the japanese roboticist masahiro mori’s buddhist inspired concept of “the uncanny valley”

2/4/2015 The Japanese Roboticist Masahiro Moris Buddhist Inspired Concept of The Uncanny Valley

http://jetpress.org/v23/borody.htm 1/12

A peerreviewed electronic journalpublished by the Institute for Ethics

and Emerging Technologies

ISSN 15410099

23(1) December 2013

TheJapaneseRoboticistMasahiroMorisBuddhistInspiredConceptofTheUncannyValley(BukiminoTaniGensh,

)

W.A.BorodyDepartmentofPoliticalScience,PhilosophyandEconomics

NipissingUniversity,Canada

[email protected]

JournalofEvolutionandTechnologyVol.23Issue1December2013pgs3144

ABSTRACT

In1970,theJapaneseroboticistandpracticingBuddhistMasahiroMoriwroteashortessayentitledOntheUncannyValleyforthejournalEnergy(Enerugi,7/4,3335).Sincethepublicationofthistwopageessay,Moris concept of the Uncanny Valley has become part and parcel of the discourse within the fields ofhumanoid robotics engineering, the film industry, culture studies, and philosophy, most notably thephilosophyoftranshumanism.Inthispaper,theconceptoftheUncannyValleyisdiscussedintermsofthecontemporary Japanese cultural milieu relating to humanoid robot technology, and the ongoingroboticization of human culture. ForMasahiroMori, who is also the author ofThe Buddha in the Robot(1981),thesamecompassionthatweoughttooffertoalllivingbeings,andBeingitself,weoughttooffertohumanoidrobots,whicharealsodimensionsoftheBuddhanatureofCompassion.

Whatisthis,Channa?askedSiddhartha.Whydoesthatmanlietheresostill,allowingthesepeopletoburnhimup?It'sasifhedoesnotknowanything.Heisdead,"repliedChanna.Dead!Channa,doeseveryonedie?Yes,my dear prince, all living thingsmust die some day.No one can stop death from coming, repliedChanna.Theprincewassoshockedhedidnotsayanythingmore.(TheFearandTerrorSutra(BhayabheravaSutta)translatedfromthePalibyThanissaroBhikkhu)

MasahiroMoriandTheCulturalDimensionofJapaneseRoboticsInaNewYorkTimesarticlepublished in1982,entitledJapansLoveAffairwith theRobot,HenryScottStokes



discussessomestarkcontrastsbetweenthedegreetowhichtheroboticindustrywasdevelopedinJapanintheearly1980s,asopposed tomostothercountries.Stokesfocuseson thedegree towhich theJapaneseattitude toward therobot radicallydifferedfromthecommonWesternattitude.Forexample,whilethemodernrobot industryhad itsstart in theUnited States, Stoke states, there are 140 robotmanufacturers in Japan as comparedwith 20 in theUnitedStates(Stokes1982,24).Andasfordifferentattitudestowardsrobots,Stokesdescribeshownewindustrialrobots in Japan were more often than not first blessed by Shinto priests, after which the employees burst intoapplause,welcomingthenewmemberoftheirteam.1Typically,Stokessays,workersgreettherobotsatthestartoftheworkingdaywithOhayogozaimasu,GoodMorning!Arecentdocumentary,Japan:RobotNation (2008)depicts thealmost seamless relationshipbetween the Japaneseandtheirrobotculture.JenniferRobertson,aspecialistinJapaneserobotics,discussesthemassivedemographicshiftinanagingpopulationinJapanasaresult,shesays,Japanisembracingtheideaofaformofmulticulturalismthatfactorsinthesocialrobotasanintrinsicaspectofdaytodaylife,includingrobotsthatcanhelpbringupthekids,teach,takecareoftheelderly,andevengroceryshop(Robertson2010).AccordingtoprofessorOnoGoroofSaitamaUniversity in his popular bookAccepting ForeignWorkers Spoils Japan (2008), the Japanese would, in general,preferahumanoidrobotintheirsocialmilieuratherthanahumanforeigner(Japan:RobotNation2008).ProfessorGoroandmanyothernationalistsofhisilkarguethatrobotsarebetterforJapanthanimmigrantswhenitcomestosolving the evolving demographic decline in the population. Japan presently has the highest number of industrialrobotspercapitaintheworldandhasformallyarticulatedtheroboticizationofitscultureasawayofmaintainingitseconomicprestige: thegovernmentsanctioned Innovation25VisionStatement of2007contains anofficialplan toimplementpersonalhumanoidrobotsineveryhomeandschoolenvironmentbytheyear2025(GovernmentofJapan2007).TherearedifferingexplanationstoaccountfortheuniquenessofthemodernJapaneseacceptanceofrobotsandrobotculture.Somepoint to theJapanese traditionof the imaginativecultureof human/nonhumancrossovers inanime,mangaandKarakuriNingyo2 puppet culture, others towhat theyviewas the ritualistic, formalistic, i.e., roboticlikeaspectoftraditionalJapaneseculture.StillothersrefertothelegacyofthesocalledEastern/Asian/Orientalembrace of the Oneness of all things, even when it comes to the dichotomy between virtuality/reality. Thisparticular embrace of Oneness is then opposed to the socalled Western, JudeoChristian Genesis version ofhumansasseparate from,but rulingover, the restofcreation.OsamuTezuka (19281989),who isconsidered thecentralfigureinthedevelopmentofbothanimeandmangainJapanafterWorldWarII,expressesthissentiment:

