, St. Eustatius, N.A., 64 POOL, DAVID DE SOLA, 170, 175 Poor, the, 28, 57, 59; see also Poverty,

Slums Popes, 84, 103, 155 Population statistics; see Statistics Port Arthur, Tex., 92 PORTER, KATHERINE ANNE, 89 Portland, Ore., 24, I O I

Portugal, the Portuguese, Portuguese lan- guage, 60, 145, 151, 155, 177; Jews of, 1497 '55

Portuguese Hebrew Congregation, Am- sterdam, Holland, 95

POSTAL, BERNARD, Encyclopedia of Jews in Sports, 88

Postbiblical literature; see Literature

POUND, ROSCOE, 87 Poverty, z5, 28, 57; see also Poor Practice, religious; see Religion Prairies, 33 Prayer, prayers, 4-5, 10, 15, 38, 46, 85,

115; books, 10, 15, 31, 38, 133, 162, 174; prayer before meals, 46; transla- tions, I 3 3; see also Liturgy

Prayer shawl; see Tallis Preachers, preaching, 84-85, 107, I 14,

126, 131, 136, 161, 168; see also Rabbis Pre-Christian period, 130; rites, 172 Precious Strmes of the Jews of Curafao,

' 7 5 7 6 Prejudice, I 29; see also AntiSemitism Prensa Israelita (Mexico City), I 45 Presbyterians, 5 I Presidents of United States, 84, 94-96,

98-99, 120, 122, 125; of Mexico, 162 Press, the, r 19; Jewish, lor, 123; see also

Journals, Newspapermen, Periodicals PRETTO HENRIQUEZ, DAVID D'ISAAC, 6 1

Priests, 90, 144, r 50, 154 Primers, 133 PRINZ, JOACHIM, 98 Private schools, 130, 145, 17 I ; see also

Schools Procesos, Inquisitional, r 69 Professions, 23, 50, 149 Professors, 86, 90, 160, 175 Pro-Germanism, 90 Progress, 82 Prohibitionism, 84 Prohibitions, anti-Jewish, 149 Progressive Synagogue, Brooklyn, N. Y.,

8 5 Promissory notes, 96 Prophecy, prophets, 38, 82, 101, 146,

'74 Proselytes, 161, 166, 174 Pro-Sovietism, I I 8 Protestants, Protestantism, I 37-38, 146,

I 56, 163-69, 173-74; Protestant Evan- gelical Churches, 163; see also Chris- tianity

Prussianism, 84 Public life, I 14 Public office, 59, I to, 149; see also D i p

lomats Public opinion, I 19 Public relations, I 25 Public schools, 39; see also Education,

High schools, Private schools, Schools Publicaciones de la Iglesia de Dios, 167

INDEX TO VOLUME XIX I 99

Publication, publications, publishers, I 3 I,

'33, '35 Publication societies, 13 3, 13 5 Puebla. Mexico, 146 . . Puget sound, 19 PUIGCERVER, FRANCISCO RIVAS; see Rivas

Puigcerver, Francisco Pulpit, 84-85, I I z ; see also Rabbis, Sermons Punishment, 91, 155, 169 Punishment Wi thou t Crime, 9 I Pupils, 14-15 Purity of blood; see Limpieza de sangre Pushcarts, 26-28, 30

Rabbi and Minister, 80; (review), 83-85 Rabbinical conferences, I 14, I 38 Rabbinical ordination; see Semikah Rabbinical seminaries, I 3 3, I 38 Rabbis, rabbinate, 3, 14-15, 20, 25-26,

31, 34, 37-40, 47, 56, 59, 65, 78, 80. 83-85, 89-90, 92-99, 101-59 107-21, 123-28, 130-311 133, 135-38, 142, 147-48, 161-63, 165, 167-70, 176; see also Assistant rabbis, Grand rabbi

RABINOWITZ, CLARA G. (MRS. AARON), 96 RABINOWITZ, SOLOMON (Sholem Alel-

chem), 32 Race, 113, 172 Radicalism, radicals, I 3 5 Radio, 33, 90, 159 RAECZ (RAECX), EVERARD, 61, 176 Railroads, 10, 58 RAIM, ETHEL, 89 RAM~REZ, BALTAZAR LAUREANO; see Lau-

reano Ramirez, Baltazar RAM~REz, SANTIAGO, I 66 RAM~REZ, ZEFERINO LAURENO; see Laureno

