the leadership challenge : improving learning in schools

Australian Council for Educational Research (ACER) Australian Council for Educational Research (ACER)

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2007 - The Leadership Challenge - Improving learning in schools 1997-2008 ACER Research Conference Archive

2007

The Leadership Challenge : Improving Learning in Schools The Leadership Challenge : Improving Learning in Schools

(Conference Proceedings) (Conference Proceedings)

Australian Council for Educational Research (ACER)

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ConferenceProceedingsConferenceProceedings

Foreword� v

Keynote�papers� 1

PhilipHallinger 2Research on the practice of instructional and transformational leadership: Retrospect and propsect

ElizabethL.Leo 8Take me to your leader: Leadership and the future

VivianeM.J.Robinson 12The impact of leadership on student outcomes: Making sense of the evidence

ChrisSarra 17Embracing the challenge of leadership in indigenous education

�Concurrent�papers� 21

BillMulford 20Quality Australian evidence on leadership for improved student outcomes

SherylBoris-Schacter 24Got a minute? Can instructional leadership exist despite the reactive nature of the principalship?

LouiseWatson 28Why would anybody want this job? The challenge of attracting and sustaining effective leaders for Australian schools

StephenDinham 33Authoritative leadership, action learning and student accomplishment

PaulHughes,GavinKhanandSusanMatthews 40Leaders: Acting to improve outcomes for Indigenous students

LawrenceIngvarsonandMichelleAnderson 44Standards for school leadership: Gateway to a stronger profession?

PhillipMcKenzie,BillMulfordandMichelleAnderson 51School leadership and learning: An Australian overview

Contents

Concurrent�papers�continued

BrianCaldwell 55Leadership for radical transformation in school education

MichaelBezzina 61Moral purpose and shared leadership: The leaders transforming learning and learners pilot study

Poster�presentations� 67

Conference�program� 71

Sebel�floorplan� 75

Conference�delegates� 77

Research Conference 2007

iv

Research Conference 2006 Planning Committee

ProfessorGeoffMasters

CEO,ConferenceConvenor,ACER

DrJohnAinley

DeputyCEOandResearchDirectorNationalandInternationalSurveys,ACER

MsKerry-AnneHoad

Manager,CentreforProfessionalLearning,ACER

MsMichelleAnderson

SeniorResearchFellow,ACER

Dr.LawrenceIngvarson

ResearchDirector,TeachingandLeadership,ACER

MrAndrewJackson

AustralianPrincipal’sCentre,ACER

MsMarionMeiers

SeniorResearchFellow,ACER

MrNicholasThornton

AustralianPrincipals’Centre,ACER

Copyright©2007AustralianCouncilforEducationalResearch

19ProspectHillRoadCamberwellVIC3124AUSTRALIA

www.acer.edu.au

ISBN978-0-86431-455-0

DesignandlayoutbyIntegralGraphicsandACERProjectPublishing

EditingbyCarolynGlascodineandKerry-AnneHoad

PrintedbyPrintImpressions

v

ForewordForeword


vi

Geoff�MastersAustralian Council for Educational Research

GeoffMastersisCEOoftheAustralianCouncilforEducationalResearch(ACER),ImmediatePastPresidentoftheAustralianCollegeofEducatorsandamemberoftheUNESCONationalCommissioninAustralia.Formorethan20years,ProfessorMastershasbeenaninternationalleaderindevelopingbettermeasuresofeducationaloutcomes.HehaschairedtheIEATechnicalAdvisoryCommitteefortheintroductionoftheThirdInternationalMathematicsandScienceStudy(TIMSS);chairedtheinitialOECDPISAInternationalTechnicalAdvisoryGroup;directedtheonlynationalsurveyofAustralianprimaryschoolliteracylevels;andworkedwithallAustralianstatesandterritoriestointroducestatewidetestingprogramsinliteracyandnumeracy.In2005-06heundertookaninvestigationofoptionsfortheintroductionofanAustralianCertificateofEducationonbehalfoftheAustralianGovernment.

Research Conference 2007isthetwelfthnationalResearchConference.Throughourresearchconferences,ACERprovidessignificantopportunitiesatthenationallevelforreviewingcurrentresearch-basedknowledgeinkeyareasofeducationalpolicyandpractice.Aprimarygoaloftheseconferencesistoinformeducationalpolicyandpractice.

Research Conference 2007bringstogetherkeyresearchers,policymakersandteachersfromabroadrangeofeducationalcontextsfromaroundAustraliaandoverseas.Theconferenceaddressesthetheme‘TheLeadershipChallenge:Improvinglearninginschools’.

Wearesurethatthepapersanddiscussionsfromthisresearchconferencewillmakeamajorcontributiontothenationalandinternationalliteratureanddebateonkeyissuesrelatedtotheroleofeducationalleadershipanditsimpactonstudentlearning.

WewelcomeyoutoResearchConference2007,andencourageyoutoengageinconversationwithotherparticipants,andtoreflectontheresearchanditsconnectionstopolicyandpractice.

ProfessorGeoffNMastersChiefExecutiveOfficer,ACER

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KeynotepapersKeynotepapers


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Researchonthepracticeofinstructionalandtransformationalleadership:Retrospectandprospect1

Philip�HallingerChief Academic Officer College of Management Mahidol University Thailand 2

ProfessorPhilipHallingerisChiefAcademicOfficeroftheCollegeofManagement,MahidolUniversity.PriortocomingtoMahidolUniversityin2000,heheldthepositionofProfessorofLeadershipandOrganizationsatVanderbiltUniversityfor15years.

ProfessorHallingerhaspublishedover175journalarticlesandbookchaptersaswellaseightbooks.Hispublicationscoverawiderangeofeducationmanagementareasincludinginstructionalleadership,educationalchange,schoolleadershipdevelopment,educationalquality,andeducationalreform.HismostrecentbooksincludePreparing Managers for Action(Springer,2007)andReshaping the Global Landscape of School Leadership Development(SwetsZeitlinger,2003).

1 AlongerversionofthispaperwaswrittenfortheCambridgeJournalofEducation,2003,33(3),329-351.

2 Dr.PhilipHallingerreceivedhisDoctorateinEducationfromStanfordUniversityinAdministrationandPolicyAnalysis.HewasformerlyProfessorofLeadershipandOrganizationsatVanderbiltUniversityandiscurrentlyProfessorandChiefAcademicofficeroftheCollegeofManagementatMahidolUniversityinBangkok,Thailand.

AbstractThepast25yearshavewitnessedtheemergenceofnewconceptualmodels.Incontrastwithmanyearlierleadershipmodelsappliedtoschooladministration,thesemodelsfocusexplicitlyonthemannerinwhichleadershipexercisedbyschooladministratorsandteachersbringsaboutimprovededucationaloutcomes.Twooftheforemostmodels,asmeasuredbythenumberofempiricalstudies,areinstructionalleadershipandtransformationalleadership.Thispaperwillsynthesizefindingsfromresearchonthesemodelsinanattempttounderstandwhatwehavelearnedaboutlearner-centeredleadership.

IntroductionThepast25yearshavewitnessedtheemergenceofnewconceptualmodelsinthefieldofeducationalleadership.Twoofthemostinfluentialmodelshavebeeninstructionalleadershipandtransformationalleadership(Hallinger&Heck,1999).Incontrastwithleadershipmodelsappliedtoschooladministrationinprioreras(Boyan,1988;e.g.,situationalleadership,traittheories,contingencytheory),theseapproachesfocusexplicitlyoneducational leadership.Theyseektoexplainthemeansbywhichleaders(administratorsandteachers)bringaboutimprovementinschoolconditionsandstudentoutcomes(e.g.,Hallinger&Heck,1996a,1996b,1999;Leithwood&Jantzi,1999b;Southworth,2002).

Instructionalleadershipemergedintheearly1980sasanoutgrowthfromearlyresearchoneffectiveschools(Bossert,Dwyer,Rowan,&Lee,1982;Edmonds,1979).Thisresearchidentifiedstrong, directive leadership focused on curriculum and instruction by the principalasacharacteristicofelementaryschoolsthat

wereeffectiveatteachingchildreninpoor,urbancommunities(Bossertetal.,1982;Edmonds,1979;Leithwood&Montgomery,1982;Purkey&Smith,1983).Althoughnotwithoutitscritics(e.g.,Cuban,1984),thismodelhasshapedmuchofthethinkingabouteffectiveprincipalleadershipdisseminatedinternationallysincethe1980s.Theemergingpopularityofthismodelbecameevidentinitswidespreadadoptionasthe‘modelofchoice’bymostprincipalleadershipacademiesintheUnitedStatesofAmerica(Hallinger,2003).

WiththeadventofschoolrestructuringinNorthAmericaduringthe1990s,thenotionoftransformational leadershipbegantoeclipseinstructionalleadership’spopularity.Transformationalleadershiporiginatedinstudiesofpoliticalleaders.Themodelfocusesontheleader’sroleinfosteringacollectivevisionandmotivatingmembersofanorganisationtoachieveextraordinaryperformance(Bass,1985).

Itsemergenceineducationnotonlyreflectedthechangingreformcontextofschools,butalsogrowingconcernswithlimitationsoftheinstructionalleadershipmodel.Somescholars,forexample,believedthatinstructionalleadershipfocusedtoomuchontheprincipalasthecenterofexpertise,powerandauthorityintheschool(Cuban,1988).Othersfeltthatthecentralisationofresponsibilityforthisrolewassimplytooheavyaburdenforanyonepersonintheschooltocarryalone(Cuban,1988;Donaldson,2001;Lambert1998).Intheeraofeducationalempowerment,transformationalleadershipsoonbegantodominatethelandscape,asinstructionalleadershiprecededintothebackground.

The�Leadership�Challenge:�Improving�learning�in�schools

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Adecadelater,attheturnofthenewcentury,pressuresfromthepolicyenvironmentofschoolsbegantopushthependulumbacktowardsinstructionalleadership.TheglobalemphasisonperformancestandardsthatpervadeprivateindustryreachedK–12education(Murphy,2002;Murphy&Shipman,2003).Principalsnowfindthemselvesatthenexusofaccountabilityandimprovementwiththeclearexpectationthattheywillfunctionas‘instructionalleaders’.Giventhepassageofformalgovernmentstandardsforeducationthroughtheworld,principalswhoignoretheirroleinmonitoringandimprovingschoolperformancedosoattheirownrisk(e.g.,Jackson,2000;Lam,2003.

Thisisalsobecomingapparentinprogramsofprincipalpreparationanddevelopment.Recentanalyseshavefoundadistinctprogrammaticemphasisonensuringthatprincipalsareabletofulfilltheirinstructional leadershiprole(Hallinger,2003;Huber,2003).Preparationforthisrolehasbeenexplicitlylinkedtotrainingcurriculainmajorgovernment-ledeffortsintheUnitedStatesofAmerica(Hallinger,2003;Murphy,2002;Murphy&Shipman,2003;Stricherz,2001a,2001b),theUnitedKingdom(Southworth,2002,Singapore(Chong,Stott,&Low,2003),HongKong(Lam,2003),andAustralia(Davis,2003).

Thepersistenceoftheseleadershipmodelsthatfocusonschoolimprovementreflectsthereform-orientedpolicycontextthathasexistedineducationsincetheearly1980s.Overthepast25years,scholarshavesubjectedbothinstructionalleadership(e.g.,Goldring&Pasternak,1994;Hallinger,Bickman,&Davis,1996;Heck,1992,1993;Heck,Larson,&Marcolouides,1990;Southworth,2002)andtransformationalleadership(e.g.,Leithwood&Jantzi,2000a;Leithwood,Jantzi,&Steinbach,1998;Leithwood,Leonard,&Sharratt,1998;Silins,1994)

toextendedempiricalinvestigation.Thisarticpaperleassessestheconceptualandempiricaldevelopmentofthesetwoleadershipmodelsoverthepast25years.Inthispaper,Iwillcontrastthesetwomodelsandofferpossiblepathstowardstheirintegrationinthepracticeofeducationalleadership.

Resolving the tension between instructional and transformational leadershipTwoleadershipmodelshavedominatedtheliteratureineducationaladministrationoverthepast25years:instructionalleadershipandtransformationalleadership.Attheturnofthemillennium,globalwavesofeducationalreformhaverefocusedtheattentionofpolicymakersandpractitionersonthequestion:How can I create conditions that foster the use of more powerful methods of learning and teaching in schools(Hallinger,2003;Jackson,2000;Murphy&Shipman,2003)?

Somewhatsurprisingly,thisfocusontheimprovementoflearningandteachinghasonceagainbroughtinstructionalleadershiptothefore.Afteraperiodofrelativedeclineinpopularityduringthe1990s,therehasbeenanewandunprecedentedglobalcommitmentamonggovernmentagenciestowardstrainingprincipalstobeinstructional leaders(Hallinger,2003;Huber,2003;Stricherz,2001a,2001b).Thismakesunderstandingtheboundariesofourknowledgebaseabouttheseleadershipmodelsespeciallysalient.

Inthissectionofthepaper,Ireflectuponlessonslearnedabouttheseleadershipmodels.First,Iwillreviewandcontrastthesubstantivefociofinstructionalandtransformationalleadershipinordertodetermineifanintegrationoftheconceptualmodelsispossible.Second,Iwillexaminetheconstraintsthatlimitorinfluenceall

attemptsbyprincipalstocarveoutasignificantleadershiproleintheschool.Finally,Iwillexaminethemfromtheperspectiveofleadershipintheschoolcontext.

Constraints on school leadershipDuringthe1980swheninstructionalleadershipemergedasthemodel of choice,somescholarsquestionedthecapacityofprincipalstofulfillthisheroicrole(e.g.,Cuban,1988).Principalswhodemonstratedthetypeofinstructionalleadershipneededtoliftschoolperformance,were,bydefinition,asmallminority(Barth,1986).Skepticsaskedifthemajorityofprincipalshadthenecessarycombinationof‘willandskill’tocarryoutthistypeofhands-on,directiveleadership(Barth,1986;Bossertetal.,1982;March,1978).Othersuggestedthattheverynatureoftheprincipalshiprendersinstructionalleadershipan‘impossibledream’formostprincipals(e.g.,Barth,1986;Cuban,1988;March,1978;Southworth,2002).

LarryCuban,aself-described‘friendlycritic’ofinstructionalleadership,claimedthatthemanagerialormaintenanceroleoftheprincipalis‘embeddedintheDNAoftheprincipalship’(Cuban,1988).Heassertedthateffortsbyprincipalstoactasinstructionalleadersinschoolsinevitablyrunagroundonstructuralandnormativeconditionsintheprincipal’sworkplace.Principalsoccupyamiddlemanagementpositioninwhichtheirauthoritytocommandisseverelylimited,andwherethestructureisquiteflat.Demandsontheirtimeareunceasing,andthemajorityoftheirworkactivitiesmaybeunrelatedtoinstructionalleadership!

Normatively,theclassroomhastraditionallybeentheprivatedomainofteachersinwhichprincipalsmaynotalwaysbewelcome.Moreover,inmanycasesprincipalshaveless


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expertisethantheteacherswhomtheysupervise(Cuban,1988;Lambert,1998;March,1978).Thismakesinstructionalsupervisionaspecialchallenge,particularlyinsecondaryschools.

Thefactorsworkingagainstprincipals‘gettingintoclassrooms’aremany,varied,anddifficulttoovercome.Thisisthecaseevenwhentheprincipalpossessesstrongintentionstodoso(e.g.,Marshall,1996).Theseworkplaceconditionshavemoderatedattemptsbypolicymakerstocultivateaninstructionalleadershiproleforschoolprincipals.

Nonetheless,abroadreadingoftheliteraturewouldsuggestthatthereisamorediscernableemphasisoninstructionalleadershipintheprofessionthanexistedtwodecadesago(Hallinger,2001,2003;Southworth,2002.Thereislittlequestionthatprincipalsincreasinglyacceptmoreresponsibilityforinstructionalleadership,regardlessofwhetherornottheyfeelcompetenttoperformit.Theformthatinstructionalleadershiptakesinpracticetendstoplacethegreatestemphasisonthemissionandclimatedimensions.Itisinterestingtonotetheabsenceofanyempiricalevidencethatprincipalsspendmoretimedirectlyobservingandsupervisingclassroominstructionthantheydid25yearsago(Hallinger&Heck,1996a,1996b).Thisreflectstheconstraintsdiscussedabove(e.g.,Barth,1986;Lambert,1998;Marshall,1996).

Towards an integration of leadership modelsThisreviewhasidentifiedconceptualsimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweeninstructionalandtransformationalleadership.Table1summarisesthesefindings.Baseduponthistable,itseemsapparentthatthesubstantivesimilaritiesbetweenthemodelsaremoresignificantthanthedifferences.Bothmodelswouldhavetheschoolleaderfocuson:

• creatingasharedsenseofpurposeintheschool;

• developingaclimateofhighexpectationsandaschoolculturefocusedoninnovationandimprovementofteachingandlearning;

• shapingtherewardstructureoftheschooltoreflecttheschool’smissionaswellasgoalssetforstaffandstudents;

• organisingandprovidingawiderangeofactivitiesaimedatintellectualstimulationandthecontinuousdevelopmentofstaff;

• beingavisiblepresenceintheschool,modellingthedesiredvaluesoftheschool’sculture.

Thesesimilaritiesbetweenthemodelsprovideausefulpointofdepartureforanyprincipalwhowishestoreflectuponhis/herleadership.Conceptualdifferencesidentifiedinthisreviewwerereflectedinthe:

• targetofchange(i.e.,first-orderorsecond-ordereffects)

• extenttowhichtheprincipalemphasisesacoordinationandcontrolstrategyvs.an‘empowerment’strategyforchangeintheschool.

Broadlyspeaking,thesedifferencesaremostapparentintheemphasisgivenbytransformationalleadershiptoindividualisedsupportforstaffandtobuildingorganisationalgoalsfromthegroundup(i.e.,outofthe

Table�1:��ComparisonofInstructionalandTransformationalLeadershipModelsAdaptedfromHallinger&Murphy,1985andLeithwood,et.al.,1998

Instructional�Leadership Transformational�LeadershipRemarks�on�Differences�and�Similarities

ArticulateandCommunicateClearSchoolGoals

ClearVisionSharedSchoolGoals

ILmodelemphasizesclarityandorganisationalnatureofsharedgoals,seteitherbytheprincipalorbyandwithstaffandcommunity.TLmodelemphasizeslinkagebetweenpersonalgoalsandsharedorganizationalgoals.

CoordinateCurriculumSuperviseandEvaluateInstructionMonitorStudentProgramProtectInstructionalTime

NoequivalentelementsforthesecoordinationandcontrolfunctionsintheTLmodel.TLmodelassumes“others”willcarrytheseoutasafunctionoftheirroles

HighExpectations HighExpectations

ProvideIncentiveforLearnersProvideIncentiveforTeachers

Rewards Similarfocusonensuringthatrewardsarealignedwithmissionoftheschool.

ProvidingProfessionalDevelopmentforTeachers

IntellectualStimulation ILmodelfocusesontraininganddevelopmentalignedtoschoolmission.TLmodelviewspersonalandprofessionalgrowthbroadly.Neednotbetightlylinkedtoschoolgoals.

HighVisibility Modeling Essentiallythesamepurposes.Principalmaintainshighvisibilityinordertomodelvaluesandpriorities.

Culture-building ILmodelsalsofocusesonculture-buildingbutsubsumedwithintheschoolclimatedimension,


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personalprofessionalgoalsofstaffandcommunitymembers).Theinstructionalleadershipmodelhasbeeninterpretedasbeingsomewhatmoretop-downanddirective.

Oneofthemajorimpedimentstoeffectiveschoolleadershipistryingtocarrytheburdenalone.Whenaprincipaltakesonthechallengesofgoingbeyondthebasicdemandsofthejob,theburdenbecomesevenheavier(Barth,1986;Cuban,1988;March,1978).Influentialscholarshavequestionedwhetheritisrealistictoexpectasignificantnumberofprincipalstomeetthischallenge(March,1978).

ThispointwascapturedbyLambert(2002)whocontendsthat,‘Thedaysoftheloneinstructionalleaderareover.Wenolongerbelievethatoneadministratorcanserveastheinstructionalleaderfortheentireschoolwithoutthesubstantialparticipationofothereducators’(p.37).Thus,severaldifferentwriters,attemptingtointegratetheseconstructs,haveproposedavariantsomehavereferredtoas‘sharedinstructionalleadership’(Dayetal.,2001;Jackson,2000;Lambert,2002;Marks&Printy,2003;Southworth,2002).

Whileseveralofthescholarscitedherehavewritteneloquentlyaboutthepossibleformsthismighttake,themostambitiousattempttostudysharedinstructionalleadershipempiricallywasundertakenbyMarksandPrinty(2003).Theirconclusionpointsthewaytowardsonepossibleavenueofreconciliationfortheseconstructsintheirobservationthat:

Thisstudysuggeststhatstrongtransformationalleadershipbytheprincipalisessentialinsupportingthecommitmentofteachers.Becauseteachersthemselvescanbebarrierstothedevelopmentofteacherleadershiptransformationalprincipalsareneededtoinviteteacherstoshareleadershipfunctions.Whenteachersperceiveprincipals’instructionalleadership

behaviourstobeappropriate,theygrowincommitment,professionalinvolvement,andwillingnesstoinnovate(Sheppard,1996).Thus,instructionalleadershipcanitselfbetransformational.

ItistoosoontoknowwhetherthefindingsfromtheMarksandPrintyresearchwillbereplicatedbyothers.Nonetheless,twofactorsprovideoptimismoptimistic.However,itmaywellbethatthepointsofconnectionbetweenthemodelsaresufficienttoallowdevelopmentofanintegratedandmoresophisticatedmodelofeducationalleadership.

Asecondapproachtounderstandingtherelationshipbetweentheseleadershipmodelsmaylieincontingencytheory.Attheoutsetoftheeffectiveschoolserain1982,StephenBossertandhiscolleaguesmadeacogentcaseforthebeliefthat,‘certainprincipalbehaviorshavedifferenteffectsindifferentorganisationalsettings.Suchfindingsconfirmthecontingencyapproachtoorganisationaleffectivenessfoundincurrentleadershiptheories’(1982,p.38).

Inourreviewoftheliteratureonprincipaleffects(Hallinger&Heck,1996a,1996b),RonHeckandIconcludedthatitisvirtuallymeaninglesstostudyprincipalleadershipwithoutreferencetotheschoolcontext.Thecontextoftheschoolisasourceofconstraints,resources,andopportunitiesthattheprincipalmustunderstandandaddressinordertolead.Contextualvariablesofinteresttoprincipalsincludestudentbackground,communitytype,organisationalstructure,schoolculture,teacherexperienceandcompetence,fiscalresources,schoolsize,andbureaucraticandlabourfeaturesoftheschoolorganisation(Bossertetal.,1982;Hallinger&Heck,1996a,1996b).

Inourreviewwefurtherconcludedthatthecontingentcharacteristicofschoolleadershipmustbeexplicitly

incorporatedintotheoreticalmodels.Leadershipmustbeconceptualisedasamutual influence process,ratherthanasaone-wayprocessinwhichleadersinfluenceothers(Bridges,1977;Jackson,2000;Kliene-Kracht,1993;Leithwood&Jantzi,1999a,1999b).Effectiveleadersrespondtothechangingneedsoftheircontext.Indeed,inaveryrealsensetheleader’sbehavioursareshapedbytheschoolcontext.

Thus,oneresolutionofthequestforanintegrativemodelofeducationalleadershipwouldlinkleadershiptotheneedsoftheschoolcontext.DavidJackson(2000)andMichaelFullan(2002)haveobservedthatschoolimprovementisajourney.Thetypeofleadershipthatissuitabletoacertainstageofthejourneymaybecomealimitingorevencounter-productiveforceastheschooldevelops.‘Schoolsatrisk’mayinitiallyrequireamoreforcefultop-downapproachfocusedoninstructionalimprovement.Instructionalleaderswouldtypicallysetclear,time-based,academically-focusedgoalsinordertogettheorganisationmovinginthedesireddirection.Theywouldtakeamoreactivehands-onroleinorganisingandcoordinatinginstruction.

Theextentofappropriatestaffparticipationinleadingtheseprocesses(i.e.,developmentoftheschool’sgoals,coordinationofthecurriculum)mightvarydependinguponthelocationoftheschoolinitsimprovementjourney.Nonetheless,itissafetosaythatlong-term,sustainedimprovementwillultimatelydependuponthestaffassumingincreasinglevelsofownershipoverproposedchangesintheschool.Thisconclusionwouldbeconsistentwithothercontingencymodelsofleadershipthatconceptualiseleadershipasadevelopmentalprocess(e.g.,Graeff,1997;Hersey&Blanchard,1969).


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Marks,H.,&Printy,S.(2003).Principalleadershipandschoolperformance:Anintegrationoftransformationandinstructionalleadership.Educational Administration Quarterly, 39(3),370-397.

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blueprints.Educational Administration Quarterly, 38(2),176–192.

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Elizabeth�L.�LeoDean and Head of School of Education, Social Work and Community Education College of Arts and Social Sciences University of Dundee Scotland, UK

ElizabethLeoisProfessorofOrganizationalLeadershipandLearningandDeanoftheSchoolofEducation,SocialWorkandCommunityEducation,UniversityofDundee,Scotland.ProfessorLeohasworkedsuccessfullywithschoolsandlocaleducationauthoritiestopromoteresearch-lededucationalreformthatinspiresleadershipforinclusionandlearningandinturn,promotesstudentmotivationandachievement.Mostrecently,herresearchhasfocusedonEngland’snewAcademyschools’programme.