UnlikeChristianOccidentals,theJapanesedontmakeadistinctionbetweenman,thesuperiorcreature,andtheworldabouthim.Everything is fused together, andweaccept robotseasilyalongwith thewideworldabout us, the insects, the rocks its all one. We have none of the doubting attitude toward robots, aspseudohumans, that you find in theWest. So here you find no resistance, just simple quiet acceptance.(Stokes1982,6)

Whilethisexplanationisconvincingonasurfacelevel,itdoesnotmeshwithJapanspre1945useoftechnologyasan extension of the domination of the sword, as in the bushido ethic of the samurai, as Japans technomilitaryprowess demonstrated pre1945.3 Although the militarists of the period viewed technological mechanization in autopianmanner,awidespreadskepticismofsuchmechanizationpervadedJapanesesociety.Forexample,muchpreWar Japanese literature, was concerned with whatMiri Nakamura he has termed theMechanicalUncanny: theliterarymodethatblursthelinebetweenwhatisperceivedasnaturalandwhatisperceivedasartificial(Nakamura2002,365).ThisMechanicalUncanny,statesNakamura,ledJapaneseintellectualstobringouttheterrorthatcanbe brought about through technologicalmechanization. According to Nakamura,much prewar Japanese literatureattemptedtodestabilizetheplaceoftechnologyinsociety,inanattempttosubverttheideologiesofthemachineage:

MachinesandtechnologyinprewarJapan,however,didnotsimplyrepresentsocialprogresstheyalsocametobeassociatedwithfearanddegeneration.Inthewordsofonescholar,prewarliteraturedepictingmachineswasinaconstantfluxbetweenautopiandreamofmachinesontheonehandandapessimisticnightmareofthemontheother.(Nakamura2002,366):4

TheendofWWIImarksamajorshiftinJapanstechnologicaldevelopment:whatcanbedescribedasashiftfromthebelligerenttothebenign.JapanspresentpoliticalconstitutionwasimposedbytheAlliesfollowingWorldWarIIandwas intended to replace Japansprewarmilitaristic andabsolutemonarchy system.ChapterTwo,Article9ofJapanspresentconstitution(whichcameintoeffectin1947),entitledTheRenunciationofWar,enforcespacifistsocialvalues,andhence,byimplication,pacifisttechnology:



Aspiringsincerelytoaninternationalpeacebasedonjusticeandorder,theJapanesepeopleforeverrenouncewarasasovereignrightofthenationandthethreatoruseofforceasmeansofsettlinginternationaldisputes.Toaccomplishtheaimoftheprecedingparagraph,land,sea,andairforces,aswellasotherwarpotential,willneverbemaintained.Therightofbelligerencyofthestatewillnotberecognized.(ConstitutionofJapan1947)

IftheAxispowershadbeenvictoriousattheconclusionofWWII,itmighthavebeentheAmericansandSovietswhowouldhavebeen forced todevelopmorepeacefuluses for robotic technology.As it happened, inboth theSovietUnionandtheUnitedStates,post1945,economicallybelligerent,i.e.,militaryreasons,providedadrivingforceinthe interest in robotics and technology. By contrast, Japan, given Article 9 of its constitution, has mainly beenmotivated by economically peaceful reasons an impulse tomake life lessmenial while at the same timemoreprofitable and pleasurable. It is in this context that the Buddhist roboticistMasahiroMori (born 1927) is such asignificant figure in the Japanese roboticsandAIcommunity.Morispacifist approach to technologyand roboticsbestrepresentsthepostwarJapanesethinkingabouttheroleofrobotictechnologyinmodernsociety.5MasahiroMori:TheUncannyValleyAlthoughMasahiroMori ismostwellknownoutsideofJapanforhisdevelopmentof theconceptof theUncannyValley,heismoreimportantlyrecognizedinJapanasthefounderoftheJizaiKenkyujo(MuktaInstitute,1970),aninfluentialBuddhistbased,Japanesethinktankprovidingcorporationsandresearchcentreswithassistanceregardingroboticizationandautomation.Inthiscapacity,hehashadadirectinfluenceonthedevelopmentofsomeofthemoreadvancedhumanoidrobotstohavebeendevelopedinJapan,suchas,forexample,HondashumanoidrobotAsimo.6HeistheauthorofTheBuddhaintheRobot:ARobotEngineersThoughtsonScienceandReligion (1974).HeisalsothefounderofRobocon,aworldwideamateurrobotcontestintendedtoshareandcelebraterobotengineeringtechnology.FormerlyanengineeringandroboticsprofessorattheTokyoInstituteofTechnology,MasahiroMoriisatpresent(2013)theEmeritusPresidentoftheRoboticsSocietyofJapan.Inhis1970,twopage,koanlikearticleentitledTheUncannyValley,Moriarguesthatthemoresocialrobots(asopposedtoindustrialrobots)aredesignedtoappear100percenthumanlike,themoretheywillappearlesshuman,strange,unlikeableandinsomecaseshorrific,resultingfromsometechnologicalglitchineithertheirappearanceormovement,thuscausingafearfulsenseoftheuncanny,inthewayacorpse,orworseyet,azombiecausesasenseofuncannystrangenessoremotionalrecoiling.InapeacefulsocietyamoreArticle9society,andforMoriamoreBuddhistbased society robots and robotically enhanced humans ought to be experienced as nonthreatening. In1970, on the basis of his concept of theUncannyValley,MasahiroMori advised his fellow roboticists to designhumanoidrobotsthatactandperformashumans,butdonotlookandmoveexactlylikethehuman,inorderthatthehumanoidrobotswillbemoresociallyaccepted.MoribasedhisideaoftheUncannyValleyonapersonalexperience:asaroboticistwhodevelopedtheengineeringforrobotic/prostheticfingers,hefeltthateventhemosthumanlikeprosthetichandavailablecommerciallyin1970,which had been developed in Vienna, still left one with a sense of the uncanny and unfamiliar. Despite howtechnologically developed this prosthetic handwas, and how humanlike it appeared, shaking such a cold, lifelesshand,saysMori,leftoneshocked,andhorrifiedtoadegree.Hence,inthecaseofasiliconedhumanlikeprosthetichand,Morisuggeststhatawoodenhand,modeledonaversionofthehandoftheBuddhaofCompassion(Mori2012,100),7butwiththesametechnologicalprecisionoftheViennesehand,mightmorelikelybeacceptedbythehuman,withasenseoffamiliarityratherthanaversion.ThecoreofBeing,fromaBuddhistperspective,iscompassion.Whycreate new forms of being that are intrinsically forms of aversion rather than compassion? This is the BuddhistsubtextofMorisconceptoftheUncannyValley.Moribeginshispaperwithagraphbasedon themathematical functiony= f(x),anabstract formula thatexplainssimplecauseandeffect:thevalueofydependson(orisaneffectof)thevalueofx.Forexample,steppingonthegaspedal(x)resultsincausingthecar(y)tomove.Normally,thiscauseeffectrelationshipholdsinourworld.Butnotallthings,Mori observes, fall under the formula y = f(x). Simple cause and effect is not the way the world works.Althoughinoureveryday,practicalworld,y=f(x)isthewaythingsoftenwork,itisnotalwaysso:

This kind of relation is ubiquitous and easily understood. In fact, because suchmonotonically increasingfunctionscovermostphenomenaofeverydaylife,peoplemayfallundertheillusionthattheyrepresentallrelations. Also attesting to this false impression is the fact that many people struggle through life bypersistentlypushingwithoutunderstandingtheeffectivenessofpullingback.Thatiswhypeopleusuallyarepuzzledwhenfacedwithsomephenomenonthatthisfunctioncannotrepresent.(Mori2012,98)



Morisownexampleistakenfromthemovementofwalking:inclimbingamountain,therearehillsandvalleys,withnonecessaryy=f(x)causeandeffectrelationshipforgettingfrompointAtoB.Intheattempttocreate100percenthumanlikeresemblanceinrobotictechnology,wehumansfail.Stuffedanimalsandpuppetsaremoreacceptedbyusas fellow travellers than such things as prosthetic hands that are created toappear 100 per cent humanlike. SuchhumancreationsendupintheUncannyValley,alongsidetheexperienceofhumancorpsesandzombies:

(Mori2012,99)MoridevelopedhisconceptoftheUncannyValleyafterattendingJapansspaceagethemedExpo70heldinOsakain 1970. Expo 70 was held at the height of the Cold War, which was, in a political chessboard of realtimecontestation, played out in the jungleenvironment of the Vietnam War, a brutal display of human ideologicalviolence that claimed the lives of approximately twomillion Vietnamese, Cambodians and Laotians, and 60,000Americans. In the context of thisColdWarmentality, Expo 70 had as its alternative theme the Progress andHarmonyforMankind,laArticle9oftheJapaneseconstitution.ThisExpocarriedonthetraditionofthefirstinternationalExpo,theGreatExhibitionoftheWorksofIndustryofallNations,heldinLondonin1851.TheultramodernarchitectureofthebuildingsofJapansExpo70rivalledinbothingenuityanduniquenessLondonsCrystalPalace.OndisplayinthisExpowerealargemoonrockbroughtbackbytheApollo 12 astronauts in 1969 the first IMAX film the first spherical concert hall recently developedmobilephonesbasedonlocalareanetworkingthemostadvancedmagneticlevitationtraintechnologyandawidevarietyofprosthetic devices and humanoid robots. In the aftereffects of this exuberantly utopian celebration of the infinitemoralandtechnologicalperfectibilityofthehumanbeing,MasahiroMoritossedinamonkeywrenchwithhistwopagepublicationofTheUncannyValley.InoneoffhandedcommentMoristatesthatcreatinganartificialhumanisitselfoneoftheobjectivesofrobotics(Mori2012,98)(suchastatementwouldhorrifythelikesofaHeidegger,FukuyamaorMargaretAtwood).However,his conceptof theUncannyValleywasa symboliccounterthought tosomeofthemoreutopianidealsofExpo70.Itquestioned,howeverobliquely,theconceptoftheutopiandesiretoremanufacturethepresenthuman,adinfinitum,butwithbettertechnology.WhiletheconceptoftheUncannyValleyhassinceplayedasignificantroleintheJapaneseroboticsindustrydevotedto the development of social robots, it has recently garnered more interest in the film industry, especially theAmerican film industry. CGI technology has allowed for more of a crossover between animation and realism.However,ifananimatedcharacterappearstooalmostreal,suchasTomHanksinthemoviePolarExpress(2004),theaudiencerecoils.Animationisnotyetat thepoint that itcanreplicaterealisticallyavirtualizedhuman.Hence,becauseitfellintowhatMoriwoulddescribeastheUncannyValley,PolarExpresswasaboxofficeflop,whilethemovieAvatar(2009),whichdidnotdependoncompleteanimatedhumanlikeness,wasasuccess(althoughitwasapoormovie for other reasons relating to itsmaudlin plot). It is also clear that the face or avatar of the IBMsupercomputerWatsonwasdevelopedwithaconceptoftheUncannyValleyinmind,whenitfirstappearedinthequizshowJeopardy!inFebruaryof2010,inahumanversusmachinecontest(Watsoncameinfirstplace).