Ramirez, Zeferino RAMOS, SAMUEL, 166 Ramsey County, N. Dak., 94 RANSOHOFF (family), I o I RAPHAEL, SOLOMON, 94 RAPOPORT, SOLOMON S. (S. Anski), 104 Rationalism, 95, I I 3, I 29, 174 RAVICZ, ROBERT, 166 RAYMOND, JAMES D., 104 Readers, I 3 z ; see also Chazan Reading (subject of study), 5, 43 Reading of the Torah; see Torah Real del Monte, Mexico, 163 Real del Oro, Mexico, 161 Real estate, 1 28; see also Land

Recalled Recollectinns (Kempner) , 41 Reconciliados, I 55 Reconstruction (post-Civil War), 47 Reconst ruct ionism. Reconstructionist

Foundation, 79, 1 I 3 "Red Man's Hall." Seattle. Wash.. zo Red River, ~ a n i i o b a , ~ a n a d a , 8

'

Redeemer (in Christianity), I 67 Reform Congregation Keneseth Israel,

Philadelphia, Pa., 94, 97, I 27 Reform Judaism, Reform Jews, I , 26,

34-35, 37, 80, 84, 88, 907 136, 138, 147-48; see also "Classlcal" Reformers

Reforma, Mexico, I 7 3 Reformed Society of Israelites, Charleston,

S. C., 129 Reforms, religious, I 29 Refugees, 10, 15,29,81, 100,123, 147, 169 Regulations, communal; see Ascamoth REHINE, ZALMA, I 30 Relapses, 169 Religio-ethical, I I 3 Religion, 14, 59, 82, 85, 89, 91, 129-30,

I 32, 164-65, 172; see also Ceremonies, Education, Jewlsh life, Ritual, Schools, Sunday schools

Religion, Mosaic; see Moses Religious controversies; see Controversies,

religious Religious court; see Beth din Religious education; see Education Religious freedom; see Freedom Religious indifferentism; see Indifferent-

ism, religious Religious life; see Jewish life Religious observance, 148 Religious schools, 92-93, 1 I 2, 129-30,

I 3 2-33 ; see also Education, Schools, Sunday schools

Religious services; see Worship Religious teachers; see Teachers Rentals, 94 Repor t e~ , T h e , 86 Reporters, 120, 159, 164, 171 Republican Party, Republicans, 98, I 18 RESTON, JAMES, 87 Revival, religious, 91 Revolutionary War, American, 60, 142 Rhetoric, 49 RIBERA, GUIOMAR DE, 15 1-53 RXBICOFF, ABRAHAM A., 88, 104 RICARD, ROBERT, 149 Rice, rice industry, 42 RICE, MRS. BARBARA, 98

Rich, the, I 29; see also Wealth RICHARDS, BERNARD G., 88 Richmond, Va., 94, I 28, 130, 1 32 kco . PEDRO MEDENA; see Medena Rico,

~ e d r o Rights, equal; see Equality Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 103 RIPSTEIN, SAM, 6, I 5 RISCHIN, MOSES, 88 Rise of David Levinsky, 32-33 Ritual, rituals, rites, 25, 37-38? 101, I 15,

149, Is!, 154, 169, 172; bath, 147; slaughtering of fowl, I 7 2

RIVAS PUIGCERVER, FRANCISCO, I 50 RIVERA, ALONSO DE, 17 3 ROBLES, JACOB (JAHACOB HISQUIAO), 65,

69 Rodef Shalom Congregation, Port Arthur,

Tex., 92 Rodef Sholom Congregation, Waco, Tex.,

9 3 Rijdelheim, Prussia, 38 RODNEY, GEORGE B., 63-65 RODRIGUES HENRIQUES, ABRAHAM, 7 5 RODR~GUEZ, DUARTE, I 50; FERNANDO, I 50 ROGERS, WILLIAM G., Wise Men Fish