ProfessorLeohasheldarangeofacademicandseniormanagementpostsinanumberofUKuniversitiesincludingtheInstituteofEducation,UniversityofLondonwhereshewasAssistantDeanofResearchandAssociateDirectoroftheInternationalSchoolEffectivenessandImprovementCentre.ShewasalsosecondedtoGovernmentintheDepartmentforEducationandSkills,LondonastheSeniorAdviserforResearch.

Sheiscurrentlydevelopinginnovativeresearchmethodologiesinvolvingco-disciplinaryandco-professionalresearchteamsfocusingonleadershipfortheprofessions.

AbstractStudentsneedtoleaveschoolwithdreamsforthefuture,highaspirationsandgoalsforthemselvesandsociety;youngmenandwomenwhowillcontributetoactivecitizenship,communityrenewalandeconomicregeneration.Schoolsarecriticalinrealisingthismission.Themajorityofourschoolshavetalentedleadersandteacherswiththevision,energyandpassiontocreateasustainablefuturefortheirstudentsandtheircommunities.However,itismoredifficultforschoolleadersservingdisadvantagedcommunitiestosucceed,notonlyinimprovinglearningandattainment,butinsustainingthese.Contemporaryresearchonhumanmotivationandlearningisenablingschoolstounderstandbetterstudents’reasonsforlearningandinturn,howtheycanraiseacademicachievement.

Introduction‘The future is not a gift, it is an achievement.’ HarryLauder

Itwouldbedifficulttoputastartdateonthelonghistoryofthestudyofleadership.Thecentralarchitectofgovernmentreformofschoolsstatedrecentlythatleadershipistothisdecadewhat‘standards’weretothelastdecade.However,leadershipisaseductiveyetelusiveconcept.Conceptualdifferencesbetweenleadershiptheoriescontributetothecontinuedquestforknowledgeaboutwhatitisandhowtodoit.Manyconceptsunderpinningleadershipstudiesineducationarerootedinhistoricaltheories,althoughthisisrarelyacknowledged.Fromitshistoricalrootsintraittheoryfocusingoncommoncharacteristicsofeffectiveleaders,tostyletheoryanditsembodimentofdemocraticandmeritocraticleadershipbehavioursto,morerecently,contingencytheory

andtheinterrelationshipofleadershipandcontexts,leadershipremainsacompellingfieldofstudyinthesocialsciences(Leo&Barton,2006).

Keyareasofmyresearchonschoolleadershipandlearningfocusontheroleofsocialcontextandsocio-culturalfactorsincognitive-motivationalprocesses,inparticularonachievementmotivation.Schoolleadersneedtounderstandhowmotivationalprocessescanbeoptimisedatalllevelsinschoolsandwhatformsofleadershippromoteadaptivemotivationtolearnandachieveinandbeyondschool.Andso,leadershipneedstobeconceptualisedinthecontextinwhichitacts.Thequestionof:‘Whatisleadership?’is,therefore,reframedinmyresearchtoask:‘Whatisleadershipfor?’And,whoshouldbeleading?’Contextisacriticalfactorinanyleadershipenquiry.

Thequestionofwhystudentslearn–theirreasonsforlearning–hasbeenshowntobeamongthemostcriticalfactorsinresearchonhumanmotivationandachievementineducation.Ofsignificantimportance,too,isthatteacherandstudentmotivationandlearningareinextricablylinked.Theleadershipchallengeofimprovinglearninginschoolthenbecomesaquestionofstudentandteacherlearning.

ThepresentationwilldrawonempiricalevidencefromofalongitudinalstudyofleadershipinwhathasbecomeEngland’sflagship‘Academy’forimprovinglearningandperformance–leadershipthathastransformedthisschoolfromoneofthebottom10percenttooneofthetop10percentofschoolsinEngland–withoutchangingstudentintakeprofiles.Theseimprovementswereachievedthroughaseriesofresearch-ledinterventionstrategies(Leo&Barton,2006;Leoetal.forthcoming).

Schoolleaderswhofocustheorganisationonlearningandlearners,

Takemetoyourleader:Leadershipandthefuture


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asopposedtosimplyperformance,cantransformmotivation,learningandsubsequently,achievement.Morepertinently,betterunderstandingofthecausesofandwaysofdealingwithunderachievementinschoolscancomefrombetterunderstandingofstudents’viewsoftheirownability,competenceandmotivationtolearn.Thisresearchisnowextendingtootheracademies.

Academies and their communities‘Academies’areanewtypeofschoolinEnglandandweredevelopedtoreplaceschoolsthatwerestrugglingtomeettheeducationalneedsofyoungpeopleandtheircommunities.Suchschoolsarelocatedinareasofhighsocialandeconomicdisadvantage,ofhighpovertyanddeprivation.Evidenceoverthelastfiveyearsindicatesthatlow-incomefamilieshavebecomeincreasinglyconcentratedinparticularschoolsleadingtoschoolsindeprivedareashavingtocopewithhigherconcentrationsofdisadvantagedstudents.Academiesareexpectedtoplayakeyroleintheregenerationoftheircommunitiesinhelpingtobreakthecycleofunderachievementinareasofsocialandeconomicdeprivation(DfES,2007).Academiesarefinanciallysupportedbyprivatesponsorshipandgovernmentfundingandprovidenewstate-of-the-artbuildingsorrefurbishmentsthataimtobeinnovativeindesignandbuilttohighenvironmentalstandards.

Whetherornotacademiesprovetobealong-termsolutiontoimprovinglearningandachievementinthesecommunities,therecanbelittledoubtthatpovertyinchildhoodistheforerunnerofpoorhealth,educationandotherkeyoutcomesinoursociety.Povertyinhibitsmotivationtoachieveandasaresult,futurelifechances.Ifwearetobreakthecycleofdisadvantagebywhichchildrenwhogrowupin

povertycontinuetoexperiencepovertyasadultsandparents,wewillhavetotackledeepandprevalentinequalitiesofachievement.Academiesareakeypolicydriverinaddressingtheseissues.However,thechallengeforleadershipofacademiesisnotsimplyeconomic.Leadershipinthiscontextneedstoaddressapovertyofstudentaspirations;senseofbelonging;voice;motivationandchoice.Manyofthesestudentsalsoexperienceapovertyofsocialnetworks.Forschoolsservingdisadvantagedcommunities,reducinginequalitiesinastudent’slifechancesbyensuringtheydowellatschoolisparamount.However,thechallengehereisaboutmuchmorethanqualifications;itisalsoaboutimpartingasetofvaluesandattitudesthatnotonlymeanstudentsdowellinschool,butthattheysucceedoutsideofschoolintheirowncommunities.TheUKisnotaloneinthisleadershipchallenge.

Leadership in and for the futureLetusnowturntowardsthefutureandimagineeveryschoolabletorespondtothechallengeofhighachievement,excellenceandinclusionandtheequitabledistributionofeducationaloutcomes(Putnam,2000,2004).Inenvisioningaroleforschoolssuchasthis,theleadershipchallengefocusesonstudentsaslearnersandonthesocialandpedagogicalcontextsthatfacilitatethedevelopmentoflifelonglearningdispositionsandskills(Leoetal.,forthcoming).Thispossibilitytakesplacewithinacomplexecologyoflearningthatincludesqualitiesofleadership,teacherpractices,thebuiltenvironmentandthevaluesandrelationshipsthatcreateacultureforthedevelopmentoflifelonglearners.Itisinthiscontextthatstudentsneedtolearnhowtothinkabouttheirfutures(Covington,1998;2005).Forleadership,thechallengeofwhatistobelearnedandthe

capabilitiesstudentsneedtothriveinthefutureiscritical.

Withintheturbulentandchangingworldofeducationalpolicymaking,thedifficultiesandchallengesschoolleadersfacearemultipleandcontradictory.Schoolleadershavetomediateconflictingpressures,includingtheexpectationtocontributetothetaskofeconomicregeneration,tohelpdevelopactivecitizensandtocontributetosocialinclusion.Inaddition,schoolleadershavetorespondtotheproliferationofgovernmentinitiatives;multiplefundingstreams;workforcereforms;competitionand,attimes,alackofcohesionandsenseofdirectioninthewiderpolicyarena.

Putsimply,schools,andtheirleaders,arenowexpectedto:

• dealeffectivelywithlocalcommunityneedsandamorediversestudentpopulation

• besensitivetocultureandgenderissues

• promotetoleranceandsocialcohesion

• usenewlearningtechnologies

• keeppacewithrapidlydevelopingfieldsofknowledgeandapproachestoleadershipandmanagement,professionallearninganddevelopment

• accesshighqualityresearchasabasistodevelopcurriculumandpedagogy

• bringpracticalandtheoreticalknowledgetogethertopromoteadvancedteachingpractices

• modeldemocraticformsofleadershipinschoolsthatarebothstrongandparticipative

• locatetheirworkinthewidercommunitycontext,balancingprofessionalandlayinterests


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• havethecapacitytoadaptandcontinuouslyimprovetheirorganisationandpractice

• closetheachievementgapbetweenthehighestandlowestattainingpupils.

(OECD,2005)

Therefore,thecontextinwhichleadershipistobeexercisedisoneofconstraintsandcomplexities(Leo&Barton,2006).

Lessons from the future Theideaofcontinuousimprovementinoutputsandperformanceisnowanestablishedbenchmarkforleadershipatalllevelsinschools.Forexample,thereformagendahasresultedintheschoolsbeingdrivenbysuchconcernsascompetitiveness,‘performativity’(i.e.beingseentobegood),narrowmeasurableoutcomesandvalueformoney.Inthissense,performanceisofcriticalimportance.However,performanceisnotlearning.And,ratherthanaconcernwithwhetherschoolsassesstoomuch(i.e.havetoomanyformalexaminationsandtesting),itisvitaltoconsiderwhethertheyassesstoolittleortoonarrowarangeofhumanabilitiesandskillsbytoolimitedtestingmethods(Robinson,2005).

SirKenRobinson,ChairoftheUKGovernment’sreportoncreativity,educationandtheeconomy(Robinson,1999),describedcreativityasthe‘geneticcode’ofeducation,andessentialfortheneweconomiccircumstancesofthe21stcentury.Therefore,akeyquestionforschoolleadershipishowtodevelopmoreimaginativeapproachestoeducationalassessmentthatilluminatehowschoolsdevelopcapabilitiessuchasmotivationandcreativityandtoensurethattheseareamongtheoutcomesofeducationforallstudents.Educationsystemsfocusonmeasurableskillsandformalqualificationspreciselybecausewelack

dataabouteducationaloutcomeswhicharemoredifficulttomeasure.

Thecorollarytothispositionisthatschoolleadershipforthefuturerequiresnotonlyextensiveknowledgeandarichrepertoireofpedagogicskills,butalsothewillingnesstolearn.Thereisalsoapressingneedforresearcherstopickupthegauntletofrespondingtotheneedsofschoolleadershiptoidentifyconceptualandpracticaltoolsthatplacetheseaspectsofassessmentattheheartoflearningandteachingforthefuture(Leoetal.,forthcoming;DeakinCrick,2006).

Despiteavastamountofrecentliteratureonschoolleadership,therehavebeenfewlongitudinalstudiesoftheimpactofschoolleadershiponstudentlearningandachievement.Inaddition,researchmethodologieshavenotalwaysservedschoolleadershipstudieswellinhelpingtoteaseoutthesecomplexrelationshipsandeffects,inparticularinrelationtoimprovinglearning.Morelongitudinalresearchonleadershipandimprovinglearningisvitalinenablingustomapthechallengeofsustainedimprovementinlearningovertime,aswellasinrelationtotheleadershipcontextinwhichnotonlylearners’progress,butinwhataspectsoftheirlearningprogressismade.

NewresearchundertakenjointlybytheUniversityofDundee,ScotlandandtheUniversityofBristol,Englandiscomparingstudentlearningandmotivationalcharacteristicswithotherimportantstudentvariables,includingattainment(Leoetal.,forthcoming).Buildingonpreviousresearch(TheELLIProject)undertakenattheUniversityofBristol,wehavedevelopedandarecurrentlypilotinganewprofilingtool(i.e.ELOISE)capableoflarge-scalestatisticalanalysisofagreaterrangeofcomplexvariablestotrackindividual/group/institutionlevelmotivationalandlearningcharacteristicstoenableustocompareattainmentscoresin

differentcurriculumareas.Wearealsoinvestigatinggrouprelationshipsbetweenattainment,learningandothervariablessuchasbehaviour,attendance,ethnicity,religion,teacher,subjectandvalueaddedscore.Workingwithschoolleadersandschoolsasco-researchers,weare,inaddition,developingnewapproachestothestudyofleadershipanditsrelationshiptoimprovinglearninginschools.Throughthisresearch,schoolleadersarelearningtoenhancetheirunderstandingandknow-howabouthowtheseideasandstrategiescanbedeployedtooptimumeffectinimprovinglearninginschoolsandincreatingacontextinwhichcommunitiesofindividualscanthrive.Inthisway,studentscanleaveschoolabletoimpacton,andcontributeto,theirsocialcontextsandcommunities.

ReferencesCovington,M.V.(1998).The will

to learn. Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Covington.M.V.(2005).Handbook of competence and motivation. NewYork:TheGuilfordPress.

DeakinCrick,R.(2006).Learning power in practice. London:PaulChapman.

DepartmentforEducationandSkills(DfES).(2007).The Standards’ Site: Academies.

Leo,E.L.,&Barton,L.(2006).Inclusion,diversityandleadership:Perspectives,possibilitiesandcontradictions.EducationalManagement,Administration and Leadership,Vol.34,pp.167–176.

Leo,E.L.,DeakinCrick,R.,Yu,G.&Hearne,P.(forthcoming).Performance versus Learning: An analysis of student performance data and self-assessmentof motivational and learning characteristics using ELOISE and ELLI.


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OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment(OECD)(2005).Teachers matter.

Putnam,R.D.(2000).Bowling alone. NewYork:Simon&Schuster.

Putnam,R.(2004).OECD:ForumonEducationandSocialCohesion,Dublin,March18.

Robinson,K.(1999).All our futures: Creativity, culture and education(TheRobinsonReport).DepartmentforEducationandSkills(DfES).

Robinson,K.(2005).ConfidentCreativity:FuturesinLiteratureandLearning.NationalConferenceforEducatorsandWriters,Glasgow,March18.

TheELLIProject:www.ellionline.co.uk


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Viviane�M.J.�RobinsonThe University of Auckland, Faculty of Education, School of Teaching, Learning and Development Auckland, New Zealand

AftercompletingherdoctoralstudyatHarvardUniversity,VivianneRobinsontookupapositionattheUniversityofAuckland,NewZealandwheresheisnowProfessorintheFacultyofEducation.Sheisanorganisationalpsychologist,specialisinginorganisationaleffectivenessandimprovement,leadershipandtherelationshipbetweenresearchandtheimprovementofpractice.Herworkhasbeenpublishedininternationalhandbooks,andleadinginternationaljournalssuchasEducationalResearcherandEducationalAdministrationQuarterly.

VivianeisalsoDirectorofthegraduateprogrammeineducationalmanagementattheUniversityofAuckland,andAcademicDirectoroftheFirst-timePrincipalsProgramme–NewZealand’snationalinductionprogrammeforschoolprincipals.Thisprogrammepreparesnewlyappointedprincipalsthroughaprogrammeofresidentialcourses,onlinelearningandmentoring.

Sheispassionateaboutdoingresearchthatmakesadifferencetopractice,anditisthispassionthatmotivatesmuchofherresearchandwriting.Shehasrecentlypublishedabest-sellingbook,basedonherexperienceteachingteachershowtodoresearchthatisbothrigorousandrelevanttotheirjobsituation(Robinson,V.M.J.,&Lai,M.K.(2006).Practitionerresearchforeducators:Aguidetoimprovingclassroomsandschools.CorwinPress).

Viviane’skeynoteaddresswilldrawfromherrecentworkasawriteroftheIterativeBestEvidenceSynthesisonEducationalLeadership.ThisworkispartoftheNewZealandMinistryofEducation’sBestEvidenceSynthesisprogrammewhichisdesignedtosupportamoreevidence-basedpolicy-makingprocessaswellastomakerelevantresearchfindingsaccessibletoschoolpractitioners(http://www.minedu.govt.nz/goto/bestevidencesynthesis).Theleadershipsynthesisanalysesnationalandinternationalevidenceontheimpactofleadershiponawiderangeofstudentoutcomes.

AbstractPublishedempiricalresearchwasusedtosynthesisetheevidenceabouttheimpactofdifferenttypesofleadershiponstudents’academicandnon-academicoutcomes.Thefirstanalysisinvolvedacomparisonoftheeffectsoftransformationalandinstructionalleadershiponstudentoutcomes.Thesecondinvolvedtheinductivedevelopmentoffivesetsofleadershippracticesandtheestimationofthemagnitudeoftheireffects.Thecomparisonoftheeffectsofinstructionalandtransformationalleadershipindicatedthattheeffectoftheformerisconsistentlyandnotablylargerthantheeffectofthelattertypeofleadership.Thesecondanalysisrevealedfiveleadershipdimensionsthathavemoderatetolargeeffectsonoutcomes:establishinggoalsandexpectations;strategicresourcing;planning,coordinatingandevaluatingteachingandthecurriculum;promotingandparticipatinginteacherlearninganddevelopment;andensuringanorderlyandsupportiveenvironment.Themoreleadersfocustheirprofessionalrelationships,theirworkandtheirlearningonthecorebusinessofteachingandlearning,thegreatertheirinfluenceonstudentoutcomes.Itissuggestedthatleadershiptheory,researchandpracticeneedstobemorecloselylinkedtoresearchoneffectiveteaching,sothatthereisgreaterfocusonwhatleadersneedtoknowanddotosupportteachersinusingthepedagogicalpracticesthatraiseachievementandreducedisparity.

ThispaperwascompletedwiththefinancialsupportoftheIterativeBestEvidenceSynthesisprogramoftheNewZealandMinistryofEducation(http://educationcounts.edcentre.govt.nz/goto/BES?).TheassistanceofDrKenRoweoftheAustralianCouncilforEducationalResearchandDrClaireLloydoftheUniversityofAuckland

inthepreparationofthispaperisgratefullyacknowledged.

IntroductionThereisunprecedentedinternationalinterestinthequestionofhoweducationalleadersinfluencearangeofstudentoutcomes(Bell,Bolam,&Cubillo,2003;Leithwood,Day,Sammons,Harris,&Hopkins,2006;Leithwood,SeashoreLouis,Anderson,&Wahlstrom,2004;Marzano,Waters,&McNulty,2005;Witziers,Bosker,&Krüger,2003).

Thisinterestreflectstheconvictionofthepublicandpoliticiansthatschoolleadersmakeasubstantialdifferencetothequalityofteaching,andhencethequalityoflearning,intheirschool.Whilethisbeliefissupportedbythequalitativeresearchontheimpactofleadershiponschooleffectivenessandimprovement(Edmonds,1979;Maden,2001;Scheurich,1998),quantitativeresearchsuggeststhatpublicconfidenceinthecapacityofschoolleaderstomakeadifferencetostudentoutcomesoutstripstheavailableevidence(Hallinger&Heck,1998;Marzanoetal.,2005;Witziersetal.,2003).

Thepurposeofthispaperistoaddresstheparadoxicaldifferencesbetweenthequalitativeandquantitativeevidenceonleadershipimpactsbytakingafreshapproachtotheanalysisofthequantitativeevidence.Ratherthanconductafurthermeta-analysisoftheoverallimpactofleadershiponstudentoutcomes,wefocusedonidentifyingtherelativeimpactofdifferenttypesofleadership.

Twoquitedifferentstrategieswereusedtoidentifytypesofleadershipandtheirimpact.Thefirstinvolvedacomparisonbetweentheimpactoftransformationalandinstructionalleadership(Hallinger,2005;Hallinger&Heck,1998;Leithwood,Tomlinson,&Genge,1996;Leithwood&Jantzi,2005).Thesecondstrategyfor

Theimpactofleadershiponstudentoutcomes:Makingsenseoftheevidence


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determiningleadershiptypewasgroundedinparticularleadershippractices,asdescribedbythesurveyitemsusedintherelevantresearch,ratherthaninabstractleadershiptheory.

Research methodsAsearchoftheinternationalliteratureyielded24studies,publishedbetween1985and2006,thatprovidedevidenceaboutthelinksbetweenleadershipandstudentoutcomes.Themajorityofstudies(15of24)wereconductedinschoolsintheUnitedStatesofAmerica.TwostudieswereconductedinCanadaandoneonlyineachofAustralia,England,HongKong,Israel,theNetherlands,NewZealandandSingapore.

Fourteenstudiesexaminedleadershipinelementaryschoolcontexts,threeinhighschools,andsevenstudiesincludedamixofelementary,middleandhighschools.Thirteenofthe24studiesconfinedtheiranalysisofschoolleadershiptotheprincipalonly,whileeleventookabroader,moredistributedviewofleadership.Twentystudiesexaminedacademicoutcomes,threeexaminednon-academicoutcomes,andoneincludedboth.

Analytic strategiesRelevantinformationfromthe24studiesidentifiedwasenteredintoaspreadsheetunderheadingsconcerningthecontext,sample,leadershiptheoryandmeasure,researchdesign,andmainfindings.Itwaspossibletoidentifyandestimatethemagnitudeofeffectsfor19ofthe24studies.Adecisionwasmadenottocalculateanoverallleadershipeffectsize,asthewidevarietyofleadershipconstructs,measuresandresearchdesignsemployedacrossthe24studies,makessuchacalculationproblematicintermsofbothcomparabilityandprecision.Averageeffectsizeestimateswerecalculated,

however,formorehomogenoussubsetsofthestudies.

Therelativeimpactoftransformationalandinstructionalleadershipwasdeterminedbycomputingthreedifferentaverageeffectsizes–oneforthetransformationalleadershipstudiesandtwofortheinstructionalleadershipstudies.Thelatterwasnecessaryinordertoensurethattransformationalleadershipstudieswerecomparedwithinstructionalleadershipstudiesthatemployedsimilarresearchdesigns.

Thefirststepindeterminingtherelativeimpactofdifferenttypesofleadershippractice(henceforthcalled‘leadershipdimensions’)involvedinductivelyderivingtherelevantdimensions.Thiswasdonebyinspectingtheauthor’sdescriptionsofthecomponentsoftheircompositeleadershipvariables,andofthewordingoftheirleadershipindicators(surveyitems).Fivedimensionscapturedthecommonmeaningofthecomponentsandindicators.Eachstudywasthencodedagainstthefiveleadershipdimensionsand,wherethedatawereavailable,effectsizeswerecalculatedforeachleadershipindicatororcomponent.Theresultwasanaverageeffectsizeforeachofthefiveleadershipdimensions,thusprovidingasecondanswertothequestionoftheimpactofdifferenttypesofleadershiponstudentoutcomes.

FindingsTheresultsofourcomparisonoftransformationalleadershipandinstructionalleadershiparepresentedfirst,followedbytheanalysisoftheimpactofparticularleadershipdimensions.

Impact of transformational and instructional leadershipTransformationalleadershiphasweak(<.2ES)indirecteffectsonstudentoutcomes.Whileithasmoderateeffectsonteacherattitudesandperceptionsoftheschoolclimateandorganisation,theseeffectsdonot,onthewhole,flowthroughtostudents.Thoseinstructionalleadershipstudiesthatusedsimilardesignstothoseusedinthetransformationalleadershipgroup,showedeffectsizesthatwere,onaverage,threetimeslargerthanthosefoundintransformationalleadershipstudies.Thesecondgroupofinstructionalleadershipstudies(i.e.,thosethatsampledschoolswherestudentswereachievingaboveandbelowexpectedlevels,ratherthanfromthefullrangeofoutcomes)showedevenlargereffectsofinstructionalleadership.Theselatterstudiessuggestthattheleadershipofotherwisesimilarhigh-andlow-performingschoolsisverydifferentandthatthosedifferencesmatterforstudentacademicoutcomes.

Insummary,twodifferentanalysessuggestthattheimpactofinstructionalleadershiponstudentoutcomesisconsiderablygreaterthanthatoftransformationalleadership.Admittedly,thesefindingsarebasedonasmallnumberofstudiesandeffectsizestatistics.

Impact of particular leadership dimensionsAsaresultofadetailedanalysisofthepublishedresearch,weidentifiedfiveleadershipdimensionsthathadaparticularlypowerfulimpactonstudents.Thefive,alongwithbriefdescriptions,arelistedinTable1.

Thelistofdimensionsisunusualinthatitdoesnotincludethetypicaldistinctionbetweenleadingtasksandleadingpeopleorrelationships.This


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distinctionhasbeeneschewedherebecausecloseexaminationoftheleadershipindicatorsusedinthesestudiesshowsthatrelationshipskillsareembeddedineverydimension.

Dimension�one:�Establishing�goals�and�expectations

Leadershipmakesadifferencetostudentsthroughitsemphasisonclearacademicandlearninggoals.Inaworkenvironmentwheremultipleconflictingdemandscanmakeeverythingseemequallyimportant,goalsestablishwhatisrelativelymoreorlessimportantandfocusstaffandstudentattentionandeffortaccordingly.Theimportanceofrelationshipsinthisleadershipdimensionisapparentfromthefactthatleaderswhogivemoreemphasistocommunicatinggoalsandexpectations(Heck,Larsen,&Marcoulides,1990;Heck,Marcoulides,&Lang,1991),informingthecommunityofacademicaccomplishmentsandrecognisingacademicachievement(Hecketal.,1991)arefoundinhigherperformingschools.Thereisalsosomeevidence

thatthedegreeofstaffconsensusaboutschoolgoalsisasignificantdiscriminatorbetweenotherwisesimilarhigh-andlow-performingschools(Goldring&Pasternak,1994).