AsWatsonhadtoappearbesidetwohumans, itsappearanceandmovementwereofcritical importancefor itsdesigners.DavidFerrucci,WatsonPrincipalInvestigatorofIBMResearch,describestheapproachthatwastakeninthisprojecttopresentafaceoravatarforWatson,whichissimplyaclusterofninetyIBMPower750servers:

Lotsofthinkingwentintothis.Shoulditbehumanoid,shoulditbeabstract?Intheend,whatreallymadealotofsensewastobereallyclearthatthisisanIBMcreationandwhatbetterthanthesmarterplanetlogoforcommunicatingthat?(Davis2011)8

The smarter planet logo (Moris still) was coupled with fortytwo coloured threads crisscrossing the globe(Morismovement).AlthoughWatsonsengineersgendereditasmale(givenitsmalenameandvoice), theydidnotattempttoentertheUncannyValleybyassociatinganexacthumanlikefaceoravatartoit.Interestingly,thisideaappearstodominatemorerecentdevelopmentsinprosthetics,asisevidencedbyDARPAsrecentmindcontrolled,bionicarmandhand,whichcanbeusedeitherwithasiliconcovering,orwithoutone(UltraTechTalk,2012),andAimeeMullinsdemonstrationofhertwelvedifferenttypesofprostheticlegs,someofwhichlookhumanlike,andsomewhichdonot (Mullins,2009). Ina recentstudycarriedoutatPrincetonUniversity,evenmonkeysappear tohavethesenseofanUncannyValleywhenconfrontedwithimagesofmonkeysfacesthatappearalmostclosetoreal.Insteadofcooingandsmackingtheir lipswhenviewingexactrepresentationsofothermonkeys, themonkeysalmost immediately avert their glances and act frightened when confronted by the almost closetoreal images(MacPherson2009).Ontheotherhand,whilethereareroboticistswhohaveheededMorisadvice,andcreatedhumanlike,socialrobotsthatappearmoreanimelike,othershaveattemptedtocreatesocialrobotsthatareintendedtoreplicateanexact,100percenthumanlikeness,andtherearesomewhoarguethat,whenitcomestoRoboticsandArtificialIntelligence,thesenseofthesocalledUncannyValleysoonfades,asitwouldfade,forexample,withmoreexposuretoaprosthetichand, such as theViennese hand. In fact,withinminutes, some roboticists claim, even if a very humanlike robotappearsuncanny,thesenseoftheuncannydissolvesquickly(Sofge2010,2):

DavidHanson,aroboticistwhosecompany,HansonRobotics,specializesinultrarealisticroboticheads,activelyseeksouttheuncanny.Hekeepsthemotorsinhisrubberskinnedfacesnoisyandovertlyrobotic,andsometimespresentstheselifeliketalkingheadsmountedonastick.Andforbetterorworse,eventheshock value ofHansons buzzing, decapitated heads doesnt stick around for long. Inmy experience,peoplegetusedtotherobotsveryquickly,Hansonsays.Asin,withinminutes.(Guizzo2010,1)

A2009empiricalstudyofMorisconceptoftheUncannyValleyconcludesbyclaimingthat,contraMori,humanlikeandroidsthatwereslightlydistinguishablefromhumanswerenotlikedlessthanhumans(Bartnecketal.2009).Fortheseresearchers,thefutureofhighlyrealisticandroidsbodeswell,andtherefore,theyargue,theUncannyValleyhypothesisnolongeroughttobeusedtoholdbackthedevelopmentofsuchhumanoidrobots.PreMoriEuropeanacademicstudiesoftheuncannybeganintheearlytwentiethcentury,althoughtheyhaveonlyaslight resemblance to Moris concept of the uncanny. Ernst Jentschs 1906 essay On the Psychology of theUncannyviewedthehumansenseoftheuncannyinanevolutionarycontext:fearoftheunknown,arguesJentsch,lies at the core of the consciousness of all living beings, and their very existence. On this account, fear of theunknown is hardwired into consciousness itself humans experience this particular fear as the Uncanny, orUnfamiliar(Unheimliche).Whilemuchofwhatisconsidereduncannyforthemodernhumaniseitheraresultofprimitive baggage, various forms of intoxication, or mental derangement, claims Jentsch, a fearful sense of theuncanny/unknown still lies at the epicenter of modern human consciousness which is whymodern humans soaggressivelycultivatethepracticeofscience(Jentsch1996,16).Freuds 1919 essay on the Uncanny is written as a response to Jentsch. Although Freud agrees with Jentschconcerningtheinnatehumanfearoftheunknown/uncanny,heoffersapsychoanalyticinterpretationofthisparticularfear, claiming it tobe theprimitive fear of castration,KastrationAngst (Freud 2003, 139).Neither Jentschs norFreudsviewoftheUncannyappearstohaveinfluencedMorisconceptoftheUncannyValley.Ontheotherhand,inaninterestingmanner,bothJentschandFreuddiscusstheuncannyintermsoftheAutomatrobotcharacterOlimpiawhoappearsinE.T.A.HoffmannsnovelTheSandman.NeitherJentsch(1906)norFreud(1919)consideredthekindofrealtimeroboticuncanninessthatMoriwasconfrontedwithin1970.As for a more specificWestern influence onMoris conception of the Uncanny Valley, NorbertWieners 1948Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine, entrancedMori when it was firsttranslatedintoJapanesein1961.TheAnimalintheMachinethatWienerpredictedsharedMorispacifistviewof