Hew, 88-89 Roman Catholics, 164; see also Catholicism Rome, Italy, 2 I

ROOSEVELT, FRANKLIN D., 84, 98, I 18, 1 2 0

ROSEMAN, KENNETH D., 101

ROSEN, SARA SANDBERG (MRS. FRANK), 90 ROSENBAUM, BABBETTE M., 100; MERTON

J. 98; REBECCA (MRS. MERTON J.), 98 ROSENBAUM, BELLA WERETNIKOW, I ;

"In My Lifetime," 3-17, 19-33; LEWIS NEWMAN, 3; M y Life, 3

ROSENBERG, HERMAN, I 02

ROSENBERG, LOUIS, 78 ROSENBLUM, MRS. BASHA, 100

ROSENTHAL, ANNETTE K., 100; MAURICE M., loo

ROSENTHAL, ERICH, 78 Rosh Hashanah; see New Year Royal Oak, Mich., 90 Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto, 90 ROTH, PHILIP, 88 ROTHCHILD, SYLVIA, Sunshine and Salt, 89 RUBENSTEIN, RICHARD L., 78 RUBIN, RUTH, Jewish Folk Songs in Yiddish

m d English, 89 RUBINGER, NAPHTALI J., Abraham Lincoln

and the Jews, 89 RUBINSTEIN, MOISES, I 7 3

RUCHAMES, LOUIS, review of A Picto~ial H i s t o ~ y of the Jews in the United States, 175-76

RUDAVSKY, DAVID, 91 RUEDA, JULIO JIMI~NEZ; see JimLnez

Rueda, Julio RUNGE; see Kaufman & Runge Rural regions, 57 Russia, Russians, Russian language, 4-6,

13, 15, 20, 26-28? 33, 56; Jews of, 88-89; Poland, 41, 56; Revolution, 85; Russian Polish Jews, 28; see also Soviet Russia

Rye, N. Y., 33

Sdbado; see El Skbado Sabbatarians, 167 Sabbath, 4, 10, 38, 102, 108, 112, I 17, 162 SACK, BENJAMIN G., His to~y of the Jews in

Canada, 89 SACHAR, ABRAM LEON, A His to~y of the

Jews, 89 Sacraments, Christian, 147 SAENZ, RAYMOND, 167 SAHAG~N, ABBOT OF, 15 I Sailors, 2 1-2 z St. Croix, Danish West Indies, 60 St. Eustatius, Netherlands Antilles, 2,

60-77, 17578; Civil Guard, 63; Coun- cil, 63; Jewry of, 60-65

St. Kitts, West Indies, 64; Assembly, 64 St. Louis, Mo., 96 St. Martin, West Indies, 65, 175 St. Mary's University, Galveston, Tex.,

46 St. Thomas, Virgin Islands, 61 SALAZAR, "RABBI," Venta Prieta, Mexico,

165 Salem, W . Va., 167 Salonica, I 5 5 Saloons, z 1-2 z Salt Lake City, Utah, 44 Saltillo, Mexico, I 67 Salvation Army, 2 I

Sambenito, I 55 SAMUEL BEN SOLOMON, St. Eustatius,

N.A., 76 Samuel Gompe~s: A Biog~aphy, 86 SAMUEL, MAURICE, 79; Little Did I Know,

89-90; I , the Jew, 90; Level Sunlight, 90 SAMUEL, SIGMUND, In Return, 90 San Antonio, Tex., 56, I 53

INDEX TO VOLUME XIX

San Diego, Calif., IOO

San Francisco, Calif., 98 San Jacinto County, Tex., 56 San Luis Potosi, Mexico, I 64 SANDBERG, F. M., New York City, 90;

see also Rosen, Sara SANDERS, MRS. GILBERT, 93-94 SANDMEL, SAMUEL, 98, 104 SANG, PHILIP D., 93 Sanitation, 48 Santa Fe, N . Mex., 93,99; Jewish Temple,

9 3 Santa Fe Railroad, 58 Sao Paulo, Brazil, 103 Saratoga Springs, N. Y., 89 Saturday, 39, 46; see also Sabbath Savannah, Ga., 95, 128 Saviour (in Christianity), I 67 SCHAPPES, MORRIS U., A Pictorial History

of the Jews in the United States (review), 175-76

SCHECHTER, SOLOMON, 88 Scholars, 34, 127; see also Learning, Jewish Scholarships, 108 SCHOLEM, GERSHOM, 104 Schools, 4, 12-13, 16, 39, 42-43, 46-49,