Inschoolswithhighachievementorhighachievementgains,thegoalfocusisnotonlyarticulatedbyleadersbutembeddedinschoolandclassroomroutinesandprocedures.Successfulleadershipinfluencesbothinterpersonallyandbystructuringthewaythatteachersdotheirwork(Ogawa&Bossert,1995).

Dimension�two:�Strategic�resourcing

Theword‘strategic’inthedescriptionofthisdimensionsignalsthatthisleadershipdimensionisaboutsecuringandallocatingmaterialandstaffingresourcesthatarealignedtopedagogicalpurposes,ratherthanleadershipskillinsecuringresourcesperse.Thus,thismeasureshouldnotbeinterpretedasanindicatorofskillinfundraising,grantwritingorpartneringwithbusiness,asthoseskills

mayormaynotbeappliedinwaysthatservekeypedagogicalpurposes.Thereissomeevidencethatthistypeofleadershiphasamoderateindirecteffectonstudentsandthatitmaybeparticularlyimportantinregionswherethereisachronicresourceshortage.

Dimension�three:�Planning,�coordinating�and�evaluating�teaching�and�the�curriculum

Therewasconsiderableevidencethatthisleadershipdimensionmakesastrongimpactonstudentoutcomes.Itinvolvesfourtypesofleadershippractice:

1 Involvingstaffindiscussionsofteaching,includingitsimpactonstudents;

2 Workingwithstafftocoordinateandreviewthecurriculum,e.g.,developingprogressionsofobjectivesfortheteachingofwritingacrossyearlevels;

3 Providingfeedbacktoteachers,basedonclassroomobservationsthattheyreportasusefulinimprovingtheirteaching;

4 Systematicmonitoringofstudentprogressforthepurposeofimprovementatschooldepartmentandclasslevel.

Eventhoughthemeasuresofleadershipinthesestudiesincludedmorethantheprincipal,theeffectoftheseleadershippracticesappearstobesmallerinhighschoolsthaninprimaryschools.Clearlyweneedtoknowmuchmoreaboutthepathwaysthroughwhichleadershipmakesadifferencetostudentsinhighschools.

Dimension�four:�Promoting�and�participating�in�teacher�learning�and�development

Thisleadershipdimensionisdescribedasbothpromotingandparticipating,becausemoreisinvolvedherethanjust

Table�1:��Leadershippracticesderivedfromstudiesofeffectsofleadershiponstudents

Leadership�practice Meaning�of�dimension

Establishinggoalsandexpectations

Includesthesetting,communicatingandmonitoringoflearninggoals,standardsandexpectations,andtheinvolvementofstaffandothersintheprocesssothatthereisclarityandconsensusaboutgoals.

Strategicresourcing Involvesaligningresourceselectionandallocationtopriorityteachinggoals.Includesprovisionofappropriateexpertisethroughstaffrecruitment.

Planning,Coordinatingandevaluatingteachingandthecurriculum

Directinvolvementinthesupportandevaluationofteachingthroughregularclassroomvisitsandprovisionofformativeandsummativefeedbacktoteachers.Directoversightofcurriculumthroughschool-widecoordinationacrossclassesandyearlevelsandalignmenttoschoolgoals.

Promotingandparticipatinginteacherlearninganddevelopment

Leadershipthatnotonlypromotesbutdirectlyparticipateswithteachersinformalorinformalprofessionallearning.

Ensuringanorderlyandsupportiveenvironment

Protectingtimeforteachingandlearningbyreducingexternalpressuresandinterruptionsandestablishinganorderlyandsupportiveenvironmentbothinsideandoutsideclassrooms.


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supportingorsponsoringotherstaffintheirlearning.Theleaderparticipatesinthelearningasleader,learnerorboth.Thecontextsforsuchlearningarebothformal(staffmeetingsandprofessionaldevelopment)andinformal(discussionsaboutspecificteachingproblems).

Thisleadershipdimensionhadastrongimpactonschoolperformance.Inhigh-achievingandhigh-gainschools,teachersreporttheirschoolleaders(usuallytheprincipal)tobemoreactiveparticipantsinteacherlearninganddevelopmentthaninotherwisesimilarlow-achievingorlow-gainschools(Andrews&Soder,1987;Bamburg&Andrews,1991).Leadersaremorelikelytopromoteandparticipateinstaffdiscussionofteachingandteachingproblemsthanprincipalsinlowgain/lowachievementschools(Hecketal.,1990;Hecketal.,1991).Theprincipalisalsomorelikelytobeseenbystaffasasourceofinstructionaladvice,whichsuggeststhattheyarebothmoreaccessibleandmoreknowledgeableaboutinstructionalmattersthantheircounterpartsinotherwisesimilarlowerachievingschools(Friedkin&Slater,1994).

Dimension�five:�Ensuring�an�orderly�and�supportive�environment

Thisdimensiondescribesthoseleadershippracticesthatensurethatteacherscanfocusonteachingandstudentscanfocusonlearning.Thefindingsforthisdimensionsuggestthattheleadershipofhigh-performingschoolsisdistinguishedbyitsemphasisonandsuccessinestablishingasafeandsupportiveenvironmentthroughclearandconsistentlyenforcedsocialexpectationsanddisciplinecodes(Hecketal.,1991).Theleadershipofhigh-performingschoolsisalsojudgedbyteacherstobesignificantlymoresuccessfulthantheleadershipoflow-performingschoolsinprotectingteachersfromunduepressurefromeducationofficialsandfromparents

(Hecketal.,1990;Hecketal.,1991).Anorderlyandsupportiveenvironmentisalsooneinwhichstaffconflictisquicklyandeffectivelyaddressed(Eberts&Stone,1986).

DiscussionThemainconclusiontobedrawnfromthepresentanalysesisthatparticulartypesofschoolleadershiphavesubstantialimpactsonstudentoutcomes.Themoreleadersfocustheirinfluence,theirlearning,andtheirrelationshipswithteachersonthecorebusinessofteachingandlearning,thegreatertheirlikelyinfluenceonstudentoutcomes.

Instructionalleadership,asdescribedbythefivedimensionsofTable1,makesanimpactonstudentsbecauseithasastrongfocusonthequalityofteachersandteaching,andthesevariablesexplainmoreofthewithin-schoolresidualvarianceinstudentachievementthananyotherschoolvariable(Darling-Hammond,2000).

Themoregenericnatureoftransformationalleadershiptheory,withitsfocusonleader–followerrelationsratherthanontheworkofimprovinglearningandteaching,mayberesponsibleforitsweakereffectonstudentoutcomes.Transformationalleadershiptheorypredictsteacherattitudesandsatisfaction,but,onthewhole,itspositiveimpactsonstaffdonotflowthroughtostudents.

Thesefindingsholdimportantchallengesforbothpolicymakersandeducationalleadershipresearchers.Fortheformer,thechallengeistounderstandmoreaboutwhyschoolleaders,andprincipalsinparticular,donotspendmoretimeoninstructionalleadershipactivities(Mullis,Martin,Gonzalez,&Kennedy,2003).Theevenbiggerpolicychallengeishowtocreatetheconditionsinschoolsthatenableschoolleaderstodothisimportantwork.

Foreducationalleadershipresearchers,thechallengeistofocusmorecloselyonhowleadersinfluencetheteachingpracticesthatmatter.Thereismuchtobegainedfromacloserintegrationofleadershiptheoryandresearchwithdemonstrablyeffectivepedagogicalpracticesandteacherlearning.

ReferencesAndrews,R.,&Soder,R.(1987).

Principalleadershipandstudentachievement.Educational Leadership,44(6),9–11.

Bamburg,J.D.,&Andrews,R.L.(1991).Schoolgoals,principalsandachievement.School Effectiveness & School Improvement,2,175–191.

Bell,L.,Bolam,R.,&Cubillo,L.(2003).A systematic review of the impact of school headteachers and principals on student outcomes.London:EPPI-Centre,SocialScienceResearchUnit,InstituteofEducation.

Darling-Hammond,L.(2000).Teacherqualityandstudentachievement:Areviewofstatepolicyevidence.Education Policy Analysis Archives, 8(1).Retrieved20April,2006,fromhttp://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v8n1

Eberts,R.W.,&Stone,J.A.(1986).Studentachievementinpublicschools:Doprincipalsmakeadifference?Economics of Education Review,7(3),291–299.

Edmonds,R.(1979).Effectiveschoolsfortheurbanpoor.Educational Leadership, 37,15–24.

Friedkin,N.E.,&Slater,M.R.(1994).Schoolleadershipandperformance:Asocialnetworkapproach.Sociology of Education,67(2),139-157.

Goldring,E.B.,&Pasternak,R.(1994).Principals’coordinatingstrategiesandschooleffectiveness.SchoolEffectiveness & School Improvement,5,237–251.


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Hallinger,P.(2005).Instructionalleadershipandtheschoolprincipal:Apassingfancythatrefusestofadeaway.Leadership and Policy in Schools, 4(3),221–239.

Hallinger,P.,&Heck,R.H.(1998).Exploringtheprincipal’scontributiontoschooleffectiveness:1980–1995.School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 9,157–191.

Heck,R.H.,Larsen,T.J.,&Marcoulides,G.A.(1990).Instructionalleadershipandschoolachievement:Validationofacausalmodel.Educational Administration Quarterly,26(2),94–125.

Heck,R.H.,Marcoulides,G.A.,&Lang,P.(1991).Principalinstructionalleadershipandschoolachievement:Theapplicationofdiscriminanttechniques.School Effectiveness and School Improvement,2(2),115–135.

Leithwood,K.,Day,C.,Sammons,P.,Harris,A.,&Hopkins,D.(2006).Seven strong claims about successful school leadership.Nottingham,England:NationalCollegeofSchoolLeadership.

Leithwood,K.,&Jantzi,D.(2005).Areviewoftransformationalschoolleadershipresearch1996–2005.Leadership and Policy in Schools, 4(3),177–199.

Leithwood,K.,SeashoreLouis,K.,Anderson,S.,&Wahlstrom,K.(2004,September).How leadership influences student learning.RetrievedJune,2005,fromhttp://www.wallacefoundation.org/NR/rdonlyres/E3BCCFA5-A88B-45D3-8E27-B973732283C9/0/ReviewofResearchLearningFromLeadership.pdf

Leithwood,K.,Tomlinson,D.,&Genge,M.(1996).Transformationalschoolleadership.InK.Leithwood,J.Chapman,D.Corson,P.Hallinger,&A.Hart(Eds.),International handbook of educational leadership and administration(pp.785–840).Dordrecht:KluwerAcademic.

Maden,M.(Ed.).(2001).Success against the odds, five years on: Revisiting effective schools in disadvantaged areas.London:RoutledgeFalmer.

Marzano,R.J.,Waters,T.,&McNulty,B.(2005).Schoolleadershipthatworks:From research to results. Auroroa,CO:ASCDandMcREL.

Mullis,I.V.S.,Martin,M.O.,Gonzalez,E.J.,&Kennedy,A.M.(2003).PIRLS 2001 International Report. BostonCollege,MA:InternationalStudyCenter,LynchSchoolofEducation.

Ogawa,R.T.,&Bossert,S.T.(1995).Leadershipasanorganizationalquality.Educational Administration Quarterly, 31,224–243.

Scheurich,J.J.(1998).Highlysuccessfulandloving,publicelementaryschoolspopulatedmainlybylow-SESchildrenofcolor:Corebeliefsandculturalcharacteristics.Urban Education,33(4),451–491.

Witziers,B.,Bosker,R.J.,&Krüger,M.L.(2003).Educationalleadershipandstudentachievement:Theelusivesearchforanassociation.Educational Administration Quarterly,39(3),398–425.


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Chris�Sarra�Director, Indigenous Leadership Institute, Queensland

ChrisSarraistheyoungestof10childrenandhisfamilycomesfromBundaberg.TodateDrSarrahashadquiteanextensivecareerineducationandwithaparticularfocushismainpassion:pursuingmorepositiveandproductiveeducationaloutcomesforIndigenouschildren.

MorerecentlyhebecamewellknownfortheroleheplayedasthefirsteverAboriginalprincipalofCherbourgStateSchoolinSouthEastQueensland.InhistimeasPrincipalhefacilitatedmanypositivechangesthatsawincreasingenthusiasmforstudentlearningthroughdramaticallyimprovedschoolattendanceandincreasedcommunityinvolvementineducation.UnderChris’leadershiptheschoolbecamenationallyacclaimedforitspursuitofthe‘StrongandSmart’philosophy.

TodayDrSarraistheDirectoroftheIndigenousEducationLeadershipInstitute,whichisbasedinCherbourg,anddesignedtopursuestrongersmarterstudentoutcomesforIndigenouschildrenthroughoutAustralia.

AbstractInhisaddressDrSarrawillarticulatesomeofthemostfundamentalbarrierstothepursuitofstrongersmartereducationaloutcomesforIndigenouschildreninAustralianschools.Hewillreflectonhisworkasaneducator,andaresearcherwithaninterestinteachers’attitudesandexpectationsofAboriginalstudents,andchallengeothereducatorstorealisethatwedohavetheknowledgeandpotentialtomakeprofoundchangeinIndigenouseducation.

Embracingthechallengeofleadershipinindigenouseducation


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ConcurrentpapersConcurrentpapers


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Bill�MulfordProfessor and Director, Leadership for Learning Research Group Faculty of Education, University of Tasmania

BillMulfordisaninternationallyrecognisededucatorwithadeepinterestandextensiveresearchandpublicationrecordintheareasofeducationalleadership,educationalchangeandschooleffectivenessandimprovement.ProfessorMulford’smostrecentbook,publishedbyKluwer,isLeadership for organisational learning and student outcomesandhehasrecentlybeeninvitedtobetheeditorfortheLeadershipandManagementSectionofthenexteditionofthehighlyrespectedInternationalEncyclopaedia of EducationpublishedbyElsevier.

Aformerteacher,schoolprincipal,AssistantDirectorofEducation,FacultyDean,andChairofauniversityAcademicSenate,ProfessorMulfordhashighlegitimacywithintheprofession.AdvisertonumerousstateandnationalDepartmentsofEducationandaconsultanttointernationalorganisationssuchasOECDandUNESCO,hisisalsocurrentlyamemberoftheInternationalSuccessfulSchoolPrincipalsResearchProjectandInternationalLeadershipinEducationResearchNetwork,agroupof20oftheworld’sleadingresearchersintheareaformedtopushtheedgesofthinkingandresearchonleadershipineducation.HerecentlycompletedmajorOECDandAustralianGovernmentcommissionedpapersonschoolleadership.

ProfessorMulfordisaPastPresidentandFellowofnationalandinternationalprofessionalassociationsineducationaladministration.Hehasbeeninvitedtobeavisitingscholaratsomeoftheworld’sleadinguniversities,includingStanfordandVanderbiltinUSA,UBCandTorontoinCanadaandCambridgeandLondoninUK.HewasanHonoraryVisitingProfessorattheNationalCollegeforSchoolLeadershipinU.K.between2004and2006.ProfessorMulford’sawardsincludetheAustralianCouncilforEducationalLeadershipGoldMedal-foracademicattainment,successfulpracticeandanoutstandingrecordofcontributingtothefield.

AbstractWheredothoseinschoolsstartsortingthewheatfromthechaff,genuinegrowthpotionsofferinglong-termimprovementfromtheelixirs,short-termopportunismand/orunrealisticexpectations?Thecurrentandgrowingemphasisonevidenceinformedpolicyandpracticeisasgoodaplaceasany.Thepurposeofthispaperistotakeuptheissuesofthecomplexityandpredictivevalidityofevidence,theneedforevidencetobecomplexenoughtocomeclosetotherealityfacedbyAustralianschoolsandevidencethatseekstolinkleadershipandstudentoutcomes.Arisingfromdetailedqualitativeandquantitativeresearch,twomodelsarepresentedforconsiderationthatbetterreflectthiscomplexityandpredictivevaliditythanpreviousworkinthefield.

IntroductionManyanAustralianschoolhasbeendisillusionedbythegallopinghoofbeatsoftheitinerantpeddlersbehindnewmovementswhorideinandoutoftheeducationfieldextortingtheirlatestelixirs.Advicefromtheacademiccommunitymaynotbemuchlistenedtogiventheimplicationthatnothingshortofasupermanorsuperwomanasschoolleaderisrequired.Ontheotherhand,therearereformsandadvicethatmayhavegreatpotentialforschoolreform.

Wheredothoseinandresponsibleforschoolsstartsortingthewheatfromthechaff,genuinegrowthpotionsofferinglong-termimprovementfromtheelixirs,short-termopportunismand/orunrealisticexpectations?Thecurrentandgrowingemphasisonevidence-informedpolicyandpracticeisasgoodaplaceasany(see,forexample,EPPICentre,2001).However,ifoneisseekingtoestablishausefulevidencebaseforschoolimprovementthenone

alsoneedstoestablishthevalueoftheevidencethatispresented.

Thereareanumberofwaysofjudgingthequalityofevidence,includingitsintegrity,predictivevalidityandclarityofdefinitioninthevariablesemployed.Thepurposeofthispaperistotakeuptheissuesofthecomplexityandpredictivevalidityofevidence,theneedforevidencetobecomplexenoughtocomeclosetotherealityfacedbyschoolsandevidencethat,inthisinstance,seekstolinkleadershipandstudentoutcomes.Twomaps,ormodels,arepresentedforconsiderationthatbetterreflectthiscomplexityandpredictivevaliditythanpreviousworkinthefield.Thefirstisamodelofsuccessfulschoolprincipalshipandthesecondamodelofleadershipfororganisationallearningandstudentoutcomes.Thepaperconcludesbyreturningtoquestionsraisedaboutthequalityofevidenceandbrieflyillustratesthedegreetowhichthetwomodelsarecomprehensive,descriptiveand/orpredictive.

Quality�evidence:�reflecting�the�complexity�of�leadership�and�schools

Researchersattempttoreflectthecomplexityandthustherealityofpracticethroughtheuseofqualitativeand/orquantitativeresearchmethodologies.Ofnecessity,bothmethodologies,intheend,involveagreatdealofdatareduction.Whatweneedtobearinmindwhenexaminingtheresultsofeithermethodologyoritsrespectiveapproachestodatareductionareanswerstoquestionssuchas:

• Aretheresults/modelscomprehensive,dotheycontainallthekeypieces/variables?

• Dotheresults/modelsdescribe/explainthesituationinschoolsbyclearlyarticulating–boththevariablesandtherelationshipsamongthem?

QualityAustralianevidenceonleadershipforimprovedstudentoutcomes


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• WhatdoIknow?

• Dotheresults/modelshelpunderstand/predictappropriateoutcomesandpractice?

Withthesequestionsinmind,thepaperturnstotwomodelsderivedfromresearchbasedineachofthesemethodologicaltraditions.Thefirstisamodelofsuccessfulschoolprincipalship(SSPP)basedontheevidencefromqualitativein-depthcasestudiesofAustralianschoolsthatconstitutepartofaneight-countryexplorationofsuccessfulschoolleadership(theInternationalSuccessfulSchoolLeadershipProject,seehttp://leo.oise.utoronto.ca/_/schoolleadership/ssl.htmlthe43(6)2005editionoftheJournal of Educational AdministrationandDay&Leithwood,2007).Thesecondisamodelofleadershipfororganisationallearningandstudentoutcomes(LOLSO)basedonquantitativesurveyevidencefromover2500teachersand350015-year-oldAustralianhighschoolstudents.Detailsofthesamples,methodologies,relatedliteraturereviewsandsooncanbefoundelsewhere(Silins&Mulford,2002a&2002b,2004;Silins,Mulford,&Zarins,2002;Mulford&Silins,2003;Mulford&Johns,2004;Mulford,Silins,&Leithwood,2004;Gurr,Drysdale,&Mulford,2005&2006)anditsapplicationtopolicycanbefoundinMulford(2003a&b).

Findings�from�two�Australian�studies

FindingsfromtheSSPPcasestudiesofAustralianschoolssuggestthatsuccessfulschoolprincipalshipisaninteractive,reciprocalandevolvingprocessinvolvingmanyplayers,whichisinfluencedbyandinturninfluencesthecontextinwhichitoccurs.Further,thefindingsdemonstratethatsuccessfulprincipalshipisunderpinnedbythecorevaluesandbeliefsoftheprincipal.Thesevaluesandbeliefsinformtheprincipals’

decisionsandactionsregardingtheprovisionofindividualsupportandcapacitybuilding,andcapacitybuildingattheschoollevel,includingschoolcultureandstructure.Theprincipal’scorevaluesandbeliefs,togetherwiththevaluesandcapacitiesofothermembersoftheschoolcommunity,feeddirectlyintothedevelopmentofasharedschoolvision,whichshapestheteachingandlearning,studentandsocialcapitaloutcomesofschooling.Tocompletetheproposedmodelisaprocessofevidence-basedmonitoringandcriticalreflection,whichcanleadtoschoolchangeand/ortransformation.Thecontextandthesuccessfulschoolprincipal’svaluesformthe‘why’ofthemodel;theindividualsupportandcapacity,schoolcapacityandschoolvision/missionformsthe‘how’;andtheteachingandlearning,studentandcommunityoutcomesformsthe‘what’.Theevidence-basedmonitoringandcriticalreflectiononthe‘why’,‘how’and‘what’andtherelationshipbetweenthemformsthefinalsectionofthemodel,the‘howdoweknow’and‘doweneedtochange’element.

EvidencefromLOLSOsurveysclearlydemonstratesthatleadershipthatmakesadifferenceisbothpositionbased(principal)anddistributive(administrativeteamandteachers).Further,itwasfoundthattheprincipal’sleadershipneedstobetransformational,thatis,providingindividual,culturalandstructuralsupporttostaff,capturingavisionfortheschool,communicatinghighperformanceexpectationsandofferingintellectualstimulation.However,bothpositionalanddistributiveleadershipareonlyindirectlyrelatedtostudentoutcomes.Organisationallearning(OL),involvingthreesequentialstagesoftrustingandcollaborativeclimate,sharedandmonitoredmissionandtakinginitiativesandriskssupportedbyappropriateprofessionaldevelopmentistheimportantinterveningvariable

betweenleadershipandteacherworkandthenstudentoutcomes.Thatis,leadershipcontributestoOL,whichinturninfluenceswhathappensinthecorebusinessoftheschool:teachingandlearning.Itinfluencesthewaystudentsperceivethatteachersorganiseandconducttheirinstructionandtheireducationalinteractionswith,andexpectationsof,theirstudents.Students’positiveperceptionsofteachers’workdirectlypromotetheirparticipationinschool,academicself-conceptandengagementwithschool.Studentparticipationisdirectlyandstudentengagementindirectly(throughretention)relatedtoacademicachievement.Schoolsize,socioeconomicstatus(SES)and,especially,studenthomeeducationalenvironmentmakeadifferencetotheserelationships.However,thiswasnotthecaseintermsofteacherorleadergenderorage,havingacommunityfocusorstudentacademicself-concept.

Are�the�results/models�comprehensive,�do�they�contain�all�the�key�pieces/variables?

Thecasestudyresearchconfirmsclaimsthatsuccessfulschoolprincipalshipmakesimportantyetindirectcontributionstoschooloutcomes.However,theresearchsuggeststhatthecontributionoccursinamorecomplexwayandwithawiderrangeofoutcomesthansuggestedbymuchofthepreviousresearch.Leadershipineachofthecasestudyschoolswasstronglyinfluencedbytheprincipals’corepersonalvaluesandbythedevelopmentofasharedorganisationalvaluesbase.Althoughthesecorevaluesweresimilaracrossschoolsites,theinternalandexternalschoolcontextinfluencedthewayinwhichtheyweretranslatedintoschoolpracticesandprocedures.Successfulprincipalsalsodisplayedacoresetofbasicleadershipskillsregardlessofschoolcontext,includingdevelopingashared


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vision,individualcapacitybuildingandorganisationalredesign.Allprincipals,butparticularlythosefromlowSESschools,promotedequityplussocialjusticethroughthecreationofstrongschoolcommunitiesandsociallyjustpedagogicalpracticesandbyfocusingonthedevelopment/reinforcementofastronglearningculturewithintheschoolcommunity.

Oneofthemostpowerfulemergingconceptshereisthatof‘deep’democracy:respectfortheworthanddignityofindividualsandtheirculturaltraditions,reverenceforandproactivefacilitationoffreeandopeninquiryandcritique,recognitionofinterdependenceinworkingfor‘thecommongood’,commitmenttotheresponsibilityofindividualstoparticipateinfreeandopeninquiryandtheimportanceofcollectivechoicesandactionsbeingtakenintheinterestofthecommongood(Furman&Shields,2003).

Withinthefirstmodelthen,astarthasbeenmadeondescribingthenatureofeachcharacteristicinvolvedinsuccessfulschoolprincipalship.However,moreneedstobedone,especiallyinfleshingoutthesedescriptions;forexampletoclarifytheethical,moralandspiritualdimensionsoftheprincipal’svalues(seealsoLeithwood&Riehl,2003).