thefieldofrobotics(andMorislaterconceptionoftheBuddhaintheRobot).AlthoughWienerhaddevelopedhisconcept of cybernetics during hiswar efforts duringWWII (in designing the automatic aiming and firing of antiaircraft guns), he became a staunch pacifist after the war, campaigning against themilitarization of science. HispacificismisalreadyevidentinCybernetics,whichwaswrittenshortlyafterthewar:

Wehavecontributedtotheinitiationofanewscience[cybernetics]which,asIhavesaid,embracestechnicaldevelopmentswith great possibilities for good and for evil.We can only hand it over into theworld thatexistsaboutus,andthisistheworldofBelsenandHiroshima.Wedonotevenhavethechoiceofsuppressingthesenewdevelopments.Theybelongtotheage,andthemostanyofuscandobysuppressionistoputthedevelopmentofthesubjectintothehandsofthemostirresponsibleandthemostvenalofourengineers.Thebestwecandoistoseethatalargepublicunderstandsthetrendandthebearingofthepresentwork,andtoconfineourpersonaleffortstothosefields,suchasphysiologyandpsychology,mostremotefromwarandexploitation.(Wiener1948,3839)

When Mori the roboticist first conceived of the Uncanny Valley, he was an avid practicing Buddhist. From aBuddhistpointofview, tobe fullyhumanrequiresaradicalrethinkingofwhat itmeanstobeahumaninthefirstplace.Thegiven,apriori,humanisabeingstraddledwithanunfulfillabledesire,t:theclutchingdesireforthepermanencyofanegobasedformofselfidentity.Thepraxisandethicsoflettinggoofthisdesiremakewayforadifferentsortofhuman,atranshumanofsorts,aBuddhist.Hence,fromaBuddhistroboticsperspective,whytrytoreplicatethepresenthumaninthefirstplace,thesamehumanthatoneoughttoovercome?InMorisessay,TheUncanny Valley, the technologically created Viennese robotic prosthetic hand appears as a metaphor for ourrecoilingfromwhatought tobeconsideredunfamiliarandstrangefromaBuddhistperspective: i.e.,humannaturecircumscribedandconstitutedbyt.IfcompassionconstitutestheessentialnatureofBeing,andhencethehumanbeing, it follows that humanoid robots ought to reflect this not uncanny or unfamiliar, but of the essence ofBuddhahood:compassion.Hence,itcomesasnosurprisethatMoriconcludeshisessaywithareferencetoaBuddhaofCompassionswoodenhand,suggestingthatthishandmaybelessuncannyandunfamiliartohumanbeingsthanarealisticprosthetic.FromaBuddhistperspective,theworldofthehumanisfakeenough:thereisnoneedtomakeitmorefake.TheBuddhaintheRobot

Manwillneverreachthemoonregardlessofallfuturescientificadvances.Dr.LeeDeForest,inventoroftheAudiontubeandafatherofradio,25Febuary,1967.

Inhisbook,TheBuddha in theRobot,written some four years after TheUncannyValley,Mori does notoncemention the concept of theUncannyValley, although theBuddhist subtext of his essay permeates the book. Thehealthypersonisnolongerconsideredtobeattheapexofthefamiliarorthelikeable:thatapexisattainedwiththeenlightened insight of Buddhist praj (Enlightenment). The world itself is afflicted by ignorance, claims Mori,whichisseeninBuddhistphilosophyasthefundamentalcauseofallevil(Mori1981,8).Inthe1981prefacetotheEnglishtranslationoftheBuddhaintheRobot,MoriarticulatesanoverlyexuberantandnaveviewofBuddhismasthe truest, themostperfect, themostuniversal,and themostmagnanimousof religions(Mori1981,9).Taoism,ConfucianismandShintoismaresurprisinglynotmentionedinthisbook,althoughifoneweretocomprehensivelytreattheissueofrobotsandAIin1981inJapan,intermsoftraditionalJapaneseculture,onewouldnodoubthavetotreatthecontributionsofthesethreeotherJapanesetraditions.Clearly,asbothaPureLandandZenBuddhist,MorishowsaperspectivethatischaracteristicofmodernJapaneseBuddhism,whichemergedoutof itspersecutionduringtheMeijiEra((Meijijidai,18681912).Duringthisperiod,Buddhismwascensuredasacorrupt,decadent,antisocial,parasitic,andsuperstitiouscreed,inimicaltoJapansneedforscientificandtechnologicaldevelopment(Sharf1995,110).However,insteadofconcedingdefeat,JapaneseBuddhistleadersdevelopedwhatcametobeknownasNewBuddhism(shinbukky),whichwasconsideredtrueorpureBuddhism,andwhichwasfoundtobeuncompromisinglyempiricalandrational,andinfullaccordwiththefindingsofmodernscience(Sharf1995,110).AlthoughMorihimselfdoesnotselfidentifyhisBuddhistpersuasionwithNewBuddhism,orwithanyparticularsectofJapaneseBuddhism,intheBuddhaintheRobot,themembershipofhisMuktaInstituteheldbothPureLandandZenBuddhistviews(Schodt1998,207).AlthoughinnowaypossessingthephilosophicalacumenofthenotableJapaneseBuddhistphilosopherNishidaKitar(18701945),Mori, as a roboticist, not a philosopher, expressed insightswithwhichKitarwould no doubt have agreed.TheywouldhaveagreedthatBuddhismsbasicprincipleorinsightisthatallthingsinthecosmosaremanifestationsoftheprimordial Buddhanature of Enlightenment, Compassion, and Nothingness/Emptiness. Hence, Mori, withouthesitation,claimsinthisbookthatrobotshavethebuddhanaturewithinthem that is, thepotentialforattaining