52, 94, 113, 138, 145, 163; ~rincipals, 160; see also Day schools, Education, Hebrew schools, High schools, Pri- vate schools, Public schools, Religious schools, Secondary schools, Secular edu- cation, Sunday, Teacher-training schools

SCHWABACHER (family), I o I SCHWARTZ, MAURICE ("Mr. Second Ave-

nue"), 86 SCHWARTZ, REX M., 24 Science, 25 Scotch, the; Scottish, 7, 12, 63 Scottish Rite, Order of the (Masons), 94,

100

Scriptures, 167; see also Bible, New Testa- ment, Pentateuch, Torah

Scrolls of the Law, z I Seattle, Wash., 12, 16, 19-27, 99 Second World War , 86-87, I zo Secondary schools, 145; see also High

schools Secret Jews; see Marranos Sects, 146, 163-64, 166, 174 Secular education, secular studies, 130;

schools, 145 Secularist Jews, secularists, 9 I , I 30 Seder, 57 Seed Money, 86

Sefer Torah; see Scrolls of the Law SEGAL, JACK, 101

SEINSHEIMER (family), 41 ; JOSEPH, 46 Self-analysis, 87 Self-determination, 82 SELIGMAN, J. & W., & COMPANY, 87 Semikah (ordination), 34, 142 Seminaries; see Rabbinical seminaries Senate, United States; senators, 83, 88,

96, 104, I 19-20; Foreign Relations Committee, I 19-20; see also Congress

Sephardim, Sephardic Jews, Sephardis, 62-63, 134, 148, 151, 165, 174; minhag (rite, prayer book), I 30, I 33; we also Portugal, Spain

Sermons, 38, 90, 95, 98-99, 101-3, 111,

114. 132-33, 135-36, 138; see also Lec- turers, Speeches

Servants, 42-43? 172-73 Services, religious; see Worship Settlers, 5, 92, 145, 177; see also Irnrni-

grants SEVILLA, SIMON BAEZ; see Baez Sevilla,

Simon Sex, sexual relationships, I 50, 155 Shachrith (shaharit), 38 SHAIN, SAMSON A., 96 SHAKESPEARE, WILLIAM, 87 Shaliach, I I I

SHAPIRO, HARRY, I z 3 SHAPIRO, KARL, 87 Shearith Israel Congregation, New York

City, 63 SHECTER, LOUIS, 95-96 Sheitel, 8, 30 Shema (prayer), 38 SHERMAN, C. BEZALEL, 88 SHINEDLING, ABRAHAM I., 34, 93, 99-100 Shippers, 58 SHOLEM ALEICHEM; see Rabinowitz, Solo-

mon Shomer Emunim Congregation (Colling-

wood Avenue Temple), Toledo, Ohio, 107, I 16-17

Shopkeepers ; see Storekeepers Short stories, 32, 86, 103; see also Novels SHOSKES, CHAIM (HENRY), I 67-69 SHOSTECK, ROBERT, 9 3 Shrine; see Masons Shtadlanut, I I 8 Shtetl, go SHUBOW, LEO, 88 Sick, care of; the sick; sickness, 26, 57 Siddur; see Prayer books

2 0 2 AMERICAN JEWISH ARCHIVES, NOVEMBER, 1967

SIEGEL, ELI, 87 Silver, I 63 ; see also Gold SILVER, ABBA HILLEL, 105, 107-2 I , 123-

26; MRS. ABBA HILLEL, I 10; DANIEL J., I 26

SILVER, ALTON S., 98 ; MRS. ALTON S., 98 SILVER, JESSE and ROY, Encyclopedia of

Jews in Sports, 88 ~ILVERMAN, JOSEPH, 47 Simon D. Goodman Lodge NO. 726,

B'nai B'rith, Fairmont, W . Va., 93 SIMON, JOSEPH, 9 3 SINGER, ISAAC BASHEVIS, 104 Sisterhoods, 108 Skid Road, Seattle, Wash., 2 1-23 Skins, 19; see also Fur trade Slave trade, slavery, slaves, 43, 59, 61,

94, 155, 168 Slums, 25, 29 SMITH, ALFRED E., I I 8 SMITH, MRS. JUDAH, 98 Smithsonian Institution, Washington,

