the larger context of rice terraces glenn davis stone washington univ., st. louis the ifugao rice...
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The Larger Context of Rice Terraces
Glenn Davis StoneWashington Univ., St. Louis
The Ifugao Rice Terraces: Antiquity, Management, and Conservancy
June 18, 2015
National Museum, Manila
Trincheras (ancient terraces, SW U.S. and Northern Mexico)
Kofyar terracesIntensive agriculturePlateau State, Nigeria
Low ponded terracesAndhra Pradesh, India
Rice Terraces
Theory of agricultural change
Rice is exceptional
Terraces are exceptional
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Boserup, Ester (1965) The conditions of agricultural growth: The economics of agrarian change under population pressure.
Theory of agricultural intensification• "dynamic model for all primitive agriculture" • Boserup -- input of mostly local resources• industrialization -- use of off-farm resources, mostly produced industrially
Extensive Intensive
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• Extensive (shifting, slash & burn, swidden) capitalizes on fire & fallow• Fire clears canopy, fertilizes, kills pests• Fallow re-fertilizes, removes pest habitat, creates fodder• Broadcast or dibble seeds, little fertilizing, weeding• Used when possible because efficient (low input:output)
• Population pressure reduces fallow area• Fertilizing• Tillage• Weeding• Bring more labor-intensive land into cultivation
(“locational intensification” Stone 1996)
•Overall effects:
• Longer work hours• Output per area/time rises • Efficiency drops; decreasing marginal returns
Ecology of Intensification Extensive Intensive
PO
PU
LATIO
N
AGRICULTURAL INTENSITY
Tree fallowvery high efficiency
Boserupian Intensification
PO
PU
LATIO
N
AGRICULTURAL INTENSITY
Tree fallowvery high efficiency
Bush fallowhigh efficiency
Boserupian Intensification
PO
PU
LATIO
N
AGRICULTURAL INTENSITY
Tree fallowvery high efficiency
Bush fallowhigh efficiency
Grass fallowmedium efficiency
Boserupian Intensification
PO
PU
LATIO
N
AGRICULTURAL INTENSITY
Tree fallowvery high efficiency
Bush fallowhigh efficiency
Grass fallowmedium efficiency
Annual cultivationlow efficiency
Boserupian Intensification
PO
PU
LATIO
N
AGRICULTURAL INTENSITY
Tree fallowvery high efficiency
Bush fallowhigh efficiency
Grass fallowmedium efficiency
Annual cultivationlow efficiency
Multi-croppingvery low efficiency
Boserupian Intensification
PO
PU
LATIO
N
AGRICULTURAL INTENSITY
Tree fallowvery high efficiency
Bush fallowhigh efficiency
Grass fallowmedium efficiency
Annual cultivationlow efficiency
Multi-croppingvery low efficiency
Boserupian Intensification
T E R R A C I N G
• Boserup’s theory ties agricultural intensity to population pressure, as opposed to "grand, inclusive schema like those of cultural evolution" • (Stone & Downum 1998, “Non-Boserupian Ecology”; Netting Smallholders 1993:261)
• It can reverse: when population density drops, intensity drops (e.g., Kofyar)
• Driving force in agricultural practices is efficiency (returns to labor)
• Simplified but invaluable model of agricultural change
Extensive (“upland”) rice
Intensive (“wet”) rice
Is wet rice RICE Boserupian?
In some ways:
high input high outputoften under high population density
as she predicts
But relatively efficient!
"Where a transition from broadcast sowing to transplanting, or from single- to double-cropping is made, the increases in yield will certainly outstrip concomitant rises in labour inputs.“
Francesca Bray 1986:5, The Rice Economies
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“Soup bowl ecology”
• Nitrogen fixing bacteria
• Water extremely effective weed control
• Years of continuous cultivation develops good waterproof hardpan covered in mud (podzolisation)
• May hold fertility indefinitely (at least at a certain level of multicropping)
• Ponds conducive to other economic species
Philippines China Louisianaextensive wet industrial
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labor hrs/ha 576 3045 25animal hrs/ha 272 332 0energy kcal/ha 1.8 mil 7.6 mil 11.5 milyield kcal/ha 6 mil 29 mil 15 milyield kg/ha 1700 8000 4100efficiency 3.3 3.2 1.3(kcal output:input)
(Source: Wen & Pimental 1986)
Input/Output (efficiency) comparisons
Terraces
Are not just another form of intensification
Cerro de Trincheras as civic archtecture
Moray (Inca) site, Peru
Extensification normally easy• Kofyar switched to slash & burn
But especially on steep hills, terracing may have a “ratchet” effect• Incentives to maintain whole system
(selfie heaven)
Rice Terraces
Rice is agro-ecologically unique• Contrary to theories of agricultural change,
this intensive form of cultivation if relatively efficient
Terraces are a unique form of intensification• Can exert ratchet effect• Form of architecture• Landscape feature with value beyond
agriculture
Thank You
Research in India - Philippines supported by • National Science Foundation• Wenner-Gren Foundation• Templeton Foundation
Collaborators & associates• IDS (D. Glover)• UCLA field school (S. Acabado)• SITMo (M. Martin)• IRRI (N. Vera Cruz)