buddhahood (Mori 1981, 13). The Buddha in the Robot also contains the messianism of Pure Land (AmitbaBuddha/Sukhvat)Buddhism,as,forexample,whenMoristates thathisrobotscall is loudandclear:Themoremechanizedourcivilizationbecomes,themoreimportanttheBuddhasteachingwillbetousall(Mori1981,57).In the late 1980s, Frederik L. Schodt had the opportunity to attend a meeting ofMorisMukta Institute. Schodtdescribesatypicalmeetingofthisgroup:

Aspartofthisprocess,MuktamembersregularlymeettoreciteBuddhistscriptures,meditate,andattempttoconsiderproblemsinnewways.Onthewalloftheroominwhichthemeetingsareheld,alongwithBuddhistcalligraphy,isanelaborateclockwithnohandsthattellsnotimeinthecenterisayinyangshapedtablethatcanbesplitinhalfandreconfiguredinamyriadofwaystoencouragedifferentmethodsofcommunication.Herethemembersimaginenewrobots,cars,andmethodsofautomation,and,as[member]Matsubarasayswithachuckle,occasionallysipsomesake.(Schodt1998,210)

TheBuddha in theRobot contains a graph, not of theUncannyValley, butwhat could be described as theTValley thevalleyofdesire.ForMori, the implicationsofmass social roboticizationarenot themodernhumansmost pressing issue. This is human suffering,which is ultimately caused bydesire: the cause of all suffering isrooted indesire.Mori describes theBuddhist understandingof theprocessofdesirewith the analogyof abomb(whichresonateswiththepacifisticdeclarationofArticle9):oneburningdesireignitesotherdesiresaroundit,andthefirespreadsasinthebomb.Themorewefeeddesire,themoreitgrows,untilitbecomesanexplosiveformofinsatiability(Mori,1981,55).Inthegraphthatfollows,Moriplotsthepointatwhichthemodernhumanbeingexistsona scaleof desire.Anaturalbalanceexists innature, he argues: there exists in nature a desire that knowssatisfactionadesirethatdoesnotgobeyondcertainlimits.Thismoderateddesireistheprinciplethatunderliestheharmoniousworkingsofnature(Mori1981,56).Thesolidlineinthegraphrepresentstheseharmoniousworkingsofnature,asabalancebetweenourdesiresandtheirappropriatesatisfaction(supply)(Mori1981,56):

\Inordertofunctionproperlyalongsiderobots,andtowelcomehumanoidrobotsinoursocialworld,arguesMori,wemust first learnhow tocontrolourowndesires,ourown tforultraexistentialegopermanency:wemust firstlearn how to understand and embrace both compassion (karua) and nothingness (nyat). In his Loving theMachine: the Art and Science of Japanese Robots (2006), TimothyHornyak responds to the question as to whyhumanoid robots are apparently so loved in Japan: simply because they are simultaneously science and fiction(Hornyak2006, 157).Moriwouldnodoubt agree, but forMori, theBuddhist roboticist, this love results fromaninsight that humanoid robots are also part and parcel of the oneness of all things, of Buddhanature ofEnlightenment,CompassionandNothingness/Emptiness.Theconferencecomments