D. C., 23 Snuff business, 44 SOBELOFF, SIMON, 95 SOBREMONTE, TOMAS TREVIGO DE; see

Treviiio de Sobremonte, Tomas Social justice, 84, 95, I 18 Social life, society, I , 13, 28, 46-47,

57-59, 63. 80, 82, 88-89, 129, 149 Social movements, social issues, 84-85 Social reform; see Social Justice Social science, scientists, 78, 88, 91 Socialism, 3 2, 5 I Societies, 9 3 Sociology, I 66 Soldiers, 56, 95, 98, 151; see also Military

service SOLIS, JACOB S., I 28 SOI,OMONS, CATHERINE, I O Z

Songs, 10, 38, 102 ; see also Folk songs, Music

South Carolina, 42; Gazette (Charleston), 1 0 2 ; see also Charleston

Southwest (United States), 44 Soviet Russia, 85; see also Russia Spain, the Spanish, Spaniards, Spanish

language, 51-52, 144-+6, 148-50, 152, 155-56, 160, 162, 164, 166, 168-69, 173; Jews of, 146, 148. 150. 15.5; Spanish Catholics, I 62; see also Sephard~m

Spanish America, 144 Spanish Inquisition; see Inquisition Speakers; see Orators

Speech, freedom of; see Free speech Speeches, 95, 98-99, 103-4, 113-14; see

also Lecturers, Sermons Sports, 88, 145 Springfield, Ill., 93; B'nai B'rith Lodge

No. 67, 93 Stadt-rabbonim, Mexico City, 165 Stake, burnings at; see Auto-da-fe Stamford, Conn., 1 0 2

Stamps; see Philately "Star of David, The," I 67 STARKOFF, BERNARD, 2, 106 STARR-HUNT, JACK, I 56 Stars and Stripes (flag), 60 State churches, I 38; see also Church and

state State Department (United States), 102,

118, 125 State religion, I 30 Statia, Statians; see St. Eustatius Statistics, 24, 39, 43, 61-65, 80, 128,

136, 142, 146, 153, 155-56, 160-61, 177 STEIN, GERTRUDE, 89 STEINBACH, ALEXANDER ALAN, Through

Storms W e Grow , 90 STELOFF, FRANCES; set Stolov, Ida Frances STERN, FRANK, 92 STERN, MALCOLM H., 92, 101; "Jewish

Marriage and Intermarriage in the Federal Period (1776-1840)," 142-43; Americans of Jewish Descent, 142

STERN, NORTON B., 100, 103 Stocks, stock brokers, companies, 3 3,

58, 87 STOLOV, IDA FRANCES, 88-89 STONE, EARLS., 104 Storekeepers, stores, 5, 7, 21-23, 129-30;

see also Business, Dealers, Merchants, Trade

Stories, 3 2-33; see also Novels, Short stories

Storms, 41-42 Strangers, zz STRAUSS, LEWIS E., 79 Street cars, 41 STROUSE, SAMUEL, 177 Structure of Spanish History, The , I 48 Students, study, 108, I I I ; see also Learn-

ing, Scholars Suburbs, 87 Suez Canal, I z 5 Sukkoth, 126 Sulzbach, Bavaria, 38 Sulzbacher prayer book, 38

INDEX TO VOLUME XIX z03

SULZBERGER, MAYER, 98, I 27-28, I 35 Sunday, 7, 39,46, 85, I I 2, I I 6; schools, 26 Sunshine and Salt, 89 Supreme Court, of Texas, 58; of the

United States, 95 Surinam, 66 Survival, 78, 82, 112 , 128, 133-34, 137-38,

141, 145, 148 Sutherland's Bar, Seattle, Wash., z 2

Sweatshops, 29 Switzerland, 52, 78, 86 Synagogue Pad, St. Eustatius, 62 Synagogues, the synagogue, I , 8-9, 20-2 I ,

23, 31, 46, 57-58, 61-62, 65-66, 71, 85, 92, 113, 130, 133, 136, 150, 158, 160, 164, 168, 170-71, 176, 178; centers, 1 I 3 ; see also Congregations, Temples

Syracuse University, Syracuse, N. Y., 90 SYRKIN, MARIE, 160 SZOLD, HENRIETTA, 79, 83, 98; "Catholic