Eventhoughthesurvey-basedLOLSOmodelaccountsforsome15variables,questionscouldberaisedaboutitsrelevanceforotherthanAustralianhighschools.Morespecifically,itisnotablethatLOLSOplacesmuchlessemphasisontheorganisational,managerialorstrategicthanhaspreviouslybeenthecase.Thisshouldnotbesurprisingwhenitisrealisedthatthereisverylittleevidencetolinksuchanemphasistoeitherschoolorganisationallearningorstudentoutcomes.Elsewhereourresearchhasdiscussedalliedconcerns,suchas‘transactional’leadershipanditspotentialforcreating‘facadesoforderlypurposefulness’,over-managingand

under-leading‘doingthingsrightratherthandoingtherightthing’,‘buildingincanvas’and‘proceduralillusionsofeffectiveness’(Mulford,2002).

Do�the�results/models�describe/explain�the�situation�in�schools�through�clearly�articulating�the�key�variables�and�the�relationships�among�them?

ThepreliminarySSPPmodelofsuccessfulschoolprincipalshiphighlights:

• theembedded/contextualnatureofprincipalvalues,individualandorganisationalcapacityandschoolmissionandoutcomes;

• theinteractivenatureofprincipalvalues,individualandorganisationalcapacityandmissionontheonehandandoutcomesontheother;

• thebroadinterpretationofoutcomes,andtheirinteractionwitheachother,toincludeteachingandlearning,studentacademicandnon-academicoutcomesandcommunitysocialcapital;

• theseparatenessofevidence-basedmonitoring,implyingthatprofessionaleducatorshavearesponsibilitytonotjustaccept,forexample,whatanemployerand/orcommunitymayexpect,buttocriticallyreflectand,ifnecessary,actonallaspectsofthemodel,includingthecontext,andtheirinterrelationships.

However,thesuccessfulschoolprincipalshipmodelneedsfurtherworkonthecongruenceandtypicalsequenceamongthecharacteristics,theissueoftheabilityofsuccessfulprincipalstomanagetensionsanddilemmaswithinandbetweenthecharacteristicsandtheirabilitytosustainbalanceamongthecharacteristicsovertime.

TheLOLSOmodelhasidentifiedthecumulativenatureoforganisational

learningandallowedustospeculateonasimilarsequenceinthecharacteristicsoftransformationalleadership.Amongitsotherfindings,LOLSOconfirmedtheargumentthat,inaknowledgesociety,relianceonacademicperformanceasthesolemeasureofaschool’ssuccesscouldbeseenasparticularlynarrowandshort-sighted.Attheinternationallevel,forexample,internationalresearchbytheOECD(2001)fortheProgrammeforInternationalStudentAssessment(PISA)projectshowsthatmorethanaquarterof15-year-oldstudentsagreeorstronglyagreethatschoolisaplacewheretheydonotwanttogoandthatinalmosthalfoftheOECDcountriesthemajorityofstudentsalsoagreeorstronglyagreethatschoolisaplacewheretheyfeelbored.Responseswerefoundtovaryconsiderablybetweencountries,whichsuggeststhatdisaffectionwithschoolatthisageis,althoughcommon,notinevitable.Itwouldbesafetospeculatethatdisaffected,boredstudentsarenotlikelytobeorbecomethecreativeorinnovativepeopleneeded(atallages)inaknowledgesociety.Thereisgreatneedatthepresenttimetobroadenwhatcountsfor‘goodeducation’andtoincludemeasuressuchasstudentperceptionsoftheirschoolandteachersplustheirownperformance,self-conceptandengagement.

Do�the�results/models�help�us�understand�and�even�predict�appropriate�outcomes�and�practice?

Inbroadterms,theevidencefromthetworesearchprojectsshowsthattherearethreemajor,sequentialandalignedelementsofpracticeinsuccessfulschoolreform.Beinginnovativeisnotthefirstoftheseelements.Thefirstelementrelatestohowpeoplearecommunicatedwithandtreated.Successismorelikelywherepeopleactratherthanarealwaysreacting,areempowered,involvedindecision


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makingthroughatransparent,facilitativeandsupportivestructureandaretrusted,respected,encouragedandvalued.Thesecondelementconcernsaprofessionalcommunity.Aprofessionalcommunityinvolvessharednormsandvalues,includingvaluingdifferenceanddiversity,afocusonimplementationandcontinuousenhancementoflearningforallstudents,deprivatisationofpractice,collaborationandcriticalreflectivedialogueespeciallythatbasedonperformancedata.Thefinalelementrelatestothepresenceofacapacityforchange,learningandinnovation.Eachoftheseelementsisongoing,withjusttheemphasischanging.Also,eachelementandeachtransitionbetweenthemisfacilitatedbyanappropriateongoing,optimistic,caring,nurturingprofessionaldevelopmentprogram(forproblem-basedlearningmaterialsdevelopedfromtheLOLSOresearch,seeMulfordetal.,2004).Together,thesethreeelementsunderscoretheimportanceofleadersunderstandingandbeingabletocollaborativelychangeschoolcultureinwaysthataremeaningfulforthoseonschoolsites.

Thissequencehelps‘predict’theendpoint,thatislearning,andtheappropriateleadershipandprofessionaldevelopmentemphasisfor,andtomovefrom,eachstageonthejourney.Itmaybethatweneedtotakethesemodelsfurtherbyhavingasetofmodelsrepresentingdifferentgroupingsofvariablesandtheirrelationshipsandsequences,forexampleforhighpoverty,rural,innercity,primaryand/orpublicschools.Ontheotherhand,whenlostinthecomplex,‘swampy’groundofschoolsandtheirenvironmentsasimplecompass(headroughlywest,be‘transformational’and/or‘distributive’)maybemuchmorehelpfulthanthesedetailedroadmapsinlinkingleadershiplearning,organisationaldevelopmentandsuccessfulpractice.However,inanageofglobalpositioningsystemsandmodelsbasedonquality

evidencethatarecomplexenoughtocomeclosetotherealityfacedbyschoolsandarepredictiveinthattheylinkleadershipandstudentoutcomes,sucharesponsedoeseducationanditscontinuedreformadeepdisservice.

ReferencesDay,C.,&Leithwood,K.(2007).

Successful principal leadership in times of change. Dordrecht,Netherlands:Springer.

EPPI.(2001).Corekeywordingstrategy:Datacollectionforaregisterofeducationalresearch(Version0.9.4).(London:EvidenceforPolicyandPracticeInformationandCo-ordinatingCentre).

Furman,G.,&Shields,C.(2003,April).Howcanleaderspromoteandsupportsocialjusticeanddemocraticcommunityinschools?PaperpresentedtotheannualmeetingoftheAmericanEducationalResearchAssociation,Chicago,IL.

Gurr,D.,Drysdale,L.&Mulford,B.(2005).Successfulprincipalleadership:Australiancasestudies,Journal of Educational Administration, 43(6),539–551.

Gurr,D.,Drysdale,L.&Mulford,B.(2006)Modelsofsuccessfulprincipalleadership,School Leadership and Management, 26(4),371–395.

Journal of Educational Administration.(2005).43(6).

Leithwood,K.,&Riehl,C.(2003).Whatdowealreadyknowaboutsuccessfulschoolleadership?PaperpresentedatAERA,Chicago.

Mulford,B.(2002).Theglobalchallenge.Educational Management & Administration. 30(2),123–138.

Mulford,B.(2003a).Schoolleaders:Changingrolesandimpactonteacherandschooleffectiveness.CommissionedpaperbytheEducationandTrainingPolicyDivision,

OECD,fortheActivity‘Attracting,DevelopingandRetainingEffectiveTeachers’.Paris:OECD.http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/61/61/2635399.pdf

Mulford,B.(2003b).Theroleofschoolleadershipinattractingandretainingteachersandpromotinginnovativeschoolsandstudents.CommissionedpaperbytheCommonwealthDepartmentofEducationScienceandTrainingfortheir‘ReviewofTeachingandTeacherEducation’.http://www.dest.gov.au/NR/rdonlyres/161EEEC9-713A-40CD-9E87-2E5ACA1E19A3/1661/leadership.pdf

Mulford,B.,&Johns,S.(2004).Successfulschoolprincipalship,Leading&Managing,10(1),45–76.

Mulford,B.,&Silins,H.(2003).Leadershipfororganisationallearningandimprovedstudentoutcomes.Cambridge Journal of Education.33(2),175–195.

Mulford,B.,Silins,H.,&Leithwood,K.(2004).Leadershipfororganisationallearningandstudentoutcomes:Aproblem-basedlearningapproach.Dordrecht:Kluwer.

Silins,H.,&Mulford,B.(2002a).Leadershipandschoolresults.InK.Leithwood&P.Hallinger.(Eds.).Second International Handbookof Educational Leadership and Administration.(pp.561–612).Norwell,MA:KluwerAcademicPublishers.

Silins,H.,&Mulford,B.(2002b).Schoolsaslearningorganisations:Thecaseforsystem,teacherandstudentlearning.The Journal of Educational Administration.40(5),425–446.

Silins,H.,&Mulford,B.(2004).Schoolsaslearningorganisations:Effectsonteacherleadershipandstudentoutcomes.School Effectiveness and School Improvement. 15(3-4),443–466.

Silins,H.,Mulford,B.&Zarins,S.(2002)Organisationallearningandschoolchange,Educational Administration Quarterly, 38(5),613–642.


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Sheryl�Boris-SchacterPrincipal, Hunnewell School, Wellesley, Mass. USA

SherylBoris-Schacter,aformerreadingteacher,elementaryteacher,specialeducator,secondaryEnglishteacher,highschooladministrator,anduniversityprofessor,isbackinK–12educationasanelementaryschoolprincipalatHunnewellSchoolinWellesley,Massachusetts.DrBoris-Schacterresignedherprofessorshipof18yearsatLesleyUniversityinCambridge,Massachusettsjustthisyeartoreturn‘tothepointofservicedelivery’.Sheistheco-authorwithSondraLangerofBalancedleadership:Howeffectiveprincipalsmanagetheirwork(TeachersCollegePress,2006),editorofThe changing relationship between the principal and the superintendent: Shifting roles in an era of educational reform(Jossey-Bass,1999),andtheauthorandco-authorofnumerousarticlesonprofessionaldevelopment,educationalpolicy,andtheAmericanschoolprincipalship.ShehasadoctoratefromHarvardUniversityandresidesinNewton,MassachusettswithherhusbandBill,hersonBlake,andherdaughterTess.

AbstractAlarmedbymountingevidenceofanationalshortageofqualifiedandcommittedschoolprincipals,acolleagueandIinterviewedandsurveyedover200publicschoolprincipalsfromacrosstheUnitedStatestofindoutwhysomanyareleavingtheprofessionandhowthosewhostaypersistintheirrole.Basedonthatdata,wedrewconclusionsabouthowsuccessfulpractitionersprioritizecompetingdemandsandachievelifebalance,whilekeepinginstructionattheheartoftheenterprise.ThisanalysisresultedinabookpublishedbyTeachersCollegePressin2006,Balanced leadership: How effective principals manage their work.

KnowingallthatIdidabouttheprincipalship,thefrustrationsitholds,andthegapformostpractitionersbetweentherealityoftheworkandtheidealofinstructionalleadership,Istillchosetoacceptaninvitationfromalocalschoolsuperintendenttofillaninterimpositionasanelementaryprincipal.Consequently,oneyearago,Iappliedforaleavefromtheprofessoriate,packedupsomebooksandpapers,andtookwhatIhadlearnedabouteducationandleadershiptoasuburbanschoolwith325studentsinkindergartenthroughgradefive.IwasdeterminedtofindoutifIcouldapplywhatIhadlearnedfromovertwohundredexperiencedprincipalsaboutkeepingthemajorityofmytimeandthefocusofmyworkoninstructionalpractice.

‘Ican’timaginewhybeingaprincipalnowwouldhaveanyappealasacareer.Despitethebuzzthattheprincipalissupposedtobeaninstructionalleaderasopposedtothepersonwhobuffersthepeopleintheschoolfromthehorriblebureaucracyoftheoutsideschooldepartment,therealityisthattheoutsideschool

department,iflefttoitsowndevices,wouldmakeworkinginschoolsprettywellintolerable’(Principalinterview,Boris-SchacterandLanger,2006).

Iamjustcompletingmyveryfirstyearasanelementaryschoolprincipal.Iamdoingthisaftersevenyearsasaspecialeducationteacher,fiveyearsasahighschoolteacherandadministrator,andeighteenyearsasaprofessorofeducationatauniversity.Twelveofmyyearsattheuniversitywerespentpreparingexperiencedteachersforschoolleadershippositions,primarilytheprincipalship.Thisworkdrovemyteachingaswellasmyresearchandscholarship,andgotmebackintoschools,especiallyprincipaloffices.Thosevisitsledtoconversationswithpractitionersthatinformedmythinkingaboutwhatmatteredintheschoolhouse,andwhatdifferenceprincipalsmaketotheenterprise.

The principal shortage in the USInthemidstofthatwork,in1998,acolleagueandIbeganreadingmountingevidenceofanationalshortageofqualifiedprincipals(EducationalResearchService,1998;Keller,1998;Yerkes&Guaglianone,1998).Adocumentedshortagecommandedourattentionbecauseresearchersandeducatorsassumethataneffectiveprincipaliscentraltoschoolimprovementandstudentachievement(Archer,2004;Cotton,2003;EducationWritersAssociation,2002;EducationalResearchService,2000;Hallinger&Heck,1998;Johnson,1996;Kannapel&Clements,2005;Rosenholtz,1985;Rutter,Maughan,Mortimore,&Ouston,1979).Whilepolicymakersandeducationalresearcherswerecompilinglaundrylistsofreasonsfortheshortageandstatisticalprojectionsofneed,itseemedtousthatnoonewasasking

Gotaminute?Caninstructionalleadershipexistdespitethereactivenatureoftheprincipalship?


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theprincipalswhytheshortageexistedorhowitcouldbeaddressed.WewonderedwhatAmericanprincipalsthought,soweaskedschoolleadersfromallgeographicregionsoftheUnitedStates:

• whytheprincipalshipbecamelessattractive

• whycurrentprincipalswereleavingtheirpositions

• howthosewhopersistedmanagedtheirwork

• whyAmerica’sschoolslackedcapableandwillingnewprincipalcandidates

• whethertherolecouldberethoughttoimproverecruitmentandretentionandbettermeetacademicgoals.

A�national�study�to�address�the�shortage

From1998to2004wereceivedcompletedsurveysandconductedinterviewswithjustovertwohundredprincipalsfromacrossthecountry.Theprincipalscamefromurban,suburban,andruraldistricts.Theyweremale,female,white,andpeopleofcolour.Theprincipalsledelementary,middle,andhighschoolsintwelvestates.Somewerenovicesintheirfirstorsecondyearsintheroleandsomewereseasonedveteranswithovertwentyyearsofpractice.Someprovidedunsolicitednewslettersandmemosasevidenceofhowtheycommunicatedagendastotheparents,teachers,andstudentsoftheirschools.Thesedocumentsprovidedadditionaldataforanalysisandinclusion.Thisdatahelpedusinterprethowprincipalsaddressedprofessionalpersistence,managedcompetingdemands,achievedlifebalance,andimaginednewmodelsfortheprincipalship.

Whatemergedfromouranalysiswasthattherespondentsstruggledwiththe

samecompetingconcernsasdidourgraduatestudents.Theirliveswereabalancingactinwhichtheyperpetuallyweighedtherelativeimportanceofthreepairsofactivitycategoriesthatwecalled‘principaltensions’:

• instructionandmanagement

• workandpersonallives

• societal/communityexpectationsandindividualpriorities

(Boris-SchacterandLanger,2006)

Forexample,principalsreportedthatwhentheywantedtogointoclassrooms,theyhadtocompletepaperwork.Whentheyneededtostayatschool,theymisseddinnerathome.Whenthecommunityexpectedthemtorespondimmediately,theywantedtogatherinformationandcarefullyconsideroptions.

Thefocusofthispaperisthetensionthatexistsbetweeninstructionalleadershipandmanagerialtasks.Theprincipalsinourstudywereremarkablyconsistentintheirassertionthattheyenteredtheprincipalshipinordertobeinstructionalleaders,andlamentedthattheyspentthevastmajorityoftheirtimedousingfires,fixingschoolfacilities,attendingmeetings,andcompletingpaperworkdrivenbystateandfederalmandates.Althoughtheywantedtobereflectiveandplanful,theyfoundthemselvesbeingprimarilyreactivetonon-instructionalactivities.

Thisispreciselywhatpreventsmanycredentialedandexperiencedteachersfromtransitioningfromtheclassroomtotheofficeandhas,Ithink,contributedtotheprincipalshortage.Thepurposeoftheprincipalshipisvaguecomparedtothatofteaching.Themissionofteachingisclearlycurriculumandinstruction,whereastheprincipalshipespousesthecentralityofpedagogybutcrowdstheworkoutwithothertime-consumingadministrativeactivities

thataremanagerialinnature.Often,thesemanagerialtasksareessentialtomaintainingtheschoolbutmostprincipalsfeeltheyrarelyimprovethequalityofteachingandlearning.

Whenfacedwiththecontrastbetweenateacher’slifeofdirectservicewithchildrenandaprincipal’snecessaryoccupationwithsuchactivitiesasdiscipline,testing,andplantmanagement,thestudyprincipalshadtoconvincethemselvesthattheirworkwasworthwhileandthattheirfocus,ifnottheirtime,wasalwaysoninstruction.Eventhemoreexperiencedpractitionersfeltthattheydidnotfocussufficienttimeandthoughtoninstructionalimprovement.Insteadofspendingafter-schoolhoursplanningprofessionaldevelopmentactivities,school-widecurricularthemes,andreflectingonclassroompractice,principalsdescribedthistimeasbeingfilledwith‘catch-up.’Therewaslittleartistry,problemsolving,orcraftenhancementmentioned.

Iwouldarguethatthestruggletofindadequatetimetobeaninstructionalleaderisnolessthanastrugglewithprofessionalidentityandpurpose.Thechallengeistomanagethecognitivedissonancebetweenwhatprincipalsimaginedtheywouldbedoingbeforeassumingtheprincipalshipandhowtheyactuallyspendtheirtimewhentheyareinthejob.Evenmorethantheothertensionsweidentifiedintherole,thebalancebetweeninstructionalleadershipandmanagerialtasksbegsthequestion,‘Whatistheroleoftheschoolprincipal?’

Historically,theprincipalshiphasbeenoneof‘headteacher,’butthepositionhasevolvedintooneofdataanalyst,publicrelationsliaison,andaccountabilityofficer(Pappano,2003).Likeprincipalsinotherstudies(Lovely,2004),ourprincipalswantedlittletodowiththesemanagerialaspectsofthenewprincipalshipandmuchmoreto


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dowithpedagogy.Itwasnosurprisethatapopularalternativemodelsuggestedbyourrespondentswasoneofadualprincipalshipinwhichonepersonwasinchargeofinstructionandonewasinchargeofmanagement.Allconceded,though,thatfewprofessionaleducatorswouldopttofilltheroleofprincipalformanagement.

Defining�instructional�leadership

Inthecontextofourresearch,weneverdirectlyaskedprincipalstodefineinstructionalleadership.However,itbecameeasytoextrapolatedefinitionsfromthecouplingoftheactivitieswiththeuseoftheterm,alistwithastrikingresemblancetotheonecitedinaStanfordUniversityReport,‘Preparingschoolleadersforachangingworld’(2007).Ourrespondentstalkedabouttheirroleasoneofmentoringstaff,modellinginstruction,visitingclassrooms,andprovidingcustomisedprofessionaldevelopmentexperiences.Amiddleschoolprincipalwistfullymentionedthefollowingactivitiesofinstructionalstewardshipasthosethatwoulddefineherconceptof‘thedreamprincipalship’:

Thedreamprincipalshipwouldbefocusedaroundteachingandlearning.Itwouldincludemaximumamountoftimeinclassrooms,itwouldincludeminimalpaperwork,itwouldincludeatleastoneperiodadayinwhichIcouldteachandmodelgoodinstructiontootherteachersinthebuilding.Theidealprincipalshipwouldinvolveenormousamountsoftimementoringstaffpeopleanddevelopingprofessionaldevelopmentthemesfortheentireschool(PrincipalInterview,Boris-SchacterandLanger,2006).

Thisoneprincipal’snotionofa‘dreamprincipalship’turnedouttobeacommonparadigm.Itwasalso,foralmostalloftheprincipalsinourstudy,adreamnotrealised.

KnowingallthatIdidaboutthisposition,thefrustrationsitholds,and

thegapformostpractitionersbetweentherealityoftheworkandtheidealofinstructionalleadership,Istillchosetoacceptaninvitationfromalocalschoolsuperintendenttofillaninterimpositionasanelementaryprincipal.Consequently,oneyearago,Iappliedforaleavefromtheprofessoriate,packedupsomebooksandpapers,andtookwhatIhadlearnedabouteducationandleadershiptoasuburbanschoolwith325studentsinkindergartenthroughgradefive.IwasdeterminedtofindoutifIcouldapplywhatIhadlearnedfromovertwohundredexperiencedprincipalsaboutkeepingthemajorityofmytimeandthefocusofmyworkoninstructionalpractice.

What�I�learned�in�the�principal’s�office�about�instructional�leadership

Ibeganmytenurewithmanyadvantages.Amongthese,Ifollowedaprincipalwhowasthoughttobeindecisivesoitwouldnotbehardformetoappearcapable;peopleheldpositiveassumptionsaboutmyintellectandmycapacitybecauseIwascomingfromtheuniversity;andIhadtakenaoneyearleaveandcouldreturntomyprofessorship.Thatbeingsaid,ImadeanagreementwiththesuperintendentthatIwouldapproachthepositionasthoughitwerepermanentandIwouldbegivenfreereigntomakeanychangesIdeemednecessarytoimprovetheschool.Forthisschool,inawell-resourceddistrictthatenjoyedeveryeconomicadvantageandmuchcommunityinvolvementandsupport,itwasnotentirelyobviouswhatneededtobedone.

Ibegan,asanynewprincipalshould,byinterviewingthestaffaboutthemselves,aboutwhatworkswell,andaboutwhattheythinkrequiresattention.WhenIcompletedtheinterviewsandanalysedthedataforthemes,myblueprintwasclear.Ineededtore-establisha

positiveschoolculture;beareliable,action-oriented,andpredictableleader;establishdefinitiveboundariesbetweenthefacultyandtheparentcommunity;andbringfunandmeaningbacktotheschool.Itseemedtomethattheteachersweretellingme,inavarietyofways,twothings:thattheywerehavingdifficultygettingtheirworkdoneandtheydidnotfeelsupportedbytheprincipal.

Imadeaconsciousdecisiontodefineinstructionalleadershipformeandatthispointintimeasbeingteacher-centered.Ireasonedthathappy,caredforteacherswouldtranslateintoimprovedteachingandlearningintheclassroom.Ialsohedgedmybetsthat,ifIdidthisaspectofmyjobwell,thenteacherswouldreciprocatebyofferingsupportforinitiativesthatIintroduce.IconsideredeveryproblemteachersmentionedintheinterviewsandsolvedallthatIcould.Mygoalwasforthemtoseeandfeeladifferencewhenschoolopened.IwasgoingtoeliminatewhatIperceivedtobedistractionstoimprovingclassroompractice.

Beginningwiththeinterviews,ImadeastatementthatIwaskeenlyinterestedingettingtoknowthemasindividualsandthatIwasanactivelistener.IwasmodellinghowIwantedthemtointeractwithchildrenandparents–respectfullyandwithfullengagement.Thatwasrelativelyeasy.Theharderpartwasbeingaction-orientedwhenIwasnewtoasystemandunsureoftheprotocol.

Irelieduponmyrelationshipwiththesuperintendentwhoinvitedmetofilltheinterimposition,thementorprincipalheassignedtoshepherdmethroughthesystem,andtheassumptionthatIshouldjustgoaheadanddothingsthatmadesensewithintheconfinesof‘mybuilding’.Beforeschoolopened.IsolvedthestaffparkingproblembysecuringadditionalspaceswhichIhadbeentoldwereimpossible


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toget,andImadenumerousimprovementstoaphysicalplantthathadbeenadisorganisedanddirtymess.Irearrangedadysfunctionalmainofficeandalteredtheexpectationsofbehaviourfortheschoolsecretary.Oncethestaffsawthesevisiblesignsofleadership,theybeganaskingforotheritemstheyhadlongsincegivenuponsuchasfixingclassroomdrinkingfountainsandconstructinghallwaybulletinboards.

Thesevisualandattitudinalchangesweresymbolicallyimportantnotonlytothestaffbutalsototheparents.Therewas,apparently,anevenshorterleapthanIhadimaginedfromatidierbuildingtoamorefocusededucator.PeoplewerefavourablyimpresseduntilIwaschallengedtotakesidesbetweentheteachersandtheparents,althoughIwasunawareatthetimethattheseactionswouldbeperceivedinthatway.

Thefirstsuchinstancewasmyeliminatingthemorningline-upritualduringwhichstudentslinedupoutside,byclass,andlistenedtoannouncementsand/orstudentwork.Thishappenedatthe8:30bellandparentswereinvitedtostayandobserve.IthoughtthisritualwasproblematicforseveralreasonsandIchoseinsteadtohavechildrenenjoyfreeplayintheyardandgointothebuildingafulltenminutessooner,thusincreasinginstructionaltime.Therewastremendouspressureonmefromsomesegmentsoftheparentcommunitytoreversethisdecision.