In2005,thirtyfiveyearsafterMorifirstproposedtheconceptoftheUncannyValley,hewasinvitedtoaconference,ViewsoftheUncannyValley:AHumanoids2005Workshop,heldinTsukuba,Japan,whichaddressedtheconceptinterms of psychology, sociology, philosophy, neuroscience, and Artificial Intelligence. He sent a letter to KarlMacDorman, the director of the Android Center at Indiana University, and the one person who has carried outextensive empirical studies on the idea of the Uncanny Valley Mori declined the invitation, due to priorcommitments. In this letter,whichhasbeenpostedon thenet,he states that while I introduced thenotionof theUncannyValley, I have not examined it closely too[sic] far (Mori 2005, 1).Nevertheless, he included two shortpersonal observations regarding the concept of the Uncanny Valley, both of which are critical of its originalformulation:heiscriticalofhisformulationofboththelowpoint(acorpse)inthecurveoftheUncannyValley,andthehighpoint(thehealthyperson).Inhis1970article,theUncannyValleyisplacedbetweentheexperienceofacorpseandazombie.By2005,Morihaschangedhisattitudetowardthecorpse.Thecorpseisnolongeranobjecttobeconsidereduncanny.Itisnowsomethingaboutwhich to rejoice: itno longerhas to suffer,which is the fateofall living beings.Theessenceofhumanexistence,hestatesinhisfirstobservation, is thefact thathumanssuffer,andarethereforetroubled,whichoftenshowsontheirfaces.Here,MoriusesaBuddhisttargumenttoexplainwhyahumancorpseshouldnotbeviewed as something uncanny, but as somethingmore real than the living form of human lifeconsciousness.Hecrypticallygivesareasonforhumansuffering,i.e.,theveryactofdecisionmaking:ifyoutakeonething,youwilllose the other (Mori 2005,1).Whenever onemakes a decision about ones life, in this way or that, one alwayswonderswhetherornotthedecisionmadewastherightone.Itisasif,witheverylittledecision,oneencountersadeathofsortsinthechoicethatwasnotmade.Inlife,onecannothaveonescakeandeatittoo:thisistherealityofdesire.Bycontrast,thecorpseisfreeofsuchdesire.BasedonaclearerunderstandingofhisBuddhistprinciplesofoneness and compassion,Mori no longer appears, in his 2005observation, to be struckby the significanceof theexperienceoftheuncanny.Bywayofcomparison,Freud,whenhewasinhissixties,alsohadapersonalobservationabouttheuncannyinhisessayonTheUncanny.Heobservedthat theolderhehadbecome,thelessasenseoftheuncannyoperatedasanexperientialaspectinhislife(Freud2003,124).In his second reflection in the 2005 letter toKarlMacDorman,Mori addresses the high point of the curve, thehealthyperson.Upon reflection,hestates,Buddhist statues thatbringout thecompassionateandhealingnatureofenlightenedconsciousnessoughttobeheldastheidealofhumanexistence,notthehealthyhumanperse.HestatesthatthefacesoftherepresentationsofthecompassionatenatureoftheBuddhaarefullofelegance,beyondworriesof life, and have an aura of dignity (Mori, 2005, 1). Such artistic representations, he claims, should replace thehighestvalueofthehealthyhumaninhis1970graph.From these two reflections in 2005, it is clear thatMori is rearticulating his view of both humanoid robots andartificial intelligence that he articulated inThe Buddha in the Robot thatall is one and infused with buddhanature.In2011,attheageof84,MoriacknowledgedtheexistenceoftheUncannyValley,butsimplyasadesignglitchinthefieldofhumanoidrobotics:Toacertaindegree,wefeelempathyandattractiontoahumanlikeobjectbutonetinydesignchange,andsuddenlywearefulloffearandrevulsion(Kawaguchi2011,1).This,hesays,iswhathehasdescribed as theuncannyvalley.Yet, he still articulates theviewofhumanoid robots and artificialintelligencefoundinTheBuddhaintheRobot,concerningtheonenessofallthings:

Icall that itsBuddhanaturerobots,plants,stones,humans, theyreall thesamein thatsense,andsincetheyallhaveaspirit,wecancommunicatewiththem.Forexample,whenadoorhingemakesasound,itscryingPleaseoilme!Iconversewithchopsticks:Thankyou!forlettingmeusethem,Isay.Theyreply,Noproblem!Thislooksdelicious!Enjoy!(Kawaguchi2011,1)

Conclusion:MasahiroMorisBuddhistbasedtranshumanismhumantransformationorhumantransmogrification?

Basedontheprecedingdiscussion,onemightconcludethat,accordingtoMorisroboticengineeringbasedBuddhistphilosophicalperspective,theUncannyValleyissimilartotheBuddhistconceptofimpermanencecoupledwithitsconcomitant quality, suffering (dukha). Like the Buddhist concept of suffering, the Uncanny Valley can bemetamorphosed into something transformative. Likewise,GautamaBuddhas experience of sick, elderly and deadhumans originally engendered a sense of horrific uncanniness in the young princeling, but upon his becomingEnlightened, he viewed such uncanniness as part and parcel of the fabric of this world, the fabric ofimpermanence/nothingness,whichheapproachedwithcompassion.WhileitappearstobethecasethatallthingsareOne,italsoappearsthatallthingsarenotOne,asbothHeraclitusandLaoTzuwouldcommiserate.Humanbeingsappear to live in thedichotomyofbeingOnewithall thatexists,