Israel," 98; ROBERT, 83

Tacoma, Wash., 24 TAFT, ROBERT A., I 19 TAL, GONZliL0 DE, I7 3 Tallis (prayer shawl), 10, 39 Talmud, talmudists, I 27, I 30, 147; see also

Literature, talmudic Talmud Torah, Toledo, Ohio, 94 Tammany Hall, New York City, I I 8 Tampico, Mexico, I 53 Taxation, taxes, 57, 103 Taxco, Mexico, I 54 Tea trade, 64 Teacher-training schools, I 3 3 Teachers, 4, 12, 14-15, 39, 108, 133,

144, 169-70 Teachings, Jewish; see Judaism TEENSTRA, MARTEN D., 65, 176 Television, 3 3, 159 T~LLEZ, ENRIQUE, 163 ; MANUEL, 160;

see also Jir6n de Tkllez, Trinidad Temple Ahavath Sholom, Brooklyn, N. Y.,

90 Temple Beth El, New York City, 34;

Pensacola, Fla., 92 Temple Beth Emeth, Wilmington, Del.,

97 Temple B'nai Israel, Galveston, Tex., 46 Temple Emanu-El, New York City, 98 Temple Emanuel, Newton, Mass., 79 Temple Ohav Sholom, Albany, N. Y., 89

Temple Sinai, Chesapeake, Va., 92; Stam- ford, Conn., 1 0 2

Temple, The, Cleveland, Ohio, 108-1 I,

113, 126; Brotherhood, 116 Temples, 39, 46, 89, 92-93, 97-98, 101-2,

I 07-8 ; see also Congregations, Syna- gogues

Tenements, 29 Tennessee; see Nashville Tenochtitlin (Mexico City), Mexico, 144,

148 TERMINI, RAYMOND, 92 "Terrorists," I z 3 Texas, 41, 44-48, 50, 53, 56-59; Gulf

Coast Historical Association, 4 I ; see also Austin, Cleburne, Cold Springs, Dallas, Galveston, Harris County, Houston, Indianola, Lake Austin, Matagorda, Port Arthur, San Antonio, San Jacinto County, Wac0

Textbooks, I 32, I 38; see also Books Theatre, theatres, 25, 3 2, 86, 104; see also

Dramatists, Plays, Yiddish Theodor Herzl Institute, 79; Conferences

on History of Zionism in America, 88 Theological seminaries; see Rabbinical

seminaries Theology, 129, 136, I 38, 141 Thinkers, I 27; see also Philosophers THOMAS, NORMAN, I I 8 THOMASHEFSKY, BORIS, 104 Thought, Jewish; see Philosophers Three-year cycle (of reading of Torah),

38 Through Storms W e Grow, 90 Tobacco business, 44 TOBIAS, THOMAS J., I O Z

Toledo, Ohio, 94, I 25 Tolerance, 58 Toluca, Mexico, I 56, 164 Tombstones, 60, 62, 67-70, 72-77> 163 TOPEL, JOSEPH, 1 0 2 , I04 Torah, 9, 15, 22, 38, 85, 133; see also

Bible, Law, Pentateuch, Scrolls of the Law

TORIBIO MEDINA, Josh, 150 TORO, ALFONSO, 149, 169 Toronto, Canada, 90 Tourists, 19, 145-46, 156, 159, 166, 171 T o u ~ o , JUDAH, I 36 Towns, 2 2 , 129, 135, 153-54, I59 Trade, trading, trading posts, 5, 19: ISO;

see also Business, Dealers, Economic hfe, Merchants

Trade unionism, 86 Tradition, 37, 166; see also Orthodox

Judaism TRAININ, ISAAC N., 78 Transients, 2 2

Translations, translators, 89, 97, I 3 1-33, 136, 162

Travel, travelers, 19-20, 25, 52, 65, 98, 103-4, I I I , 120, 126

Tremont Hotel, Galveston, Tex., 45 TREVIGO DE SOBREMONTE, TOM~S, I 5 5 Trial and Error, 79 Trinidad, Colo., 93-94 TROUCHARD, FATHER, Galveston, Tex.,

46 TRUEMAN, HERMAN, 40 TRUMAN, HARRY S., 99, 1 2 2 , 125, 139 TUCKER, SOPHIE, 99 TULL, CHARLES J., Father Coughlin and the