ThesecondexamplewasinthethirdweekofschoolwhenwehadourOpenSchoolNight.Parentscametohearfromtheteachersaboutthecurriculum.Theschedulehadbeenclearlycommunicated,withanendingtimeof7:50p.m.At8:20,classroomswerestillfilledwithparentsandteachers.Iwenttoeachroomandinvitedparentstoleave.Theteachersweregratefulbutsomeparentswereincensed;emailsflewforweeks.Early

on,thesetwoinstancesdefinedmyleadershipstyleandidentifiedmypriorities:teachersandinstruction.Bymaintainingthecentralityoftheclassroom,Iwasabletomakedecisionsthatflowedfromthatphilosophicalstance.Thishelpedmeremainfocusedandconsistent.

AsIamattheendoftheschoolyearnowandhindsightisrevealing,IhaveheardrepeatedlyfromparentsandteachersthatIhaveboth‘broughtjoybacktotheschool’and‘refocusedtheschool’sworkoninstruction’.Ifeelthatmyputtingmyenergyintogettingtoknowtheteachersandsupportingtheirworkandworkliveswasright,aswasbasingmydecisions,largeandsmall,onsoundinstructionalanddevelopmentalpractice.Althoughthisapproachisnotusuallycharacterisedasinstructionalleadership,andindeeditwasnotbymostrespondentsinmymostrecentresearchstudy,Ifoundittobeattheheartoftheinstructionalagendaforthisnascentprincipal.Itleadsmetothinkthatwhatislabelledasmanagerialissometimesincorrectlypositionedasbeingtangentialtoinstructionalleadership.Indeed,aprincipal’slensonendinganOpenHouseontime,asmanagerialasitpresents,mayinfactbeasanintegralacomponentofinstructionalleadershipasteachersupervisionandprofessionaldevelopment.

ReferencesArcher,J.(2004).Tacklinganimpossible

job.Education Week,14(3),p.S3.

Boris-Schacter,S.,&Langer,S.(2006).Balanced leadership: How effective principals manage their work.NewYork:TeachersCollegePress.

Cotton,K.(2003).Principals and student achievement: what the research says. Alexandria,VA:AssociationforSupervisionandCurriculumDevelopment.

Darling-Hammond,L.,LaPointe,M.,Meyerson,D.,&Orr,M.(2007).Preparingschoolleadersforachangingworld:Executivesummary.Stanford,CA:StanfordUniversity,StanfordEducationalLeadershipInstitute.

EducationalResearchService.(1998).Is there a shortage of qualified candidates for openings in the principalship? An exploratory study.FortheNationalAssociationofElementarySchoolsPrincipalsandNationalAssociationofSecondarySchoolPrincipals.Washington,D.C.

Hallinger,P.,&Heck,R.(1998).Exploringtheprincipal’scontributiontoschooleffectiveness:1980–1995.School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 9(2),157–191.

Johnson,S.M.(1996).Leading to change. SanFrancisco:Jossey-Bass.

Kannapel,P.,&Clements,S.(2005).http:/prichardcommittee.org/

Lovely,S.(2004).Staffing the principalship: Finding, coaching, and mentoring school leaders. Alexandria:AssociationforSupervisionandCurriculumDevelopment.

Pappano,L.(2003,December21).Inmanyclassrooms,aprincipallesson.The Boston Globe.

Rosenholtz,S.(1985).Effectiveschools:Interpretingtheevidence.AmericanJournal of Education,93(3),352–388.

Rutter,M.,Maughan,B.,Mortimore,P.,&Ouston,J.(1979).Fifteen thousand hours: Secondary schools and their effects on children.Cambridge:HarvardUniversity.

Yerkes,D.M.,&Guaglianone,C.L.(1998).Wherehaveallthehighschooladministratorsgone?Educational Leadership, 28(2),10–14.


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Louise�WatsonUniversity of Canberra

LouiseWatsonisanAssociateProfessorintheSchoolofEducationandCommunityStudies,UniversityofCanberra.Shehasworkedineducationpolicysince1983,mainlyfortheCommonwealthgovernment,whereshespentfiveyearsasapolicyadvisortotwoFederalMinistersofEducation.Since1999,shehasbeenemployedbytheUniversityofCanberrawheresheundertakeseducationpolicyresearchandteachespostgraduatestudentsintheMastersofEducationalLeadership.

AbstractOverthepastdecade,therehasbeenconsiderableconcernaboutanimpendingcrisisinschoolleadershipduetoashrinkingpoolofapplicantsforprincipals’positions.ThispaperexploresthedimensionsofthisissueinAustraliaandidentifiespossiblereasonsforadeclineininterestinprincipalship.Itconcludeswithideasanddirectionsforpolicyreform.

‘What are we doing that people are really not interested in this job?’ SeniormemberofanAustralianreligiousorderonthedifficultyofrecruitingschoolprincipals,quotedinGronn&Rawlings-Sanaei(2003)

IntroductionOverthepastdecade,therehasbeenconsiderableconcerninAustraliaaboutanimpendingcrisisinschoolleadership.In2001,BrianCaldwell(2000)observedthat‘reportsfromnationafternationrefertotheshrinkingpoolofapplicantsfortheprincipalship’.TheAustralianCollegeofEducatorssays,‘Itisbecomingincreasinglydifficulttoattractleaderstotheprincipalship’(ACE,2006).OfficialsinseveraleducationdepartmentsinAustralianstatesandterritoriesalsoreportadecliningnumberofapplicationsforprincipalvacancies(Gronn&Rawlings-Sanaei,2003;Lacey,2002).

ThispaperexploresthedimensionsofthecrisisinschoolleadershipinAustralia,examiningtrendssuchasashrinkingpoolofapplicantsforprincipalpositionsandsuggestionsofadeclineinthe‘quality’ofpotentialapplicants.Wethenexaminethepossiblereasonsforthedeclininginterestintheprincipalship

anddiscussdirectionsforpolicyreformtoaddressthisissue.

A�declining�pool�of�applicants

Therearemanypublishedstudiesthatsuggestadeclineinthenumberofapplicationsforschoolprincipals’positionsinAustraliaandoverseas(citedinLacey2002,andGronn&Rawlings-Sanaei,2003).Butquantitativeevidencetosuggesta‘shrinkingpoolofapplicants’fortheprincipalshipinAustraliaislimited.WorkbytheCatholicEducationCommissionofNewSouthWalessuggestedthatfewerpeoplewereapplyingforprincipals’positions(d’Arbon,Duignan&Duncan,2002)buttheirobservationswerenotwellsupportedbyevidence.Thesurveyconductedamongpotentialschoolprincipals1withintheCatholicEducationsysteminNewSouthWalesfoundthat52percentofallrespondentsindicatedtheywerenotseekingaprincipal’spositionanddidnotintendtoapply,30percentsaidtheywerewillingtoapplywhile16percentwereunsure.Moreover,ofthe300assistantprincipalswhoresponded,only30percentsaidtheywereunwillingtoapply,45percentwerewillingtoapplyandtheremaining25percentwereunsure(d’Arbon,Duignan&Duncan2002).InVictoria,astudyofleadershipaspirationsamonggovernmentschoolteacherssuggestedthat24percentofteachershadleadershipaspirationsthatextendedtotheprincipalclass(Lacey,2002).

Intheabsenceofcomparativedatafrompreviousdecades,wecannotbesurewhatlevelofinterestconstitutesadeclineinschoolleadershipapplicationsinAustralia.Doesa20–30percent

Whywouldanybodywantthisjob?ThechallengeofattractingandsustainingeffectiveleadersforAustralianschools

1 Thesurveyrecipientsweresome3000AssistantPrincipals,SubjectCo-ordinatorsandReligiousEducationCo-ordinatorsinthe588CatholicschoolsthroughoutNewSouthWales,ofwhom1024replied(aresponserateof30percent).


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levelofinterestinapplyingforthejobofprincipal(i.e.30percentofCatholicteachersand24percentofstateschoolteachers)constituteevidenceofanimpendingshortageofapplicants?Bartyetal.(2005)concludethattheresultsofbothsurveys‘seemedalittletoohightoindicateacriticaldeclineininterestintheprincipalship’.AnAmericanstudyoftheattributesandcareerpathsofschoolprincipalsinNewYorkStatecametoasimilarconclusion.Itfoundthatalthoughupto60percentofcurrentprincipalsmayretireoverthenextfiveyears,thenumberofindividualsundertheageof45and‘certified’tobeprincipalsexceededthenumberofprincipalshipsbymorethan50percent(Papa,Lankford&Wyckoff,2002).

Large-scalequantitativestudiesmaynotbeadequatetoconveythecomplexityofthisissue,asthelevelofinterestinapplyingforprincipal’spositionsappearstodifferbetweenschools.AqualitativestudyofthesupplyofschoolprincipalsinSouthAustraliaandVictoriaconcludedthattheroutetobecomingaprincipalvariesbytypeofschool.Thestudyfoundthatsomeschoolshavefewerapplicantsfortheprincipalshipthanotherschools,andidentifiedthemanylocalandcontextualfactorsthatinfluencedthenumberofapplications.Factorssuchasthelocationoftheschoolanditsstudentpopulationinfluencethenumberofapplicationsforprincipals’positions,aswellas‘localknowledge’aboutotherstaffwhoareapplyingforparticularjobs(Bartyetal,2005).Variationinthelevelofinterestinparticulartypesofschoolisalsoevidentinothercountries.InAustria,thegovernmentreportsdifficultiesinattractingapplicantstoprincipalshipsinruralandremoteschools(Schratz&Petzold,2007).AnAmericanstudymeasuringthelevelofinterestamongassistantprincipalsinapplyingfordifferenttypesofschoolsfoundthatschoolswithlowlevelsofstudent

achievementwerelessattractivethanmorehigh-achievingschools.Theauthorsconcludedthatlow-performingschoolswere‘greatlydisadvantagedinrecruitingschoolprincipals’(Winter&Morgenthal,2002).

Insummary,manyAustralianresearchersmaintainthatthenumberofapplicantsfortheprincipalshipisdeclining.Whileadmittingthat‘dataontheprincipalaspirantpool,bothcurrentandprospective,areoftendifficulttoobtain’,PeterGronnandKarinRawlings-SanaeiconcludedonthebasisofenquiriesofAustralianstateandterritoryeducationdepartments,thattherewasan‘indicativeratherthanadefinitive,pictureofprincipalshortages’inmanyjurisdictions(2003).Buttotheextentthatthereisaproblemwiththefuturesupplyofeducationalleaders,itisimportanttoacknowledgethatthelevelofinterestintheprincipalshipvariesbetweenschools,withsometypesofschool,suchasruralschoolsandschoolswithlowerlevelsofstudentachievement,appearinglessattractivetopotentialapplicantsthanothers.

The�quality�of�the�pool�of�applicants

Reportsofadeclininglevelofinterestinapplyingforthepositionofschoolprincipalalsosuggestthatthereisadeclineinthe‘quality’ofapplicants(seeASPA1999,Gronn&Rawlings-Sanaei,2003).Theconceptof‘quality’inteachingandschoolleadershipishighlycontestedandtheavailablemeasuresof‘quality’arequitenarrow.Forexample,usingthetwomeasuresofyearsofexperienceandthestatusofthecollegefromwhichprincipalsreceivedtheirBachelorsdegrees,anAmericanstudyfoundthattheurbanschoolswithinNewYorkCityweremuchmorelikelytohavelessexperiencedprincipalsandprincipalswhoreceivedtheirdegreesfromlowerrankedcollegesthanschoolsinsuburbandistricts.WithinNewYorkCity,schoolswherestudents

performedpoorlyonstandardisedexamswerealsomorelikelytohavelessexperiencedprincipalsandprincipalswhoreceivedtheirdegreesfromlowerrankedcolleges(Papa,Lankford&Wyckoff,2002).

InAustralia,factorssuchasyearsofexperienceandthestatusofone’stertiaryinstitutionwouldnotnecessarilybeseenaslegitimatemeasuresofleadershipquality.WethereforemustrelyonthequalitativeevidencegatheredbyPeterGronnfromeducationaladministratorsandmembersofselectionpanelsonschoolboards,whichsuggestsa‘diminutionofthenumbersofcandidatesdeemedworthyofshort-listingforinterview’(Gronn&Rawlings-Sanaei,2003).Itispossiblethatevidenceoflowerlevelsofinterestintheprincipalshipinparticularschoolsdoesmeanlesscompetitionforsuchpositionsandthereforemightimplythatthesuccessfulapplicantsdonotpossessthe‘qualities’ofthosewhowouldhavesucceededinamorehighlycontestedprocess.Ontheotherhand,thereisdebateabouttheextenttowhichcurrentselectionprocessesworktoidentifythebestpersonfortheprincipalship(Blackmore,Thomson&Barty,2006).Overall,itislikelythatthequalityofapplicants,likethenumberofapplicants,willvaryaccordingtothecharacteristicsofindividualschools(Papa,Lankford&Wyckoff,2002;Bartyetal.2005;Winter&Morgenthal,2002),

Reasons�for�a�decline�in�interest�in�the�principalship

ThetotalnumberofschoolsinAustraliahasremainedroughlythesameoverthepast30years,whereasthesizeoftheteachingworkforcehasincreasedbyoverathird(ABSCatalogueNo.4221.0).Thiswouldimplythatthereareamplenumbersofpotentialapplicantsforleadershippositions.Butitispossiblethatprincipalsareretiringatafasterrate,


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duetotheeffectofthepost-warbabyboomandtherebycreatingmorevacancies.In2003,morethanhalftheteachingworkforcewasover45yearsofageandanincreasingnumberofteachersandprincipalswereexpectedtoretireby2010(MCEETYA,2004).Anotherimpetustoearlyretirementinsomejurisdictionswassuperannuationschemesthatprovidedanincentivetoretireat54yearsand11months(Gronn&Rawlings-Sanaei,2003).Anothersocio-demographicfactorthatshouldbetakenintoaccountistheriseintwo-careerfamilies.Researchsuggeststhatadultsindual-careerfamiliesemployarangeofadaptivestrategiesatdifferentstagesoftheirlifespantoattainwork–lifebalance,thatinfluenceboththeirindividualcareeraspirationsandlabourmarketmobility(Becker&Moen,1999).

Ifthejobofschoolprincipalhasbecomemoredemandingandstressful,thisknowledgecouldbedeterringpotentialapplicantsfromapplyingfortheprincipalship,andmayalsoaccountfortheirdifferentlevelsofinterestinapplyingforpositionsinparticulartypesofschool.AmajorVictoriangovernmentstudyonprincipals’workloadanditsimpactonhealthandwell-beingfound78percentofprincipalsandassistantprincipalsreporting‘high’or‘veryhigh’levelsofwork-relatedstress,comparedto55percentofwhitecollarworkersincomparableoccupations.Whiletherespondentsreportedanalmostuniversal‘love’fortheirjob(90percentagreeingwiththestatement‘myjobgivesmegreatsatisfaction’),thesheervolumeofworkwasregardedasthebiggestsourceofstress.Therewasacleartensionbetweenthedesiretobean‘educationalleader’versusthedemandtobea‘manager’.Whileover90percentofrespondentspreferredtothinkofthemselvesas‘mainlyaneducationalleader’,only20percentsaidthatthiswasthereality,andthat

theywere‘mainlyamanager’.Sixtypercentofprincipalssaidthattheyspent‘toomuch’timeonaccountabilityand72percentagreedthattheworstthingabouttheirjobwas‘theamountofunnecessarypaperwork’(DET,2004).

ThesefindingsareconsistentwithseveralstudiesofthechangingroleofschoolprincipalsinWesterncountries.Majorchangesintheroleofschoolprincipaloverthepasttwodecadesareidentifiedasincreasedlocalsitemanagement,includingglobalbudgetinginsomejurisdictions;increasedaccountabilityrequirementsfromemployingauthorities,particularlyinthedomainofstudentachievement;alteredrelationshipswiththeschoolcommunity,partlyinfluencedbyincreasedschoolchoice;andageneralincreaseintimeallocatedtomanagementandpaperworkcomparedtotimespentoneducationalleadership(Whitaker,2003;Gronn,2003;Stevenson,2006;Hargreaves&Fink,2003,2005).

PeterGronnconcludesthatschoolleadershiphasbeenreconstructedasaformof‘greedywork’,definedas‘atypeofoccupationalservitudeinwhichtheexpectationsanddemandsonleadershavebecomeall-consuming’(Gronn&Rawlings-Sanaei,2003).Hearguesthatthelackofinterestintheprincipalshipistheproductofawidespread‘disengagement’withschoolleadershipduetotheinfiltrationofanewparadigmofgovernancethatemphasisesaccountabilitythroughschool-levelperformanceoutcomes.

Forteachersandadministratorstosubmitthemselvestotheeffortnormsandexpectationsofperformanceenshrinedininstitutionalcharters,employmentcontracts,personalproductivitytargetsetc...demandstheexertionofpreviouslyundreamtoflevelsofphysical,cognitiveandemotionalenergyexpenditure.Atthesametimeastheseroledemandsandassociatedexpectationsforteachers

andschoolleadershaveincreased,thescopeforinstitutionallevelautonomyanddiscretion,promisedbysuchinitiativesasschool-levelbudgeting,hasoftenbeenseverelycircumscribedbyexternallyimposedfiscalandresourceconstraintsGronn&Rawlings-Sanaei2003

HargreavesandFink(2003,2005)alsoarguethatmuchofrecenteducationalreformhasbeenunsustainable,inthesensethatithashadanoverallnegativeeffectontheindividualsandsystemsthatitaimedtoassist.

Thepastdecadeandmorehasseentheeducationalreformandstandardsmovementplummettothedepthsofunsustainability,takingeducationalleadershipwithit.Theconstructiveandcompellingideaofstandards–thatlearningcomesbeforeteachingandthatweshouldbeabletoknowanddemonstratewhenlearninghasoccurred–hasdegeneratedintoacompulsiveobsessionwithstandardization.Hargreaves&Fink2005

A�way�forward

GovernmentshaverespondedtotheperceivedcrisisinschoolleadershipinAustraliainanumberofways,primarilybyfocusingonbuilding‘capacity’withintheexistingteachingforce,throughprogramstoidentifyandsupportpotentialschoolleadersearlyintheirteachingcareers.Buttheseinitiativesmaynotbeenough.Ithasbeenpointedoutthattheaspirationsofthenewgenerationofrecruitstotheteachingprofessioncouldbedifferentfromthoseofthepreviousgeneration.Thecohortof‘GenerationXers’arelikelytobemore‘outwardly’ratherthan‘upwardly’mobile,withapreferenceforkeepingtheirlifeoptionsopenratherthancommittingthemselvestooneparticularcareerpath(Gronn&Rawlings-Sanaei,2003).

Usingtheconceptofsustainabilityfromtheenvironmentmovement,HargreavesandFinkarguethat


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fundamentalculturalchangeisnecessarytoreformtheinstitutionofschoolleadershipinthe21stcentury.Theyproposethatsustainableleadershipineducationshouldbeasharedresponsibilitythatdoesnotundulydepletehumanorfinancialresources,norexertdamageonthesurroundingeducationalenvironmentandschoolcommunity.Theconceptofsustainability‘isbasicallyconcernedwithdevelopingandpreservingwhatmatters,spreadsandlastsinwaysthatcreatepositiveconnectionsanddevelopmentamongpeopleanddonoharmtoothersinthepresentorthefuture’(Hargreaves&Fink2005).

HargreavesandFinkoffersevenprinciplesofsustainabilitythatshouldguideandunderpineducationalchangeandleadership:

1 Depth–themoralpurposeoffosteringdeepandbroadlearningwithinrelationshipsofabidingcareforothers

2 Length–successionplanningtopreserveandadvancevalueovertime

3 Breadth–nooneleaderorinstitutionshouldcontroleverything;distributedleadership

4 Justice–doesnoharmtoandactivelyimprovesthesurroundingenvironment;sharesknowledgeandresources;doesnotprosperatanotherschool’sexpense

5 Diversity–promotesdiversityandlearnsfromdiversity;createscohesionandnetworkingamongrichlyvariedcomponents

6 Resourcefulness–developsanddoesnotdepletematerialandhumanresources;takescareofitsleadersbymakingsuretheytakecareofthemselves;renewspeople’senergy;wastesneithermoneynorpeople

7 Conservation–honorsandlearnsfromthepasttocreateanevenbetterfuture;revisitsandrevivesorganisationalmemory;movesbeyondthebestofthepast.

Hargreaves&Fink2005,pp.19–20

ConclusionThispaperhasexaminedtheevidencefromvarioussourcesaboutanimpendingcrisisinschoolleadershipduetoadeclineinthenumberofinterestedandsuitableapplicantsforprincipals’positions.Evidencesuggeststhatthereisadeclineinthepoolofpotentialapplicantsfortheprincipalship,butthatthelevelofinterestinthepositionisalsoinfluencedbythecharacteristicsofindividualschools.Thelevelofstressreportedbyprincipalsandassistantprincipalscouldbeamajordeterrenttothepoolofpotentialapplicantsforleadershippositions.Thereiscompellingevidencethattheroleofschoolprincipalshaschangedoverthepasttwodecadeswithincreasedexpectationsofmanagementattheexpenseofeducationalleadership.Fundamentalpolicyreformmaybenecessarytomakeeducationalleadershipsustainableinthefuture.

ReferencesAustralianBureauofStatistics(various

years).Schools Australia CatalogueNo.4221.0

AustralianCollegeofEducators(2006).Excellence in school leadership: An issues paper. PreparedbytheAustralianCollegeofEducatorsfortheAustralianSecondaryPrincipals’Association.

AustralianSecondaryPrincipals’Association(1999).School leaders: Shortage and suitability in Australian public schools. Policypaper.

Barty,K.,Thomson,P.,Blackmore,J.,&Sachs,J.(2005).Unpackingtheissues:Researchingtheshortageofschool

principalsintwostatesinAustralia.The Australian Educational Researcher32(3).December,1-18.

Becker,P.E.,&Moen,P.,(1999).Scalingback:Dual-earnercouples’work–familystrategies.Journal of Marriage and the Family61(November),995–1007.

Blackmore,J.,Thomson,P.,&Barty,K.(2006).Principalselection.Homosociability,thesearchforsecurityandtheproductionofnormalisedprincipalidentities.Educational Management, Administration and Leadership. Vol34(3).297–317.

Caldwell,B.J.(2000)InnovationandAbandonmentforSuccessfulLeadershipinSchoolsoftheThirdMillennium,ConferenceoftheNewZealandPrincipals’FederationandtheAustralianPrimaryPrincipals’Association,Celebrating Leadership into the Third Millennium,Christchurch,NZ,June29–30,citedinNeidhart,H.&PaulCarlin2003.Toapplyornottoapply:incentivesanddisincentivesofprincipalship.PaperpresentedtotheHawaii International Conference on the Social Sciences,12–15June.p.2.

d’Arbon,T.,Duignan,P.,&Duncan.D.J.(2002).Planningforfutureleadershipofschools:AnAustralianstudy.Journal of Educational Administration40(5),468–485.

DepartmentofEducationandTraining(2004).The privilege and the price. A study of principal class workload and its impact on hand wellbeing. Final report.August.StateofVictoria.

Gronn,P.(2003).The new work of educational leaders. Changing leadership practice in an era of school reform. Sage:California.

Gronn,P.&Rawlings-Sanaei,F.(2003).PrincipalRecruitmentinaclimateofleadershipdisengagement.Australian Journal of Education 47(2)August.


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Hargreaves,A.,&Dean,F.(2003).SustainingLeadership(makingimprovementsineducation).Phi Delta Kappan,84(9)May,693–700.

Hargreaves,A.,&Dean,F.(2005).Sustainable Leadership.USA:Jossey-Bass.

http://www.sofweb.vic.edu.au/pd/schlead/pdf/understanding_prin_class_leadership_aspirations_report.pdf

Lacey,K.(2002).Understanding principal class leadership aspirations: Policy and planning implications.RightAnglesConsultingforDepartmentofEducationandTrainingSchoolLeadershipDevelopmentUnit.June.(accessed7May2007).

MCEETYA(2004).Demand and supply of primary and secondary school teachers in Australia. FullReport.(accessed7May2007)http://www.mceetya.edu.au/verve/_resources/-DAS_teachers-PartsA-d.pdf

PapaJr.,F.C.,Lankford,H.,&Wyckoff,J.(2002).The Attributes and Career Paths of Principals: implications for improving policy. UniversityofAlbany:SUNY,March.

Schratz,M.,&Petzold,K.2007.Improving school Leadership. Country background report for Austria.Marchhttp://www.oecd.org/document/53/0,2340,en_2649_34859095_38529205_1_1_1_1,00.html

Stevenson,H.(2006).Movingtowards,intoandthroughprincipalship:Developingaframeworkforresearchingthecareertrajectoriesofschoolleaders.Journal of Educational Administration,44(4),408–420.

Whitaker,K.S.,(2003).Principalrolechangesandinfluenceonprincipalrecruitmentandselection.Aninternationalperspective.Journal of Educational Administration. 41(1),37–54.

Winter,P.A.&Morgenthal,J.R.(2002).Principalrecruitmentinareformenvironment:Effectsofschoolachievementandschoollevelonapplicantattractiontothejob.Educational Administration Quarterly38(3).August,3,19–340.


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Stephen�DinhamResearch Director, Teaching and Leadership ACER

StephenDinhamtaughtingovernmentsecondaryschoolsinNSWbeforebeingappointedtotheUniversityofWesternSydneywhereheheldanumberofpositionsincludingHeadoftheDepartmentofCurriculumStudies,AssociateDean(Postgraduate)andAssociateProfessor.

In2002hetookupthepositionofProfessorofTeacherEducation,PedagogyandProfessionalDevelopmentintheSchoolofEducation,UniversityofNewEngland.

In2005hetookupthepositionasProfessorofEducationalLeadershipandPedagogyattheUniversityofWollongong.