whilealsoexistingassignificantlyseparate from thisOneness.Moriclearlyobfuscates thisdichotomy,which isaseriousphilosophicalflawinhisthinkingwhenitcomestotheexistenceofhumanoidlikeAIandrobots,giventhesignificance anddignityof selfidentity qua individuality.Aswell, as a selfproclaimedpracticingBuddhist,Moriappears predisposed to embracinghumanoidlike robots andAIon thebasis of his predilection for theanimelikefigureoftheBuddhaasheexistsasaphantasmagoricalconstructinBuddhisthagiography(suchasintheMahParinibbnaSutta) and inBuddhist iconography.Moris openness towards the idea that humansought togiveuptheirhumanityashumanstotheonenessofallthingsintheguiseofrobotsandAIexhibitsthesamenaivetthathedisplaysinhisbookTheRobotintheBuddhaconcerningthevirtuesofBuddhismasthetruest,themostperfect,themostuniversal,andthemostmagnanimousofreligions.MasahiroMoricanbedescribedasaBuddhisttranshumanist,andasanadvocateoftranshumanism.Hence,hefallswithin the fuzzy crosshairs of the Westernist historianofideas Francis Fukuyama, who has characterized thephilosophyoftranshumanismastheworldsmostdangerousideaonethataimstodefacehumanity(Fukayama2004, 43).Whether the Buddhistbased transhumanism advocated byMasahiroMori prefigures a utopian humantransformation,adystopianhumantransmogrificationorboth,orneitheronlytimewilltell.Butthen,timeitselfisarelativeconcept,asistheconceptofnothingness.NotesThisarticlehasbeentranslatedintoChinesebyShaoMingandwasfirstpublishedin2012intheJournalofYibinUniversity12(8)(August):17.Availableat:http://goo.gl/rbazjX.(accessedDec.10,2013)1.TheShintoconsecrationofrobotsfadedoutinthelate1980s,asanofficialatKawasakiexplained:Wehavetoomanytonamenow(Geraci2006,8).2.ThewordKarakurireferstoamechanicaldevicetotease,trick,ortakeapersonbysurprise.Itimplieshiddenmagic,oranelementofmystery. InJapanese,Ningyo iswrittenas twoseparatecharacters,meaningpersonandshape.Itlooselytranslatesaspuppet,butcanalsobeseeninthecontextofadolloreveneffigy(Law1997,18).3.Interestingly,inlightofMorisconceptoftheUncannyValley,WWIIwasprecipitatedbytheGreatDepressionofthe1920s,whichisreferredtoinJapanastheeraoftheDarkValley(kuraitanima,).4.Inthiscontext,itshouldbenotedthatFritzLangsMetropoliswasreleasedinJapanin1929,andKarelapeksR.U.R.wastranslatedintoJapaneseinthe1930s.5.MoristechnoutopianistdoppelgangerintheWestcouldbeviewedastheroboticist/technophileRayKurzweil,manyofwhosesignificanttechnologicalactivities(e.g.,voicerecognitionsoftware)havebeenconductedundertheaegisofDARPA(theDefenseAdvancedResearchProjectsAgency), the scientificwingof theAmericanmilitaryhigh command.Geraci views themajority of contemporary Japanese roboticists as just asmisled as their utopianAmericancounterparts, sincebothgroupsareheedlessofthepotentiallydisastrouseffectsof robotic technologybecause of their heady eschatological and soteriological cultural baggage (whether it be a mix of ShintoismConfucianismBuddhismoraformofJudeoChristianity):eventhoughtheymaybeagnosticorevenatheistic,[pieinthesky]religionmaintainssomepowerovertheirwork(Geraci2006,11).6.Ibelongto theAtomgeneration,declaredAsimosprimemover,ToruTakenaka, thechiefengineeratHondaR&DCo.Ltd.WhenIwasachild,I lovedAtom[Boy]andTetsujin28[anothercartoonrobot],andIusedtobeimmersedintherobotworld(Hara2001,1).AsagraduateoftheMuktaInstitute,SoichiroHonda,thefounderofHondaMotors,hasdevelopedhiscompanyalongMuktaInstituteprinciples(Schodt1998,209).7.Mori does not describe thewooden hand as typical of a representation ofAvalokitevara, the Boddhisattva ofCompassion, who also exists in the form of Padmapni, theOnewith a Lotus in His/Her (ardhanrvararpa)Hand,alwaysthelefthand.Therighthandisoftenloweredinacompassionategestureofgivingablessing(avaradahastaasavaradamudr).ThewoodenhandsculptedalongBuddhistprinciplesappearingintheoriginalJapaneseversionofthearticleisjustsuchahand:



8.JoshuaDaviswasthedigitalartistwhocreatedthenonUncannyValleyWatsonavatar:

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Hornyak,T.2006.Lovingthemachine:TheartandscienceofJapaneserobots.Tokyo:KodanshaInternational.Kawaguchi,Judit.2011.Wordstoliveby:RoboconfounderDr.MasahiroMori.TheJapanTimesonLine,March10,2011.http://goo.gl/K4D2Wh(accessedApril26,2013).Law,J.M.1997.PuppetsofNostalgia.Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress.MacPherson,Kitta.2009.Likehumans,monkeysfallintotheUncannyValley.NewsatPrinceton.http://goo.gl/hBt9vg(accessedApril29,2013).Mori,K.,andC.Scearce. 2010.RobotNation:Robotsand thedeclining Japanesepopulation.DiscoveryGuides,117.http://goo.gl/lRMlnE(accessedApril25,2013)Mori,M.1970.TheUncannyValley.Energy,7,4:3335.(InJapanese.)1981.Thebuddhaintherobot:Arobotengineersthoughtsonscienceandreligion,trans.CharlesS.Terry.Tokyo:KoseiPublishingCo.(Originallypublishedintwovolumes,MoriMasahironoBukkyNymonandShingen(1974).)2005.OntheUncannyValley,androidscience.com.http://goo.gl/rvpUk5(accessedApril26,2013)2012.TheUncannyValley,trans.byKarlF.MacDormanandNorriKagekiunderauthorizationbyMasahiroMori.IEEERobotics&AutomationMagazine,98100.http://goo.gl/iskzXb(accessedApril27,2013).

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12.http://goo.gl/IA6vFY(accessedApril28,2013).Stokes,H.S.1982.Japansloveaffairwiththerobot.NewYorkTimes,January10,p.24.TheConstitutionofJapan.1947.ChapterII:TheRenunciationofWarhttp://goo.gl/8ZcIPE(accessedApril28,2013).UltraTechTalk.2012.Thenextgenerationofbionicarm:Ageneraloverview.http://goo.gl/RhepLb(accessedApril27,2013).

the japanese roboticist masahiro mori’s buddhist inspired concept of “the uncanny valley”

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