N e w Deal, 90 Turkish Jews, roz Tyranny, 85

Ultra-Orthodox Jews, 9 r UNGAR, REGINA, I 04 Unification, I 3 I , r 36 Union of American Hebrew Congrega-

tions, 96, 134 Unions; see Trade unionism Unitarianism, I 29 United Israel Bulletin, I 70 United Nations, I z I , I 24; General Assem-

bly, 124 United States, 12, 58, 60, 78, 81-82, 99,

103, 117-19, 124, 128, 136, 146, 162, 175-76; Assay Office, 23; Census, 142; Department of State, 1 0 2 ; Executive Branch, 123, 129, 174; Supreme Court, 95; see also America, East, Eastern Sea- board, Midwest, New England, North, Pacific Coast, Southwest, West

United Synagogue, I 3 5 Universities, 3, 23, 34, 41, 46, 49-52,

78, 90, 949 979 99, 107-87 1449 1502 I 60; see also Colleges

University of Chicago, 94; of Erlangen, 23; of Florida, Gainesville, 99; of Gottingen, 51; of Miami, Fla., 144; of Toronto, 90; of Washington, 3

Urban areas, 57, 119, 135, 142; see also Towns, Villages

Utah; see Salt Lake City

VAEZ, ANA, 172 Vancouver, British Columbia, I 6 Vaudeville, 3 3 V~SQUEZ DE LA CUEVA, GUTI~RREZ, I 5 I V~SQUEZ ESPINOSA, ANTONIO, 172 Venta Prieta, Mexico, 156-57, 159-66,

169-70, 173 Veracruz, Mexico, 146, 150 Vernacular, I 3 7 ; see also English language Vice, z I , z 3 Victoria. British Columbia. 16

Villages, 147, 159 Virgin (in Christianity), 144, 167; of

Guadalupe, 144 Virginia, 5 z ; see also Bellevue, Chesapeake,

Lexington, Richmond Vision, 79 VISSELS, CATHERINE, 102; GEORGE, 1 0 2

Vistula River, 1, 3, 37 Voice of Dissent, 9 I Voluntarism, I 3 8 VORENBERG, EMMA; see Wertheim, Joseph Voss, CARL HERMANN, 80, 104; Rabbi and

Minister (review), 83-85 Voters, vote, voting, 59, 119; sec also

"Jewish vote"

W WAAG, MOSES, 70 Waco, Tex., 93 WAINER-KAHN, L E ~ N , I 65 WALL, ALEXANDER J., 33 War; see Civil War; First World War;

Revolutionary War, American; Second World War, W a r of Independence, Israeli

W a r of Inde endence, Israeli (1948), 124 WARBURG (lmily), 99; EDWARD M. M.,

99; FELIX M., 99 Warsaw, Poland, 104 Washing, 172 Washington, D. C., I 15, 118-20, 125 Washington (state), 3 Washington and Lee University, Lexing-

ton, Va., 41~49-50, 52 WASSERMANN, JAKOB, 97 Water, 57 WAX, JAMES A., 96 W c Jews and Jesus, 98 Wealth, I 50; see also Rich Weddings; see Marriage

INDEX TO VOLUME XIX

WEINSTEIN, JACOB J., 101

WEISBERGER, RALPH M., 78 WEISFIELD, MOTTEL, 6-7, I 6 WEISS, JEANETTE, I O Z

WEIZMANN, CHAIM, 79, 81, 90, I 10, 1 2 3

Welfare funds, 96 WELLES, SUMNER, 84 WERETNIKOW, ELIZABETH, 4; ZACHARIAH, 7 WERTHEIM, JOSEPH, 100; EMMA VOREN-

BERG (MRS. JOSEPH), 100

West (United States), 15, 44, 104 West Indies, 145 West Indische Compagnie Archive, 175-

76 WEST, NATHANAEL, 88 West Virginia; see Fairmont, Salem Westchester County, N. Y., 3 3 Western Hospital, Toronto, 90 Western Reserve University, Cleveland,

Ohio, 107 Western world, Western hemisphere, 84,

89 WHITE, CARL J., and Ross L. MUIR,

Over the Long Term, 87 Whites, 155 Wholesalers, 43-44, 56 Wig, women's; see Sheitel WILDER, THORNTON, 89 Willet Street Cemetery, Cleveland, Ohio,