Hehasconductedawiderangeofresearchprojectsintheareasofeducationalleadershipandchange,effectivepedagogy/qualityteaching,postgraduatesupervision,professionalteachingstandards,teachers’professionaldevelopment,middlemanagersinschools,andteachersatisfaction,motivationandhealth.

HeisaPastPresidentoftheNSWBranchoftheAustralianCollegeofEducatorsandchairedtheNSWMinisterforEducationandTrainingandACEQualityTeachingAwardsintroducedin2001until2007.

InJune2002,hewasappointedtotheInterimCommitteeforaNSWInstituteofTeachersandinAugust2002,totheCommonwealthReviewofTeachingandTeacherEducation.

HeisaFellowoftheAustralianCollegeofEducators,aFellowoftheAustralianCouncilforEducationalLeadership,andaFellowoftheAustralianInstituteofManagement.

In2005hewasawardedtheSirHaroldWyndhamMedalbytheAustralianCollegeofEducatorsinrecognitionofhiscontributionstoeducation.

In2006hewasawardedanationalCarrickAustralianAwardforUniversityTeaching–CitationforOutstandingContributionstoStudentLearning.

ProfessorDinhamjoinedACERinJuly2007asResearchDirector,TeachingandLeadership.InJuly2007hewasappointedVisitingProfessorialFellowattheUniversityofWollongong.

AbstractThereisavastbodyofresearchconfirmingtheimportantinfluenceoftheclassroomteacheronstudentachievement(seeHattie,2002,2003;Mulford,2006;Rowe,2003).

Akeyissuethen,isthatofhowthequalityofteachingandlearningwithinindividualclassroomscanbeinfluencedandimproved.

Baseduponfindingsfromarangeofresearchprojectsinvestigatingaspectsofqualityteaching,Ibelievethattwokey,relatedinfluencesonclassroomachievementareeducationalleadershipandteachers’professionallearning.Thispaperconcentratesmainlyontheformer(seeDinham,2007bformoreonthelatter).

Educationalleadership,liketeachingandlifegenerally,isheavilydependentuponrelationships.Therearetwofundamentaldimensionstorelationships:responsivenessanddemandingness(Baumrind,1991).

Thispaperconsidersthetwodimensionsinthecontextsofparenting,wherethesewerefirstproposed,andthenteachingandeducationalleadership,whereIbelievethesehaveequallyvalidandvaluableapplication.

Apostscriptconsidershowresponsivenessanddemandingnessmayhaveshapedandcanexplaineducationalchangesincetheearly1960s.

Parenting stylesDifferentstylesofparentinghavebeenthesubjectofconsiderableresearchsincethe1960s,withthepioneeringworkofDianaBaumrindparticularlyinfluential(seeBaumrind,1989,1991).Inanearlierpaper,CatherineScott

andIconsideredhowmodelsofgoodparentingcouldbeappropriatemodelsforteaching,andhowfourparentingandteachingstylesmightimpactuponandhelptoexplainstudentself-esteemandstudentwelfarepracticesandprogramsinschools(Scott&Dinham,2005).

AccordingtoBaumrind,twodimensionsunderlieparentingstyle:responsivenessanddemandingness.Eachconsidersthenatureoftheparent–childrelationship.

Responsiveness,alsodescribedaswarmthorsupportiveness,isdefinedas‘theextenttowhichparentsintentionallyfosterindividuality,self-regulationandassertionbybeingattuned,supportive,andacquiescenttochildren’sspecialneedsanddemands’.

Demandingness(orbehaviouralcontrol)refersto‘theclaimsparentsmakeonchildrentobecomeintegratedintothefamilywhole,bytheirmaturitydemands,supervision,disciplinaryeffortsandwillingnesstoconfrontthechildwhodisobeys’(Baumrind,1991:62).

Byconsideringthetwodimensionsofresponsivenessanddemandingnessandwhethereachisloworhigh,fourparentingstyleshavebeenproposedbyresearchers:

1 Uninvolved–lowresponsiveness,lowdemandingness;

2 Authoritarian–lowresponsiveness,highdemandingness;

3 Permissive–highresponsiveness,lowdemandingness,and

4 Authoritative–highresponsiveness,highdemandingness.

Inourearlierpaperwestated(Scott&Dinham,2005:29–30):

…authoritativeparentsarehighonbothresponsivenessanddemandingness.Theyarewarmandsupportiveoftheirchildren,awareoftheircurrentdevelopmentallevelsandsensitivetotheirneeds.Theyalso,however,havehighexpectations,and

Authoritativeleadership,actionlearningandstudentaccomplishment


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setappropriatelimitswhileprovidingstructureandconsistentrules,thereasonsforwhichtheyexplaintotheirchildren,ratherthansimplyexpectingunthinkingobedience.Whiletheymaintainadultauthoritytheyarealsowillingtolistentotheirchildandtonegotiateaboutrulesandsituations.Thiscombinationofsensitivity,caring,highexpectationsandstructurehasbeenshowntohavethebestconsequencesforchildren,whocommonlydisplayacademicachievement,goodsocialskills,moralmaturity,autonomyandhighself-esteem.

Wearguedthatanauthoritativeteachingstylewherehighresponsivenessisaccompaniedwithhighdemandingnessprovidesthebestmodelforenhancingbothstudentachievementandselfesteem,andthatapre-occupationwithbuildingstudentselfesteemthroughapermissiveapproachinthehopethatthiswilltranslateintostudentachievementanddevelopmentiscounter-productive.Wenotedrecentresearchwhereschoolsthatweresuccessfulinfacilitatingstudents’academic,personalandsocialdevelopmentachievedthisthroughaneffectivebalanceoffocusonstudentachievementandstudentwelfare,regardlessofwhethertheschoolmightbeperceivedbyothersasbeingeithera‘welfare’or‘academic’school,anunhelpfulanddamagingfalsedichotomy(Scott&Dinham,2005;Dinham,2005).

Inconsideringthefindingsofarangeofresearchprojectsfocusingtovariousdegreesonqualityteaching,educationalleadership(includingdistributiveleadership)andteachers’professionallearning(Ayres,Dinham&Sawyer,1999,2000,2004;Dinham,2002;Dinham,Buckland,Callingham,&Mays,2005;Dinham,2005;Aubusson,Brady&Dinham,2005;Dinham,Aubusson&Brady,2006;Dinham,2007a),Ibelievethatthefourtypesofparentingandteachingcanbeproductivelyappliedtoeducationalleadership,giventhe

centralroleofrelationships.Aswithanytypology,thefourprototypesare‘extremes’unlikelytobefoundintheidealform,butassistinginunderstandingreality.

What might each type of leadership look like, based upon the findings of the above research projects?

Uninvolved�leadership

Theuninvolvedleaderislowinbothresponsivenessanddemandingnessandpracticesleadershipbyabrogationorneglect.Heorshemakeslittleimpactofapositivenatureontheorganisation,itsperformanceanditsculture.Theuninvolvedleadercanbeaneffectiveadministratorandmayrationalisehisorherlackofeducationalleadershipthroughthepilesofpaperswithwhichheorshedeals.Alternatively,theuninvolvedleadermaybeoverwhelmedbyhisorhersituation.

Underuninvolvedleadershipstaffarelefttotheirowndeviceswithfewdemandsmadeuponthem,receivinglittledirectionorsupport.Positiveandnegativefeedbackandrecognitiontendtobelacking.Studentsperceivesuchleadersasremote,anduninvolvedleaderstendtohavealowprofileinthecommunityandwiderprofession.

Standardsandexpectationsfromtheuninvolvedleaderarenotclearlyarticulatedandarepossiblytoolow.Theresultantinconsistencyanduncertaintycanleadtoconfusion,conflictandpoororganisationalperformance.

Insufficientattentionanddirectionmaybegiventokeyorganisationalfunctionssuchasplanning,policies,recruitmentandinduction,systems,communicationandevaluation.Thevaluesandnormsoftheorganisationmaybeunclear(Schlechty,2005).

Underuninvolvedleadershiptheorganisationisreactive,driftingandpossiblysinking.Balkanisationand

Responsiveness

Dem

andi

ngne

ss

HighHigh

Low

Low

AuthoritarianLeadership

AuthoritativeLeadership

UninvolvedLeadership

PermissiveLeadership

Figure�1:��FourPrototypesofLeadership(afterBaumrind)


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groupthinkcanflourishinthisleadershipvacuumandsub-groupscanpushtheorganisationintodangerousareas.Otherleadersandgroupsmayattempttokeeptheorganisationoncoursebutthisisdifficultwithoutsupportfromthetop.

Whilegoodthingscanhappeninindividualclassesandamongteamsofteachers,theorganisationoverallisneitheratruelearningcommunitynorgettingclosetoreachingitspotential.

Authoritarian�leadership

Authoritarianleadersarehighondemandingnessandexpectcompliancefromallconcerned.Theyhaveatraditionalconceptionofleadershipbasedonobedienceandrespectforpositionalauthorityandstatus.Theytendnottonegotiateorconsultwithstaff,studentsorthecommunity,butexpecttheirorderstobeobeyedwithoutquestion.

Reflectingtheirlowresponsiveness,authoritarianleadersfocusonproceduresratherthanpeople.Becauseoftheiruseofrules,punishmentsandsanctions,theymaybefeared,ratherthanrespectedorliked.Recognitionandpositivefeedbackfromtheauthoritativeleaderarelacking,althoughpeoplemayoccasionallyreceiveablastfromtheleaderasheorshereinforcescontrolandauthoritythroughpullingpeoplebackintolineandremindingthemwhoistheboss.

Standardsandexpectationsoftheauthoritarianleadermaybehighandreinforcedbyextrinsicmechanisms.Control,consistencyandorderareemphasisedattheexpenseofflexibilityandcompassion.

Schoolsofauthoritarianleadersmaybeorderlyandwellrunwithdelegation,reportingandaccountabilitysystemsutilisedtofacilitatethis.Theretendstobeahighdegreeofdependencyontheauthoritarianleaderwhohas

thefinalsayoneverything.Schoolsledbyauthoritarianleaderscanbecharacterisedbylowrisktakingandinnovation.

Theremaybeconsiderableuntappedpotentialinorganisationsledbyauthoritarianleaders.Staffandstudentscanbeinfantilisedundertheauthoritarianleader.

Somewillappreciatetheuncompromisingstanceandstrengthoftheauthoritarianleader,whileotherswillfeelstifledandfrustratedbytheirlackofinputtotheorganisationandlackofopportunitiestoexerciseleadership.

Permissive�leadership

Permissiveleadersarebydefinitionthereverseoftheauthoritarianleader.Theyaremoreresponsivethandemanding.Permissiveleadersmayhavegoodpeopleskillsandareopenandresponsivetotheneedsandwishesofothers.Permissiveleadersmayspendmuchoftheirtimebeingavailable.

Aspermissiveleadersvaluetheinputofothers,planninganddecisionmakingcantakequitesometime.Permissiveleaderstendtousereasonandconsensusbuildingratherthandirectionandauthority,andthepermissiveleadermayfinditdifficulttobedecisive.

Permissiveleadersallowstaffandstudentsahighdegreeofdiscretionandevenindulgencebutalackofdirectionandaccountabilitycanprovecounter-productive.Thetrustandleewaypermissiveleadersextendtootherscanbeexploited.Thepermissiveleadermaydemonstrateareluctanceorincapacitytointerveneorconfront,leavingittootherstoworkoutasolution.Smallproblemscanbecomebiggerunderthepermissiveleader.

Standardsandexpectationscanbeunclear,contradictoryandtoolow.Thepermissiveleaderisundemandingandmaymakeallowancesforthosewho

transgressorfailtodeliver.Again,somewillexploitthis.

Schoolsledbypermissiveleadersmaybecharacterisedbyorganisationalloosenessandlackofclarityintheapplicationofsystemsandprocedures.Theremaybealackofindividualandcollectiveresponsibilityresultinginadegreeofdisorderandevendisobedienceandchaosaspeople‘dotheirownthing’.Thepermissiveleadermayfrequentlychangehisorhermind,dependinguponthelastpersonheorshehasspokenwith.Permissiveleadersoftenusecovertdealstoobtaincooperation.

Someself-directedteachersandgroupsofteacherswillflourishunderapermissiveleadershipregime,whileotherswilldriftthroughlackofdirectionorworse,avoidresponsibility.

Whileschoolsledbypermissiveleaderscanbehappy,sociableplaces,thismaybeattheexpenseofprogressandachievementasthepermissiveleaderattemptstokeepeveryoneonside.

Authoritative�leadership

Authoritativeleaderssharethepositiveattributesofpermissiveandauthoritarianleaders.Theyareresponsive,warmandsupportive.Theyaresensitivetoadiversityofindividualandcollectiveneedsandareinclusive.Theyaregoodlistenersandcollaborativelybuildconsensusandcommitment.Theytendtobegoodnetworkerswithahighprofilebeyondtheschool.Thepersonalqualitiesoftheauthoritativeleaderareadmiredbymost,butnotalwaysall.

Authoritativeleadersarealsodemanding.Theyareclearintheirexpectationsofthemselves,staffandstudents.Theycommunicatehighstandardsandsetanexamplethatothersseektoemulate.Theyareassertive,withoutover-relianceontherulesandsanctionsoftheauthoritarian


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leader.Authoritativeleaders‘givealotandexpectalot’(Dinham,2005:348–351).Peoplesaytheydon’twanttolettheauthoritativeleaderdown.

Authoritativeleadersexercisetheirauthorityappropriatelyandinatimelyfashion.Theyknowwhentoconsultandwhentobedecisive.Theyhavetheskillstoworkwithothersandthecouragetoactalone.

Authoritativeleadersputstudentsandtheirlearningatthecentreoftheschool.Theyseekwaysforeverystudenttoexperiencesuccessandtoachieve.Theyseestudentwelfareasessentialtoacademicsuccessandoverseeclearandeffectivewelfarepoliciesandprocedures.

Authoritativeleadersgivetimelyandappropriatefeedback,bothpositiveandnegative.Peopleknowwheretheystandwiththeauthoritativeleader.

Authoritativeleadersplaceastrongemphasisonprofessionallearningandarepreparedtoinvestinthisinsideandoutsidetheschool.Theymodelprofessionallearningforothers.Peoplehavetheopportunityandencouragementtoflourishunderauthoritativeleadership.Theauthoritativeleaderseekstodevelopcompetent,assertive,self-regulatedstaffandstudents(Dinham,2005:352).

Authoritativeleaderspossessavisionforthefuturedevelopmentoftheschoolthattheycommunicateclearly.Theytendtohaveabiastowardsinnovationandaction,andpractisedistributiveleadershipratherthanmeredelegation.Otherstaffareencouraged,entrustedandsupportedtodevelopnewprograms,policiesandpractices.Theprofessionalismandcapabilitiesofothersarerecognisedandtheauthoritativeleaderisabletoreleaseuntappedpotentialinindividualsandtheorganisation.

Authoritativeleadersarestrategicandrealisetheimpossibilityofmovinga

wholestaffforwardsimultaneously.Theyarepragmaticandrealisethatifonewaitsforeveryonetogetaboardthebus,itwillneverleave.Theythusempowerindividualsandgroups,hopingforacontagionorgroundswelleffect.Throughinfluenceandaction,theauthoritativeleadermovespeopleoutoftheircomfortzones.

Schoolsledbyauthoritativeleaderstendtomovingandimprovingthroughanemphasisoncontinualevaluation,evidence,planningandaction.Evenwhenchangeisexternallyimposed,authoritativeleadersfindwaystousethistotheschool’sadvantage.

Overall,authoritativeleadershaveapositiveinfluenceonschoolclimateandculture.Authoritativeleadersbuildleadershipcapacityandprovideforleadershipsustainabilityandleadershipsuccessionwhentheydepart.

Authoritative leaders and action learningAsnoted,authoritativeleadershipwasafeatureofthecasestudyprojects.Theseleadersplaceamajoremphasisonprofessionallearning,bothbythemselvesandothers,andhadactedinvariouswaystofosterthedevelopmentoflearningcommunitiesgearedtoimprovementineducationaloutcomes.

Actionlearning,whereteachersworktogethertosolveproblemsanddevelopinnovations,waspresenttovariousdegreesacrossthecasestudies,particularlyintheevaluationoftheAustralianGovernmentQualityTeachingProgram(Aubusson,etal.,2005).Thedevelopmentoflearningcommunitiesinthecasestudieswasfosteredby:

Focus�on�teaching�and�learning

1. Learningcommunitieshaveafocusonlearningandadesiretolearnaboutlearningandteaching;there

isuseofpedagogicterminology,modelsandtheory,coupledwithaconsciousefforttode-prioritiseadministrationandmanagementandprioritiselearningwithinthegroup.

2. Membersoflearningcommunitiesseethemselvesandtheirstudentsasgoingsomewhere,withlearningbeinganon-goingprocess;learningbecomescontagious,withotherscatchingthe‘bug’.

3. Withinthegroupthereisrecognitionthatitisnecessarytochangethewaypeoplethinkifthereistobechangeinhowtheyact,andthuslearning,reflectionandquestioningareimportant.

4. Membersofthegroupareconcernedwithestablishingandmaintainingupward,continuouscyclesofimprovement;theyarenotsatisfiedwiththestatusquo.

Individual�and�collective�belief�and�support

1. Groupmemberspossessanddemonstratebeliefandrespectfortheirprofessionanddiscipline;theybelievein,evenlovetheirareaandcommunicatethistoothers.

2. Membersofthegrouppayattentiontosocialmaintenance,tryingtomaketheirschool,department,orfacultya‘goodplace’(MacBeath,2006);memberscareforeachotherandtheirstudentsaspeopleandsocialandprofessionalrelationshipsareimportanttogroupperformance.

Problem�solving

1. Thereisanemphasisonproblem-orissue-basedlearningandrecognitionofwhatisimportant,withdialogueaboutidentifiedissuesandpotentialsolutions.

2. Experimentation,risktakingandinnovationinteachingandlearning


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areencouragedandareafeatureoflearningcommunities;thereisquestioningratherthanacceptanceofconstraints.

3. Teachingandlearningarecontext-andperson-specific,witheffortstocontextualiseandmodifyasnecessaryexternallyderivedsolutionsorapproaches.

4. Thereisongoingreflectiononandevaluationofexistingandnewmeasureswithinthelearningcommunity,coupledwithdata-informeddecisionmaking.

Internal�expectations�and�accountability

1. Thegroupcreatesaclimateofhighexpectationsandprofessionalismwhichmembersriseto,notwantingtoletanyonedown,notleaststudents.

2. Membersofthegroupempowereachothertotaketheleadinlearning,inturnenhancingindividualandgroupleadershipcapacityandeffectiveness.

3. Accountabilityistothegroup,morethantoexternallyimposedaccountabilitymeasures;groupaccountabilityandself-accountabilityarepowerfulinfluencesonthelearningcommunity’sethos,andaction.

Leadership�and�outside�influence

1. Leadershipoutsideandinsidethegroupisimportantinstimulatingandfacilitatingthelearningcommunity.

2. Whilelearningcommunitiescandevelopwithoutstimulusoractionfromaboveoroutside,assistance,guidance,resourcesandencouragementfromotherswithinandinsomecasesoutsidetheorganisationcanfacilitatethelearningprocess.

Overall�dynamics�of�the�learning�community

1. Time,place,spaceandlanguageareimportantelementsincreatingalearningcommunity.

2. Overall,whatseemstoworkmosteffectivelyisacombinationofexternalunderstanding,advice,assistanceandrecognition,coupledwithafocusoninternalissuesandsolutions,withteacherandgrouplearningtoaddressthesethroughempowermentandwithinternalactionandaccountability.

ConclusionTheaboveanalysis,arisingfromthefindingsofarangeofrecentresearchprojects,ispremisedonthenotionthateducationalleadershipisheavilydependentuponrelationships.

MichaelFullan,aprolificwriteroneducationalchange,hasnoted(2001:5):wehavefoundthatthesinglefactorcommontoeverysuccessfulchangeinitiativeisthatrelationshipsimprove.Ifrelationshipsimprove,thingsgetbetter.Iftheyremainthesameorgetworse,groundislost.Thusleadersmustbeconsummaterelationshipbuilderswithdiversepeopleandgroups–especiallywithpeopledifferentthanthemselves.

Authoritativeleadersare‘relationship’people,ableto‘read’andrespondtoothers.Theyunderstandpeopleandtheyunderstandchange,whichtheyhelpotherstoappreciateandcometogripswith.Theyareauthenticleaders,inthattheymodelthosequalities,attributesandbehaviourstheyexpectofothers.Authoritativeleadersrelymoreonmoralthanpositionalauthority,andinfluencemorethanovertcontrol.Intheirrelationshipswithteachersandstudents,authoritativeleadersbalanceahighdegreeofresponsivenesswithahighdegreeofdemandingness.

Asnoted,theseleadersplaceahighpriorityonprofessionallearning,whichtheyperceiveaskeytochangingpeople,practicesandperformance.

Inmanyoftheschoolsvisitedaspartoftheresearchprojectscitedabove(seeDinham,2005,2007inparticular),themosttellingindicatorofthepowerofauthoritativeleadership–exhibitingbothhighresponsivenessandhighdemandingness–wasthatfacultiesandwholeschoolshadbeenturnedaroundwithcommensurateimprovementinstudentperformanceindicators.Schoolsandfacultiesformerlyindeclinewerenowthrivingwithschoolleadershavingtocopewithanewproblemofexcessivedemandforlimitedstudentplaces.Inothercases,newleaderstookschoolsandfacultiesthathadplateauedatanacceptablelevelofperformancetohigherlevelsofachievement.

Toofferafinalcautionarynote,theÆSOPstudy(seehttp://simerr.une.edu.au/projects/aesop2.html)citedfrequentlyinthispaper–whichexamined50facultiesandteamsachievingoutstandingeducationaloutcomesinYears7–10in38NSWpublicschools–foundthattheturningaroundandliftingupprocessescantakearoundsixtosevenyearstoaccomplish,althoughsomeimprovementscanoccuralmostimmediately(Dinham,2005,2007a).

Thoselookingforandadvocatingquickfixesforstrugglingschoolsneedtoconsidertheintense,coordinatedeffortandteamwork,andprofessionallearningunderauthoritativeformsofleadershipthatsuchimprovementrequires.However,theevidenceisclearthatitcanbedone.AsoneresearchparticipantcommentedintheÆSOPstudy,‘inthisschoolwemakeplansnow,notexcuses’.


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Postscript – Education from the early 1960s to TodayIntheearly1960seducationinmuchoftheworldwascharacterisedbyhighdemandingnessandlowresponsiveness,i.e.,anauthoritarianrelationshipexistedbetweenschoolsandstudents.

Asawaveofquestioningoftradition,acceptedpracticesandauthoritysweptthewesternworld,thiswasreflectedinchangingthinkinginteacherpreparationandschooling.

Quiterightly,therewasafeelingthatschoolsneededtorespondmoretostudentsaspeopleandbettercaterfortheirindividualneeds.Teachersquestionedestablishedschoolorganisationalandteachingpracticesandoverthefollowingdecadescurriculumprescriptionandtestinggavewaytoschool-basedcurriculumdevelopmentandotherformsofassessment.Students,likemanymembersofsociety,begantospeakupandengageinvariousformsofquestioning,protestandactivism.

Socialconcernssuchaspollutionandenvironmentaldegradation,racism,sexism,drugs,sexualhealthandawareness,nuclearwarfare,militarismandmulti-nationalismfoundaplaceinschoolcurricula.Valueseducationbecameprominentwhilstexaminationsbecamelessso.

Asnoted,manyofthesedevelopmentsweredesirableandevenoverdue.However,afundamentalerrorofperceptionoccurredatthistimethathasramificationstothisday.

Putsimply,demandingnessandresponsivenesswerefalselydichotomised.Ideologically,itwasbelievedthatanyincreaseinresponsivenesstowardsstudentsmustbeaccompaniedby,andinfactrequiredadecreaseindemandingness:

toberesponsivewastobeprogressive;tobedemandingwastraditional.

Overtime,schoolsandschoolingbecamemoreresponsiveandlessdemandingofstudents,i.e.,morepermissive,withcommensurateeffectsonmatterssuchasstandards,expectations,teachingmethodsandthebalanceofthecurriculum.Otherfalsedichotomiesalsoreflectedthepolarisationofideologiesineducation:knowledgeversusskills;processversussubjectcontent;competitionversuscollaboration,progressivismversusconservatism;subjectsversusthematicapproaches,andsoforth.(Dinham,2006)

Predictablytherehasbeensomethingofareactiontothissituationinrecenttimes,butthefalsedichotomisingofresponsivenessanddemandingnessremainsproblematic(Dinham&Scott,inprogress).

ReferencesAubusson,P.,Brady,L.,&Dinham,S.

(2005).Action Learning: What Works?AresearchreportpreparedfortheNewSouthWalesDepartmentofEducationandTraining.Sydney:UniversityofTechnologySydney.

Ayres,P.,Dinham,S.,&Sawyer,W.(1999).Successful teaching in theNSWHigher School Certificate.Sydney:NSWDepartmentofEducationandTraining.

Ayres,P.,Dinham,S.,&Sawyer,W.(2000).‘SuccessfulSeniorSecondaryTeaching’,QualityTeachingSeries,No1,AustralianCollegeofEducation,September,pp.1–20.

Ayres,P.,Dinham,S.,&Sawyer,W.(2004).‘EffectiveteachinginthecontextofaGrade12highstakesexternalexaminationinNewSouthWales,Australia’,British Educational Research Journal,30(1),pp.141–165.