92 WILLINGHAM, R. J., St. Eustatius, N.A.,

60, 177-78 WILLIS, P. J., 8c Co., 56 WILLKIE, WENDELL L., I I 8 wills, 55, 154 Wilmington, Del., 97, I O I

WILSON, DON W., 104 WINDT, JAN DE; see de Windt, Jan Wine industry, wine, 42 Winnipeg, Canada, 5-7, I 1-16, 26-28 Wisconsin; see Appleton, Milwaukee WISE, ISAAC MAYER, 38, 56, 99, 102,

134-36, 138 WISE, STEPHEN S., 80, 83-85, 95, 9798,

I I 0

WITT, LOUIS, 99; MRS. MYRON, 99 WITTKE, CARL, 97 WOLF, HORTENSE (MRS. JOSEPH), 93;

ROSE (MRS. JULIUS), 93 Woman of Valor, 79 Women, 3, 5, 8, 16, 22, 24, 27, 30, 39,

43, 46-47, 61, 64, 142, 147, 150, 1551 159-60, 162, 169, 172, 177

Women's gallery (in synagogue), I 78

WOOLSEY, JOHN A., 92 Workers, z I , 3 3 World Jewry, 144 World to come; see Future life World Union for Progressive Judaism, 103 World Wars; see First World War,

Second World War World Zionism, World Zionist Organiza-

tion, I 10, I 24 Worship, worshipers, 6, 10, 20, 24, 37-38,

46,61, 101-2, 108, 115, 129-30, 162, 176 Writers, writing, writings, 5, 32, 86,

88-89, 113, 125, 127, 133, 169; see also Authors, Books, Journals

YAFFE, NATHAN, 92 Yarmelke (prayer cap), 29 Yeshiva bocher, 8 YESLER, HENRY, 21; Yesler Hill, Yesler

Way, Seattle, Wash., 2 3

Yichus, 8 Yiddish, Yiddish literature, 4, 14, 27-28,

31-32,86-87,89,91, 104, 108, 111, 145; theatre, 86, 104

Yiddish Theatre in America, The, 86 Y I V O Annual qf Jewish Social Science, 9 I Yom Kippur (Day of Atonement), 10,

387 57 Yom tov; see Jewish holidays York, Pa., 93 Youth, the young, young people, 25, 39,

78, 113

z Zamora, Mexico, 160 ZANGWILL, ISRAEL, 79 ZIMMERMAN, ISIDORE, and FRANCIS BOND,

Punishment Wi thmt Crime, 9 I Zion Congregation, Appleton, Wis., 92 Zionism, Zionists, Zionist movement, 79-

84, 88, 90, 94, 96, 99, 104, 10% I I 1-13, r 15, 117-20, 122, 124-26; Congress, Basle, Switzerland (1946), I 2 3-24; con- ventions, I 23, 125; see also American Zionism, World Zionism, Zionist Or- ganization of America

Zionist Organization of America, I 23, I 25 ZUCKERMAN, JACOB T., 78 ZUKERMAN, WILLIAM, 99; Voice of Dissent,

9 I ; MRS. WILLIAM, 99 ZUNZ, LEOPOLD, 1 27 ZWONKIN, ELY, 100

IN FORTHCOMING ISSUES O F AJA

MARTIN A. COHEN, "The Religion of Luis Rodriguez Carvajal"

Dr. Cohen offers illuminating glimpses into the passion of a six-

teenth-century Mexican Judaizer.

LEONARD DINNERSTEIN, "Leo M. Frank and the American Jewish

Community"

Dr. Dinnerstein summarizes his study of what Leo M. Frank's

defense attorney called "the most horrible persecution of a Jew

since the death of Christ."

KENNETH D. ROSEMAN, "Power in a Midwestern Jewish Com-

munity''

Rabbi Roseman probes the question of who is included in the

Jewish communal power structure, who is excluded from it, and,

in either case, on the basis of what criteria.

LAWRENCE SIEGEL, "Reflections on Neo-Reform in the Central

Conference of American Rabbis"

Rabbi Siege1 documents the changes that have taken place in

American Reform Judaism during the past generation.

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