Baumrind,D.(1989).‘RearingcompetentChildren’.InDamon,W.(Ed.),Child development today and tomorrow. SanFrancisco:Jossey-Bass,pp.349–378.

Baumrind,D.(1991).‘Theinfluenceofparentingstyleonadolescentcompetenceandsubstanceabuse’,Journal of Early Adolescence,11(1),p.62.

Dinham,S.(2002).NSWqualityteachingawards:Research,RigourandTransparency,Unicorn,28(1),pp.5–9.

Dinham,S.(2005).Principalleadershipforoutstandingeducationaloutcomes,Journal of Educational Administration,43(4),pp.338–356.

Dinham,S.(2006).Teachingandteachereducation:Someobservations,reflectionsandpossiblesolutions’,EDVentures,2,pp.3-20.

Dinham,S.(2007a).Thesecondaryheadofdepartmentandtheachievementofexceptionalstudentoutcomes,Journal of Educational Administration,45(1),pp.62–79.

Dinham,S.(2007b)Thedynamicsofcreatingandsustaininglearningcommunities’,Unicorn Online Refereed ArticleNo. 43,AustralianCollegeofEducators.

Dinham,S.,Aubusson,P.,&Brady,L.(2006).Distributedleadershipthroughactionlearning,keynoteaddress,FifthInternationalConferenceonEducationalLeadership,AustralianCentreforEducationalLeadership,UniversityofWollongong,16–17February.

Dinham,S.,Buckland,C.,Callingham,R.,&Mays,H.(2005).Investigationofthefactorsresponsibleforthesuperiorperformanceofmalestudentsinstandardisedtestingatoneprimaryschool,paperpresentedtotheAustralianAssociationforResearchinEducation,AnnualConference,Sydney,27November–1December.


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Dinham,S.,&Scott,C.(2007).Parenting,teachingandleadershipstyles,The Australian Educational Leader, 29(1),pp.30–32;45.

FullanM.(2001).Leading in a culture of change.SanFrancisco:Jossey-Bass.

Hattie,J.(2002).What are the attributes of excellent teachers? availableat:http://www.nzcer.org.nz/default.php?cPath=12_148_194&products_id=485.

Hattie,J.(2003).Teachers make a difference: What is the research difference? availableat:http://www.acer.edu.au/workshops/documents/Teachers_Make_a_Difference_Hattie.pdf.

MacBeath,J.(2006).‘LeadershipasaSubversiveActivity’,ACEL Monograph Series, Number39.Winmalee,NSW:AustralianCouncilforEducationalLeaders.

Mulford,B.(2006),Leadershipforschoolandstudentlearning:Whatdoweknow?,keynoteaddress,AustralianCentreforEducationalLeadership,FifthInternationalConference,UniversityofWollongong,16February.

Rowe,K.J.(2003),The importance of teacher quality as a key determinant of students’ experiences and outcomes of schooling, discussionpaperpreparedfortheInterimCommitteeoftheNSWInstituteofTeachers,availableat:http://www.nswteachers.nsw.edu.au/library/Rowe.html.

Schlechty,P.(2005).Creating great schools six critical systems at the heart of educational innovation. SanFrancisco:Jossey-Bass.

Scott,C.&Dinham,S.(2005).Parenting,teachingandselfesteem,The Australian Educational Leader, 27(1),pp.28–30.


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Leaders:ActingtoimproveoutcomesforIndigenousstudents

Paul�HughesDavid Unaipon College of Indigenous Education and Research University of South Australia.

PaulhasbeenaPrimarySchoolTeacher;anEducationOfficerwiththeDepartmentofAboriginalAffairs;DirectoroftheAboriginalTeacherEducationProgramandAboriginalStudiesCentreattheUniversityofSA;ChairoftheNationalAboriginalEducationCommittee;DirectorofAboriginalEducationfortheSADepartmentofEducation;DirectoroftheYunggorendiFirstNationsCentreforIndigenousEducationandResearchatFlindersUniversityandDeanoftheIndigenousCollegeofEducationandResearchattheUniversityofSouthAustralia.

WithanhonoraryDoctoratefromFlindersUniversityandaMastersDegreeinEducationfromHarvardUniversityheisthefirstSouthAustralianAboriginetobepromotedtoProfessor.Hiscareerhasbeenasateacher,leader,policymaker,consultantandresearcheronIndigenouseducationissuesworldwide.

ProfessorHugheshasChaired-theSouthAustralianAboriginalEducationAdvisoryCommittee;theNationalAboriginalEducationCommittee;theCommonwealthAboriginalEducationPolicyTaskforce;theMCEETYATaskforceonAboriginalEducation;theDESTevaluationoftheNationalIndigenousEducationLiteracyandNumeracyStrategyandtheAustralianCouncilforEducationalResearchIndigenousStandingCommittee.

Hehasalsoservedasamemberof-theCommonwealthCurriculumCouncil;theCommonwealthSchoolsCommission;theCommonwealthSchoolsCouncil;theSACentreforLifelongLearningandtheCommonwealthMinistersStrategicThinkersForum.

Hehasbeenawarded–membershipoftheOrderofAustralia;anHonoraryDoctoratefromFlindersUniversity;theAustralianCollegeofEducatorsMedalin2000andFellowshipoftheCollege;theUNESCOComeniusMedalonbehalfoftheSAAboriginalEducationUnitandanEldersAwardfromtheIndigenousHigherEducationCouncil.

ProfessorHugheswasamemberoftheteamthatproduced,‘WhatWorks?ExplorationsinimprovingoutcomesforIndigenousstudents’and‘WhatWorks,TheWorkProgram’.HeisalsoanAmbassadorandconsultantfortheAustralianPrincipalsAssociation,‘DaretoLead’program.

Gavin�KhanNational Aboriginal Principals Association

GavinKhaniscurrentlyPrincipalatWilliamstownPrimarySchoolinSouthAustralia’sBarossaDistrict.HeisaKookathaandAruntaAboriginalAustralianfromthefarNorthofSouthAustraliaandhasbeenaprimaryteacher,anAboriginalEducationTeacher,DistrictAboriginalEducationResourceTeacher,DistrictAboriginalEducationProjectOfficer,DistrictAboriginalEducationSupportServiceManagerandPrincipal.

GavinisCo-chairoftheNationalAboriginalPrincipalsAssociationwhichhewasinstrumentalinestablishingin2006.HehasacloseassociationwiththeAustralianPrincipalsAssociationProfessionalDevelopmentCouncil’s(APAPDC)DaretoLeadproject,servingasacommitteememberontheDaretoLeadNationalSteeringCommittee,KidsMatterandMindMattersNationalSteeringCommittee,LeadersLeadworkinggroupandaReviewerfortheNationalMuseumofAustralia‘IndigenousEducationSeries’.

HeisoneofthefirstAboriginalprincipalsofamainstreamschoolinSouthAustraliaandin2005wasinvolvedincarryingoutan‘OpenDiscussion’withSouthAustralia’sDepartmentofEducationandChildren’sServices(DECS)employeesinvolvedwithAboriginalEducation.ThisresultedinrealignmentofthestructuresfortheeducationandcareofAboriginalchildrenandstudentsinSouthAustralia.

GavinhasabackgroundinclassroomteachingthroughoutSouthAustralia,teachinginavarietyofschoolsandsettings.HehasbeenapassionateadvocateandleaderfortheimprovementofeducationaloutcomesofAboriginalchildrenandstudents,buildingcapacityandcreatinggreateropportunitiesforAboriginalteacherstomoveintoleadershiproles.

Susan�MatthewsNational Aboriginal Principals Association

SusanisaWiradjuriwomanlivingpresentlyonDharugland,SusanhasextensiveexperienceineducationandhasworkedfortheDepartmentofEducationandTrainingsince1986inavarietyofpositions,rangingfromAboriginalEducationAssistant,AboriginalSchoolCommunityLiaisonOfficer,ClassroomTeacher,SEO1AboriginalEducationConsultantservicingover300hundredschoolswithintheWesternMetropolitanRegion,SchoolPrincipal,SEO2AboriginalEducation/QualityTeachingandmorerecentlyastheExecutiveOfficerfortheNSWAECGInc.SusanisaLifeMemberoftheNSWAECGIncandiscommittedtoraisingtheprofileoftheNSWAECGatthegrassrootscommunitylevel.SusanhashadtheprivilegeofholdingseveralleadershippositionsonLocal,RegionalandStateManagementCommitteesoftheAECGsincefirstbecomingamemberoftheAssociationin1984,aswellashavinganopportunityontwooccasionstorelieveasthePresidentoftheNSWAECGInc.SusanhasbroughttoeachofherpositionsacommitmentandpassionforimprovingtheeducationaloutcomesofAboriginalstudentsbothwithinGovernmentandnon-Governmenteducationalenvironments.In2006SusanwasinvitedtogiveaKeyNoteAddressataUNhostededucationconferenceinIndia(ValuesEducation)“DeepeningtheRootsandBroadeningVision”,asitrelatedtoAboriginalEducationwithinAustralia.SusanreceivedoverwhelmingsupportforherpresentationandasaresulthassincebeeninvitedtopresentagainatanInternationalWomen’sConferenceinIndiainJuneof2008.Herpassion,commitment,anddrivearesecondtonone.Susantakesupthechallengespresentedtoherwithprofessionalism,integrity,credibilityandawillingnesstoenterintodebatesatseniorGovernmentlevelsinanefforttobringaboutrealsustainablechangeinthefieldofAboriginalEducationandTraining.


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AbstractThispaperisbythreeeducatorswhoareIndigenouspeoplewithextensiveexperienceinIndigenouseducation.TheydiscusstheactionsofschoolleadersneededtoaddressthelimitedoutcomesbeingachievedbythemajorityofIndigenousschoolstudents.AfeatureofthispaperisthereflectionsofGavinKhanandSusanMatthewsontheirexperiencesasPrincipalsofschoolswithmajorityAboriginalstudentenrolments.ThepapertakestheAustralianPrincipalsAssociationProfessionalDevelopmentCouncil-‘L5FrameforSchoolLeadership’-andaddsanIndigenousfocustotheL5Framefromtheir‘DareToLead’project.TheL5states:

• Leadershipstartsfromwithin.

• Leadershipisaboutinfluencingothers.

• Leadershipdevelopsarichlearningenvironment.

• Leadershipbuildsprofessionalismandmanagementcapability.

• Leadershipinspiresleadershipactionsandaspirationsinothers.

IntroductionAseducatorswhoareIndigenouspeopleweareparticularlyconcernedaboutthelimitedoutcomesbeingachievedbythemajorityofourIndigenousschoolstudents.Forourcommunityandthefutureofournationasawhole,thishastochange.Schoolleaders,inparticularschoolprincipals,mustplayamajorroleinaddressingthissituation.OurcommentsemanatefromtheAustralianPrincipalsAssociationProfessionalDevelopmentCouncil(APAPDC)‘L5FrameforSchoolLeadership’,whichstates:

• Leadershipstartsfromwithin.

• Leadershipisaboutinfluencingothers.

• Leadershipdevelopsarichlearningenvironment.

• Leadershipbuildsprofessionalismandmanagementcapability.

• Leadershipinspiresleadershipactionsandaspirationsinothers.

APAPDCthroughits‘DareToLead’projecthasappliedanIndigenousfocustothisleadershipframe.IfyouareaschoolleaderwithIndigenousstudents,youneedtoinvestigatetheIndigenousL5Frameindetail.Itcontains36keyactionsforschoolleadersand12specificallyIndigenoussituationsthatyouwillneedtoconsideratsometime.

Leadership�starts�from�within

‘Leaders�committed�to�Indigenous�perspectives�must�personally�value�and�acknowledge�Indigenous�culture’

BythiswemeanthatleadersmustordinarilyacceptthatIndigenousAustraliaispartofthefabricofourcountryandassuchitsstudentshaveculturalvaluesandmoresthatshouldbeincorporatedasagiven.Weexpectyoutohaveapersonalcommitmenttoimprovingoutcomesforourstudents.WeunderstandthatnotallpeopleinAustraliaaretotallysympathetictoourIndigenouscommunity,letaloneempathetic.Howeverwewouldexpectthateducationalleaderscontinuetoexploretheirownfeelingsaboutracism,socialjusticeandequity–andthenactprofessionallyinrespectoftheirroles.

Leadership�is�about�influencing�others

‘Leaders�committed�to�Indigenous�perspectives�listen�to,�and�act�upon,�Indigenous�community�input’

Weunderstandthatourcommunityisdemandingandthatthereisnotalwaysaconfluencebetweenwhatwewantandwhattheschoolcanordinarilydeliver.Itistheresponsibilityofleadersfromtheschoolandour

communitytoagreeuponwhatisbestandachievableinaschooloperation.Onceagreementsaremade,itistheresponsibilityofschoolleaderstoensurethattheyarecommunicatedandnegotiatedwithschoolstaff,sothatIndigenouseducationactionsandoutcomesbecometheacceptedresponsibilityofall.

Leadership�develops�a�rich�learning�environment

‘Leaders�committed�to�Indigenous�perspectives�actively�promote�contact�between�Indigenous�and�non-Indigenous�staff�and�students’

GiventhattherearestillgreatdifferencesinlifestylesandculturesbetweenIndigenousandnon-Indigenousstaff,itbecomesreallyimportantthatschoolleaderspromoteinteractionbetweensuchstaff.SchoolstaffmusttogettoknoweachothertoensurethattheyallunderstandeachotherenoughforaworkingrelationshipthathasaneffectonsuccessfuloutcomesforIndigenousstudents.Ifallstaffunderstandeachother,itispossibletodevelopofawholeschoolcurriculumthatincludesIndigenousperspectives.

Leadership�builds�professionalism�and�management�capability

‘Leaders�committed�to�Indigenous�perspectives�are�professional�in�keeping�up�with�current�Indigenous�education�trends,�issues�and�plans’

Ifleadersarewellinformed,theyareabletoworkwithandencourageschoolstafftosetperformancegoalsandtargetsforpersonalactionintheirworkwithIndigenousstudents.Theywillensurethatschoolmanagementisunderpinnedbyvaluesofsocialjustice,equityandqualityrelationships,basedonpersonalknowledge.


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Leadership�inspires�leadership�actions�and�aspirations�in�others

‘Leaders�committed�to�Indigenous�perspectives�invite�Indigenous�community�role�models�into�the�school�to�motivate�and�challenge’

Bygrowingindividualstaffandallowingourcommunityin,leaderscanpersonallyknowof,valueandcelebratetheirachievementsinIndigenouseducation.Wearesurethatwhenindividuals,Indigenousandnon-Indigenous,havepersonallyacquiredskillsknowledgeandconfidencetheycanaspirefurther.Asaresultyouhave‘grown’bothyourstaffandyourIndigenouscommunity.Whilethiscouldstillbeconfronting–ifyouasaleaderhavedonetheabove–thenitshouldnotbeso.

Ifyouasaleaderhavenotdonealloftheabove,thenyouasleaderwillcertainlyfailinIndigenouseducation–andyoudeserveto.

Gavin’s reflectionsWhenIreceivedmyfirstappointmentin2001asaschoolPrincipalwhohappenedtobeAboriginal,Ibegantoberecognisedandsupported.Itwasatimeinmylifethatwasquiteupliftingandpersonallysatisfying.Withmyfirstappointmentcameanunderstandingquitequicklythattherearesomeschoolsthatcanonlyeverbedescribedas‘crisisschools’:

• studentenrolment135

• 50%Aboriginal

• category1(highestlevelsocio-economicdisadvantage)

• staffmoralealmostnon-existent

• educationaloutcomesandattendancesignificantlybelowtherestofthestate

• schoolvandalismamongstthehighestinthestate

• staffturnoverquitehigh

• Aboriginalstudentsuspensionsquitehigh(violentbehaviour)

LuckilyformeIwasrelatedtomanyofmyAboriginalstudents,orhadgrownupwithmanyoftheirparents.ThisgavemeaslightadvantagebecausetherewasalreadyaleveloftrustwiththechildrenandthefamiliesthatwouldnotnormallyhavebeenthereforanynewPrincipal.FromtheAboriginalcommunitycametremendousexcitementbecauseIwasthefirstPrincipalofAboriginalheritagethathadeverbeenappointedtothisschool.

Ispentagreatdealoftimegettingacquaintedwiththecommunitybothinsideandoutsideoftheschool.Ilistenedtothefamiliesandtooknoticeofwhattheyweresayingabouttheschool,whattheirbeliefs,concernsandhopeswerefortheirchildrenandtheschool.IdidthesamewiththestaffandfoundoutasmuchasIcouldaboutthecultureoftheschool,theirfears,aspirations,passionsandideas.Ithenintroducedstructures,policies,practicesandplansthatwouldhelpformulateandachieveourvision.Wedevelopedstrategicplansandpriorities,settingtargetsandagreeduponacommonpathtoourfuture.

ThroughoutthisprocessImadeveryclearwhatmyexpectationswereofstaff,studentsandfamilies.AmongststaffIchallengedlong-heldbeliefsaboutpedagogyandintroducedprocessestoinvestigateandadoptnewpedagogy.Theirviewwasthatamajorityofstudentsintheschoolhadlearningdisordersordisabilities.Inmyviewthiswasacop-out.Ifweweretoreallybeabouteducationaloutcomes,thenthelanguageofthedayhadtobeabouthighexpectations,skilledteachersandtargetsettingbasedonknowingwherethestudentswereandwheretheyneededtobe.Thisultimatelytiedintotheconstructofstaffbeginningtopersonalisethelearningofallstudents

withintheirclasses.TeachersfoundthisquitechallengingasitwasaprocessforthemofexaminingtheirownmisconstruedbeliefsandinsomecasesfearsofAboriginalPeoples.

WeallocatedasignificantamountoftheschoolresourcestotraininganddevelopmentforstaffandparentsandemployedlocalAboriginalpeopleassupportstaff.Iparticularlyincludedparentsinthetraininganddevelopmenttoeducatethemsothatwebeganaprocessofsharedresponsibilityintermsofteachingchildren.

ToaddressIndigenousstudenthealthandsocialproblems,Imetwithinteragencygroupstodeveloppartnershipswithinhealthandsocialworkagenciestoimplementschool-basedprogramsthatwouldassistthesestudentsintheirlearning.Iexpectedteacherstoconsultwiththeirindividualstudents’parentstodevelopaclearerunderstandingofhowhealthissueswereimpactingontheirstudents’learning.Thiswasnotsomethingthathadbeenpreviouslytriedwithinaschoollikeours.

IfIwasgoingtosucceedasaneducationalleader,thenitwasuptometoensurethatwhatIwaschangingwithinmyschoolhadculturalintegrity.Ithought–youwhitefellashavetriedityourwayandfailed–sonowitwasuptomeasaninexperiencedAboriginalPrincipaltobringtheAboriginalwaysofknowinganddoingtotheforefront.

Susan’s reflections FrommyperspectivetherearesomeaspectsoftheL5FrameworkthatneedfurtherunpackingwithintheroleofaschoolprincipalwhoisAboriginal.LetmepaintthepictureandthenexploresomeofthetransformationalchangethatIwantedtocreatewithinasmallmainstreamschoolinaruralcommunitysituatedwithinwesternNSW:


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• studentpopulationof250students–98%Aboriginal

• newschoolPrincipal(Aboriginal)–firstappointment

• nootherschoolexecutivestaffappointed

• 15ofstaffwerefirst-yearoutteachers

• attendancerates–60%

• schoolsuspensions–40%(extremeviolentandaggressivebehaviourtowardsstudentsandstaff)

• educationaloutcomes–50%lowerthenthatoftherestofthestate.

Iwasaneducatorwhounderstoodcurriculum,teachingandlearningandabouthowkidslearn,ashadprincipalsbeforeme.However,Ialsohadknowledgeandunderstandingsfrommylivedexperiences.IhadtothinkhowtousemyAboriginalitywithinmyownculturalleadershipframework.Thisformewasadynamicandcomplexsetofvalues,beliefs,waysofthinking,stylesofcommunicationandwaysofinteractingmorebroadlywiththeAboriginalcommunityandthestudentsthanhadbeendonebefore.

Buildingateamofeducators(primarilynon-Aboriginal)thathadhighexpectationsaroundstudentsuccesswhocouldworkandfunctiontogetherundertheleadershipofanAboriginalprincipalwastheorderoftheday.Weaimedatbuildingtheresilienceofthestudentpopulationbyprovidingthemwithrealchoicesandexperiencesthatallowedthemtoseethatourschoolwasasafeplacetobewherelearningwasvalued.

Therewasaneedtothinkoutsideofthesquareandputtheneedsofstudentsattheveryheartofwhatneededtobedifferentinthisschool:

• Aboriginalstudentidentityneededtobenurtured,acceptedandvalued

• contextualisedlearning

• senseofcommunity/schoolbelonging

• parent/communityownershipofeducation

• Aboriginalwaysofknowing,doingandlearning

Whileitwashardtoaccept,thefactwasthattheolderstudentshaddisengagedwiththeschoolanditwouldbedifficulttoturnthisaround.But,Ihadachancetoreinventeducationwithapriortoschoolexperienceforourlittlieswithanexperiencethatwasnotbasedonconformityortheacquisitionofacademicskills,butmoreaboutthemunderstandingtheirplaceandrolewithinaschoolsetting.Iwantedtousetheknowledgetheyalreadyhadasaspringboardforfurtherengagementwhentheyenteredtheirfirstformalyearofschooling.Sowasbornthereceptiongradeofschooling.

Consultativeprocesseswereundertakenandtherewasgreatstaff,communityandparentsupportfortheinitiative.Howeverquestionsaskedwhere:

• Youcan’tjustputinplaceanewgradeofschooling.Myreply–whynot?

• Whatisthecurriculumgoingtobe?Myreply–onebasedonthestudentsownculturallivedandexperienceknowledgeofwhattheyalreadyknow.

• Whatassessmentstrategiesaregoingtobeputinplace?Myreply–attendancerates,nosuspensions,happytobeatschool,understandingofroutinesandexpectationsaroundappropriatebehavioursandengagedinthedailyactivitiesoftheschool.

• ThereisnoDepartmentalpolicyonareceptiongradeofschooling.Myreply–wewillmakeone.

Ididbegintheclass,basedontheL5Framework–‘Leadershipstartsfromwithin,leadershipisaboutinfluencingothers,andleadershipdevelopsarichlearningenvironment’.Itonlyranfora12-monthperiodbeforeIwasforcedtoendit.

WasthisbecauseIwasafirst-timeprincipalorbecauseIwasanAboriginalprincipalthattriedtoputinplacesomethingthatwassototallydifferentandbuiltuponmybeliefsasanAboriginalperson?CanweasAboriginalprincipalsbeallowedtouseourownculturalknowledgeaboutleadership,teachingandlearningandmoreimportantlyAboriginalwaysoflearning,toreinventeducationwithinaschoolenvironmentwithapredominatelyAboriginalpopulation?


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Standardsforschoolleadership:Gatewaytoastrongerprofession?

Lawrence�IngvarsonAustralian Council for Educational Research

LawrenceIngvarsonisaPrincipalResearchFellowatACER.Priortotakinguphispresentpart-timepositionhewasResearchDirectoroftheTeachingandLeadershipProgramatACERfrom2001to2006.Hebeganhiscareerasascienceandmathematicsteacher,teachinginWA,ScotlandandEnglandbeforeundertakingfurtherstudiesinpsychologyattheUniversityofLondon.HehasheldacademicpositionsattheUniversityofStirlinginScotlandandMonashUniversityinMelbournewherehewasanAssociateProfessor.

DrIngvarsonisinternationallyrecognisedforhisresearchonteacherprofessionaldevelopment,teacherquality,teachingandleadershipstandards,assessmentofteacherperformance,schoolimprovementandtheevaluationofeducationalprogramsandhaspublishedwidelyintheseareas.HewasamemberoftheMinisterialAdvisoryCommitteesfortheVictorianInstituteofTeaching(2000–2001)andfortheTAFEDevelopmentCentre(2002–2003),andamemberoftheAdvisoryCouncilfortheNationalInstituteforQualityTeachingandSchoolLeadership.HereceivedtheDistinguishedServiceAwardfromtheAustralianScienceTeachersAssociationin2001andbecameaFellowoftheAustralianCollegeofEducatorsin2005.

Michelle�AndersonAustralian Council for Educational Research

MichelleAndersonisaSeniorResearchFellowatACER.MichellejoinedACERin2005aftertwoyearsasaresearcherwiththeNationalCollegeforSchoolLeadershipinEngland.AtACERMichelle’sworkhasincluded,StandardsforSchoolLeadership(forTeachingAustralia),theAustralianCountryBackgroundReportfortheOECD’sImprovingSchoolLeadershipActivity(forDEST)andHigherEducationAcademicLeadershipCapabilities(fortheCarrickInstituteforLearningandTeachinginHigherEducation).Currently,MichelleisdoingherPhDwiththeUniversityofLondon,InstituteofEducation,exploringLeadingTeachersinmulti-campusschools.

AbstractRecruitment,preparation,continuingprofessionallearningandrecognitionofschoolleadersarewidespreadconcernsforpolicymakersandpractitioners.StandardsforschoolleadershipareanotabledevelopmentinAustraliaandoverseasforaddressingtheseconcerns.InAustralia,manyqualitysetsofstandardsforteachersandschoolleadershavebeendevelopedbuttheyarenotprofession-wide.ThispaperisbasedonaprojectACERwascommissionedtoundertakebyTeachingAustraliainJune2005.Ourbriefwastoreviewapproachestostandardsandoptionsforanationalsystemforassessmentagainstschoolleadershipstandardsforprospectiveandestablishedschoolleaders.Thereviewexaminedindetailfiveprofessionallearningsystems,onefromAustraliaandfourfromoverseas.Acentralcomponenttothesesystemsisthepresenceofstandardsforschoolleadershiptoguideprofessionalpreparationandtheongoinglearningofschoolleaders.Akeyfocusofthissessionishowtheprofessioncanplayamuchstrongerroleinprovidingastandards-guidedprofessionallearningsystem.

IntroductionTheneedtostrengthenpreparationandprofessionaldevelopmentprogramsforschoolleadersisrecognisednationallyandinternationally(Huber,2004).ThecurrentOECDinternationalactivityImproving School Leadershipistestamenttogrowinginterestandinvestmentinthisfield(seeAndersonetal.,2007,McKenzie,Mulford&Anderson,2007).Fuellingsuchconcernsisthechangingcontextwithinwhichschoolleaderswork,characterisedbyincreasingcomplexityinexpectationsofschoolleadersandgreaterdemandsforaccountability.Thequalityofschoolleadershiphasseldom


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matteredmore.Schoolleadersareexpectednotonlytomanageschoolswellbuttoknowhowtodeveloptheirschoolsasorganisationswiththecapacitytoconstantlyreviewandimprovetheirperformance.

Traditionalmethodsforpreparingschoolleadersandpromotingongoingprofessionallearninghavenotbeenstandingupverywelltothesedemands.IntheUSA,Levine(2005)haswrittenadamningcritiqueofthecapacityofuniversitydegreeprogramsasapathwaytopreparingfutureschooladministrators.InAustraliauntilrecently,itwouldhavebeendifficulttopointtoanysystematicprogramsforpreparingschoolleadersacrossmoststatesandterritories.Thefieldwastypifiedbybriefcourses,oftenunrelatedtoeachotherandrarelysequentialovertime.Futureleaderscaughtwhattheycouldontherun.Ithasbeenpossibletogainschoolprincipalpositionswithlittleformaltraininginschoolleadership.

Manycountriesrecognisethattheyneedtooverhaulstructuresandprogramsforthepreparationandongoinglearningofschoolleaders.Internationally,anotablefeatureinthisoverhaulistheuseofstandardsforschoolleadershipasaframeworkfordevelopingpreparationandprofessionaldevelopmentsystemsforschoolleaders.

Standardsareseenasameansofclarifyingwhatschoolleadersshouldknowandbeabletodo,basedwherepossibleonasynthesisofresearchandprofessionaljudgement.Theassumptionisthatasetofcarefullyprepared,validstandardscangiveclearerdirectiontoprospectiveschoolleadersastheyplantheirprofessionallearning.Theycanalsoprovidechallenginggoalsforestablishedschoolleaderstoaimforovertime.

The ACER Review of standards for school leadershipIn2005,ACERwascommissionedbyTeachingAustraliatoconductareviewofnationalandinternationalapproachestodevelopingstandardsforprospectiveandestablishedschoolleadersincludingapproachestothecertificationofschoolleaderswhomeetthosestandards(Ingvarson,Anderson,Gronn&Jackson,2006).ThepurposeofthereviewwastoinformthedeliberationsoftheBoardofDirectorsofTeachingAustraliaasitconsideredoptionsforthedevelopmentandimplementationofnationalstandardsforschoolleadership.Thispapersummarisesthefindingsofthatliteraturereview.

Thereviewshowedthat,whileitmightnotbepossibletoarguethatthereisastrongschoolleadershipprofessioninAustraliacurrently,thereisastrongdesireamongmembersofprincipalassociationstomoveinthatdirection.Thatclaimneedstobecarefullyqualified.Inthesenseusedhere,oneofthekeymarkersofaprofessionisitscapacitytooperateitsownprofessionallearningsystem;thatis,itscapacityto:

a developstandardsthatdescribewhatschoolleadersshouldknowandbeabletodoandwhatcountsasmeetingthestandards

b provideaninfrastructure for professional learningthatenablesschoolleaderstodeveloptheattributesandcapabilitiesembodiedinthestandards

c operateasystemforassessingandprovidingprofessionalcertificationtoschoolleaderswhomeetthestandards

d gainrecognitionfromschoolauthoritiesformemberswhogainprofessionalcertification.

Collectively,thesebasiccomponentsformwhatmightbecalledastandards-

guided professional learning system.Theycanbeappliedtoanyprofession.Takentogether,thesecomponentsformastandards‘system’ofinterdependentandmutuallysupportiveparts.Thefourelementsofstandards,professionallearning,certificationandrecognitionareinterlinked.Takeoneawayandthesystemlosesitscapacitytofunctioneffectivelyasaninstrumentforencouragingandrecognisingevidenceofprofessionallearning.

‘Certification’,asthetermwasusedinthisreview,isanendorsementthatstandardsofpracticehavebeenmet.Thatendorsementmightbeawardedbydifferentagencies,suchasagovernmentoranemployingauthority,oraprofessionalbody.Advancedcertificationbyaprofessionalbody,isusuallyavoluntaryprocess.

ThereisnoprofessionalcertificationsystemfortheteachingandschoolleadershipprofessioninAustralia.Eacheducationsectorauthoritypreparesschoolleadersinitsownwaytoworkinitsownsystem.Whatarethepossibilitiesoftheteachingprofessionnotonlydeveloping,butoperating,anationalsystemfortheprofessionaldevelopmentofitsschoolleadersandprincipals;asystemguidedbyprofession-widestandardswhosecertificationholdsrespectandcredibilitywithalleducationauthoritiesasavalidindicatorofdemonstratedleadershipabilities?

Oneofthemainpurposesofourreviewwastoexploretheextenttowhichitmightbepossibletomovetowardastandards-guidedprofessionallearningsystemforschoolleadersinAustralia.Weusedthefourcomponentsofsuchasystemtoprovideastructureforourreview.


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Examples of standards-guided professional learning systems for school leadersAustraliahashadavigorousperiodofstandardsdevelopmentoverthepastfifteenyearsorso.Professionalassociationsandemployingauthoritieshavebothbeenactive.EveryAustralianStateandTerritoryeducationauthorityhassomeformofstandardsforschoolleadership.However,onlyafewoftheseeffortsreflectadeepunderstandingofwhatstandardsareandwhatisinvolvedindevelopingstandardsthatareusable.Bydefinition,standardsaremeasures–theyaretoolsweuseinalmosteverysphereoflifetomakeappropriateprecisejudgementsanddecisionsinacontextofsharedmeaningsandvalues.Asyet,mostleadershipstandardsinAustraliawouldneedfurtherdevelopmentbeforetheycouldformthebasisofaprofessionallearningsystemforschoolleaders.

Fromourliteraturesearchwechosetoreviewindepthfiveexamplesofsystemswheretherewasevidenceofthestandardsbeingusedforprofessionallearningandrecognitionpurposes.Thesesystemsincluded:

1 WesternAustralia:PerformanceStandardsforSchoolLeaders(DepartmentofEducation,LeadershipCentre;MurdochUniversityandEdithCowanUniversity)

2 England:NationalStandardsforHeadteachers(NationalCollegeforSchoolLeadership,NCSL)

3 TheNetherlands:ProfessionalStandardforEducationalLeadersinPrimaryEducation(DutchPrincipalAcademy,DPAotherwiseknownasNederlandseSchoolleidersAcademie,NSA)

4 Scotland:TheStandardforHeadship(ScottishExecutive)

5 Connecticut,USA:StandardsforSchoolLeaders(CouncilofChiefStateSchoolOfficersInterstateSchoolLeadersLicensureConsortium,ISLLCandConnecticutStateBoardofEducation,USA).

Thesesystemswerechosenbecausetheyofferedpotentialmodelsforanationalapproachtoleadershipstandards.Wedevelopedasetofquestionstostructureourreviewofeachsystem.Thissetincludedquestionssuchas:

• Whodevelopedthestandardsforschoolleadershipandforwhatpurposes?

• Howisprofessionallearningorganisedtoassistprospectiveorestablishedschoolleaderstoattainthestandards?

• Howdotheactivitiesorprogramsengageschoolleadersineffectiveprofessionallearning?

• Whatformsofevidenceareusedtoassesswhetherthestandardshavebeenattained?

Theremainderofthispaperprovidesabriefoverviewofwhatwefoundandwaystheprofessioncanplayamuchstrongerroleinastandards-guidedprofessionallearningsystem.

Contemporary research on school leadership and its implications for standardsInthepast,leadership,hasnotbeenafieldofresearchnotedforitscapacityforsteadilybuildingasoundknowledgebase,oracommonlyagreedupondefinitionofleadership.However,ourreadingoftheliteraturewasthatthereisincreasingconfidencethatessentialelementsofeffectiveleadershippracticescanbeidentified,givingsomehopetothosewhoseektodevelopstandardsforleadershipthathavesomevalidity.

Professionalworkisablendofvaluesandexpertise,anddevelopersofprofessionalstandardshavetoweavethetwotogether.Standardswritershavetoaskhardquestionsofresearchersifthestandardsaretohavevalidityandcredibility.Thesearequestionsabouttheknowledgebaseofprofessionalpractice,notopinionsaboutthepersonalitytraitsandcharacteristicsofgoodprincipals.Hardquestionsfocusonwhatweknowabouttherelationshipbetweenleadershippracticesandstudentlearning.Morerealisticquestions,perhaps,focusontherelationshipbetweenleadershippracticesandimprovementsinschoolculture,orinthequalityofteaching.Thesequestionsfocusinsteadontheconditionsthatprincipalsshouldbeaccountablefordevelopingintheirschoolsovertime.Theyattempttoidentifyreasonableexpectationsforwhatprincipalsshouldtobeabletoachieveovertime.

Achallengeforthosewhowoulddevelopstandardsforschoolleadershipislocatingwherethelocusofauthorityultimatelyrestsaboutdefiningtheworkofschoolleaders–withthedemocraticauthoritybaseofdulyelectedgovernments,orwithresearchandtheconsensusofprofessionalassociations.Theansweristhatultimatelyitnecessarilyrestswiththepublicandoursystemofdemocraticgovernmentandministerialauthority,asitdoesforallprofessions.However,thelevelofownershipandcommitmenttoprofessionalstandardswithinaprofessionwilldependontheextenttowhichmembersoftheprofessionareentrustedwiththeirdevelopment.

Theideathatprofessionsdeveloptheirownstandardstotheexclusionofotherstakeholdershaslonggone,ifitwasevertrue.Instead,therationalethataprofessionpresentstothepublicforsomeautonomyindevelopingprofessionalstandardsisthatthepublicshouldplacetrustintheprofessionto


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defineandenforceitsownstandardsinreturnforfullandopenaccountsofitspractices,especiallyitsqualityassurancepractices.Thisisanargumentbasedontheimportanceofasenseofownershipingainingcommitmentfromaprofessiontoasetofprofessionalstandards.Thepublicdoesnotseektomicromanageprofessions,butithasarighttodemandaccountsofitspracticeandresponsivenesstoitsconcerns.

Developing standards for school leadershipTheACERreviewprovidesanintroductiontostandardsandthestepsthatareinvolvedinwritingstandardsthatarevalidandusefulforprofessionallearningandcertificationpurposes.Standardswritersneedaguidingconceptofleadershiptoframetheirdeliberations.Thereviewillustratesthreestepsthatareinvolvedindevelopingacompletesetofstandardsforschoolleaders.Thefirststepdescribeswhatgoodleadershippracticeis,thesecondidentifieshowevidenceaboutleadershippracticecanbegatheredandthethirddescribeswhatcountsasmeetingthestandard.Itiscommontofindsetsofstandardsthatdonotgobeyondthefirststep.Consequently,thestandardscanmeanwhatanyonechoosesthemtomean,limitingtheirusefulnessinprovidingacommonlanguagetotalkaboutpracticeandprofessionallearning.

Thereportreviewshoweachofthefivesystemswentaboutdevelopingleadershipstandards,whowasinvolvedinthatdevelopmentandwhatwasincludedinthestandards.Althoughtherewassomevariationindetailsacrossthefivecountries,therewasconsiderablecommonalityinthecorefeaturesofeffectiveleadershippractices.Standardsdidnotvarymarkedlyaccordingtowhatmightbethoughtofasverydifferentnationalandculturalcontexts,althoughitis

necessarytorecognisethatmostofourcasesofstandardssystemswerefromEnglish-speakingcountries.

Recentversionsofschoolleadershipstandardsresistthetemptationtoscopeoutthefullpracticeofleadershipandmanagementinschools.Theyfocusfirstonqualitystudentlearning,andmoveoutwardstoidentifyimplicationsforwhatschoolleadersshouldknowandbeabletodo.Thistrendisparalleledbyashiftinprofessionallearningapproachesfromacquisitionofinformationtoapplicationandcriticalreflectiononthatinformationinagivenschoolcontext.Mentorandcoachingrelationships,self-assessment-typetoolsandportfolioentries,arecommonlyusedapproaches.

TheACERreviewindicatedthatleadershipstandardsarebeginningtolookmorelikeprofessionalstandardsratherthantheoldlistsofdozensofcompetenciesandjobdescriptionsinpastsetsofcompetencies(Leithwood&Steinbach,forthcoming).Thelatterusuallyhadnoclearguidingconceptofschoolleadershipunderpinningthem,showinghowtheworkofschoolleaderswaspresumedtolinktoqualitylearningopportunitiesforstudents.Themainorganisersinrecentsetsofleadershipstandardsaremoreparsimoniousandinteresting,asresearchersandschoolleadersrefineandreorganisetheirconceptsofwhateffectiveschoolleadersknowanddo.Thiseffortismadepossiblebyresearchersastheysynthesisethoseaspectsofschoolleaders’workthatestablishtheconditionsforeffectiveteachingandlearning(e.g.Mulford,2005).ThefollowingaspectsaretakenfromasynthesisbyLeithwoood,Seashore-Louis,AndersonandWahlstrom(2004):

• developingadeepunderstandingofhowtosupportteachers

• managingthecurriculuminwaysthatpromotestudentlearning

• developingtheabilitytotransformschoolsintomoreeffectiveorganisationsthatfosterpowerfulteachingandlearningforallstudents.

Howeachsystemattemptedtolinkschoolleadershipstandardstoprofessionallearningwasthenextareaoffocusforthereview.

How are standards linked to professional learning?Eachofthefivesystemsreviewedwastryingtobuildstrongerlinksbetweentheirstandardsandtheirsystemforprofessionallearning.Mostofthesystemswereawareoftheneedtodevelopaprofessionallearning‘program’thatincludedastructuredsequencedsetofcoursesforschoolleadersovertime.However,withsomesignificantexceptions,wedidnotfindthiswascommonpracticeamongprofessionalpreparationprogramsforschoolleadersinAustralia.

Itisonethingtocreatestandards.Itisquiteanothertoensuretheybecomeembeddedineverydaythoughtandpractice.Thechallengeforthesesystemswashowtoensureschoolleaderstooktheinitiativeinusingthestandardstoguidetheirprofessionallearningandtoreceivefeedbackandevaluationabouttheirpracticeinrelationtothestandards.

WefoundcleardifferencesbetweenthefivesystemsthathadsignificancefortheBoardofDirectorsofTeachingAustralia,astheyconsideredoptionsaboutthelong-termfunctionsoftheBoard.Thequestionherewashowtocreateaneffectiveinfrastructuretosupporttheprofessionalpreparationofteachersandschoolleaderswhowishedtomoveintoschoolleadership.Ourreviewindicatedtwoclearlydifferentpathstofollow.


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Atabasiclevel,themostcommonwayofthinkingabouthowtolinkstandardstoprofessionallearninginthesystemswereviewedwastodevelopacourse,orevenasetofcourses.Itseemstheobviousthingtodo.Theusualthinkingis,‘Theyneedprofessionaldevelopment;thereforeletusdevelopacoursetomeettheirneed.’Considerableeffortoftengoesintothedevelopmentofthesecourses,aswithcoursesdevelopedbytheNationalCollegeforSchoolLeadershipinEngland.Sometimestheleadershipstandardsagencydevelopsandprovidesthecoursesitself,asinWA.Sometimestheagencydevelopsthecoursebutcontractsoutprovisiontootherproviders,aswiththeNCSL.Andsometimestheagencyinvitesotherstoprovidecourses,buttheagencyassessesthecoursesandgivesitsaccreditationtothosewhomeetitsstandardsforcourses.Thismeansanagency’seffortsfocusontryingtoensurethequalityofthecourseorcourses.Thelimitationsinthisapproachareseveral.

Aseverwithprofessionaldevelopment,thecoursemodecanplacetheteacherorschoolleaderinapassiverolewithrespecttotheirprofessionallearning.Othersaredoingmostoftheworkidentifyingtheirneeds.Coursesareunavoidablyfrontendloaded.Theremaybeplentyofvaluableinput,butthelearningthatmattersmostisinthebackend–atthestagewhenpeopletrytoimplementtheirlearningintheworkplace.Thisiswhenfollow-upsupportandfeedbackareessentialifchangeistohappen.

Recentattacksonthequalityoftraditionalcourse-basedprogramsforpreparingschoolleaders,particularlyintheUnitedStatesofAmerica,highlighttheneedforalternativeroutesandprofessionallearningofferingsinschoolleadership(Levine,2005).Anaccumulationofacademiccreditsandcoursesisnoguaranteeofcapability

orachievementintheworkplace.Wefoundinsteadthatprofessionalassociationsofschoolleadersareincreasinglybecomingprovidersofawiderrangeofalternativeprofessionallearningactivities.Particularlyimportantaretheactivities,networksandotherformsofsupportthatassociationsintheUnitedStatesofAmericaprovidelocallytosupportcandidatesfornationalprofessionalcertification.

Oneofthemainpurposesfordevelopingstandardsistoclarifywhataspiringandestablishedschoolleadersshouldgetbetterat.Well-written,validleadershipstandardsmapoutthedeepstructureofwhateffectiveschoolleadersneedtolearnhowtodoovertime.Themostimportantlimitationwiththe‘course’modeofthinkingaboutprofessionallearningisitspoormatchwithstandardsinthisdevelopmentalsense.Standardsdrawattentiontotheneedtofocusfirstonthepersonandtheirlong-termdevelopment,ratherthanfocusingonthecourse.

Itisinthenatureofstandardsthattheyrepresentlong-termpersonalandprofessionallearninggoals.Onedoesnotlearn,forexample,howtoleadandmanagechangeinasinglecourse,oroverabriefspanoftime.Neitherdoesonelearnhowtoshareleadership,orhowtoprovideleadershipincurriculumandteachingthroughasetofunrelatedcourses.Learningtoleadandmanagechangerequiresopportunitiestodojustthatintheworkplace.Thisisnottosaythatcoursesareunnecessaryorunimportant.Ashortcourseontheresearchrelatedtoeducationalchangewouldbeveryvaluableatatimewhenaprospectiveschoolhadtheresponsibilitytoleadachangeinitiativewithateamofcolleaguesandtolearnfromtheexperience.Coursesandotheractivitiescanbecriticallyimportantwhenapersonisactivelyseekingtheprofessionaldevelopmenttheythinktheyneedtobuildup

arecordofaccomplishmentandachievementinrelationtoprofessionalstandards–forexample,aportfoliocontainingevidenceofengagementinseveralleadershipefforts,withreflectionsonwhatonehaslearnedaboutoneselfasaresultofengaginginthoseinitiatives.

Insteadoffocusingqualityassuranceeffortsonthe‘course’,theprofessionalcertificationmodelfocusesonensuringthequalityofthecertification.ThelessonfromtheNationalBoardforProfessionalTeachingStandards(NBPTS)experienceisthatifyougetthestandardsandcertificationright,togetherwithrecognitionforthatcertification,thenaprofessionallearningandsupportinfrastructurewilldeveloptomeetthedemandfromteachersforeffectivelearningexperiencesandsupport.

TheproposedAmericanBoardforLeadershipinEducationmodel,basedontheNationalBoardforProfessionalTeachingStandardsprovidedapromising,alternativeapproachtolinkingstandardstoprofessionallearning.Inthismodel,thestandardsagencydevelopsahighlyrespectedprofessionalcertificationprocessbasedonevidenceofperformance.TheACERreviewshowshowpreparationforprofessionalcertificationplacesteachersandschoolleadersinamoreproactivepositioninrelationtoplanningandprovidingtheirownprofessionallearning.

Assessing and recognising attainment of the standardsFinally,theACERreviewexaminedapproachesusedtojudgewhetherthestandardshadbeenmetineachofthefivesystems.Asthesejudgementsmayaffecttheoutcomeofhighstakesdecisionmaking,itisvitalthatthejudgementprocessisrigorousandfair.


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Thiswaspossiblytheweakestcomponentofmostsystems.Wefoundthatthevalidityofthecertificationinmostsystemsremainsuncertain,aslittleresearchappearstohavebeenconductedasyettocheck:

a thevalidityofthemethodsforgatheringevidenceasmeasuresoftheintentionembodiedintherelevantstandards(i.e.the‘fit’betweentheassessmenttasksandtherelevantstandards)

b howwelltheassessmenttasksasagroupprovideevidencethatcoversthestandardsdomainasawhole(i.e.theextenttowhichitisappropriatetogeneralisefromtheevidencetothecandidate’sperformancegenerally)

c thequalityoftrainingforjudgesandtheconsistencybetweenjudgesinmakingassessmentsoftheevidence(i.e.reliability)

d themethodsusedinsettingtheperformancestandards(i.e.indeterminingthelevelofperformancethatmeetsthestandardforeachassessmenttask,andthelevelofperformanceneededoverallforcertification).

Mostofthesystemsincludedinthereviewwouldstruggletoshowhowtheyaddressed,letalonemet,thesepsychometricstandards,excepttheNBPTS,andperhaps,theDutchmodel.Whenhighstakesdecisionshavetobemadeaboutpeople’sfutureitisimperativethattheprocessesformakingjudgementscanstanduptoscrutinyintermsofthesepsychometricstandards.Intheabsenceofsuchevidence,anycertification,whetheritisprovidedbyagovernmentagencyoraprofessionalbodywillquicklycollapseunderlegalscrutiny.

Future directions?Thequestionoflinkingstandardstoprofessionalcertificationissomething

forlong-termconsiderationbytheteachingprofessioninAustralia.Ourreviewsuggestedthattherearetwoclearchoicesforprofessionalstandardsbodies–whethertheyconceiveofthemselvesprimarilyascourseaccreditationagenciesorasprovidersofprofessionalcertification.Inconsideringfutureoptionsaroundcertification,thesequestionswillneedtobeaddressed:

• Whichagency/ieswillprovidecertification–forprospectiveandestablishedschoolleaderswhoattainnationalprofessionalstandards?

• Whatformsofevidenceareusedtoassesswhetherthosestandardshavebeenattained?Whowilldevelopthemethodsofassessment?

• Whowillassesseswhetherschoolleadershaveattainedthestandardsandhowwilltheybetrainedtousethestandardsfairlyandreliably?

• Whowillprovidetheprofessionallearninginfrastructuretosupportcandidatesforcertification?

Eachofthesequestionspointstoareaswheretheprofessioncanplayamuchstrongerrole.Inaprofessionalcertificationsystem,itistheprofessionthatprovidesthecertification.Itisteachersandschoolleaderswhodevelopthemethodsofassessment,whoconducttheassessments,whosetthestandardsandprovideprofessionallearningsupport.Fromthefivesystemsreviewedhere,weconcludedthat,iftheobjectiveistodevelopandimplementprofessional-widestandardsforschoolleaders,theprofessionalcertificationmodelismostlikelytoinvolvetheprofessionateverylevelofoperationandcreatethegreatestsenseofownership.

Thebriefforthisreviewwastoexaminenationalandinternationaldevelopmentsinschoolleadership

standardsandassessmentforprospectiveandestablishedschoolleaders.WefoundfourcountriesapartfromAustraliathathadmadeconcertedeffortstoredesignprogramsforpreparinganddevelopingschoolleadersaroundstandards.WhilenoneofthefourinternationalsystemsrepresentsamodelthatcouldbetranslatedtotheAustraliancontext,asagrouptheyhaveprovidedavaluablebasisonwhichtoclarifyoptionsfortherolethattheprofessioninAustraliamightplayindevelopinganationalapproachtostandardsforschoolleaders.

ReferencesAnderson,M.,Gronn,P.,Ingvarson,L.,

Jackson,A.,Kleinhenz,E.,McKenzie,P.,Mulford,B.,&Thornton,N.(2007).Australia: Country Background Report. OECD Improving School Leadership Activity.AreportpreparedfortheAustralianGovernmentDepartmentofEducation,ScienceandTraining.Melbourne:ACER.

Huber,S.(2004).PreparingSchoolLeadersforthe21stCentury:AnInternationalComparisonofDevelopmentProgramsin15Countries.London:RoutledgeFalmer,Taylor&FrancisGroup.

Ingvarson,L.C.,Anderson,M.,Gronn,P.,&Jackson,A.(2006).StandardsforSchoolLeadership:Acriticalreviewoftheliterature.Canberra:TeachingAustralia.www.teachingaustralia.edu.au/ta/go/home/publications/pid/301

Leithwood,K.,Seashore-Louis,K.,Anderson,S.,&Wahlstrom.K.(2004).Executive summary: How leadership influences student learning. Learningfromleadershipproject,theWallaceFoundation.

Leithwood,K.,&Steinbach,R.(forthcoming).Towardasecondgenerationofschoolleadershipstandards.InP.Hallinger(Ed.),Global trends in school leadership preparation.


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TheNetherlands:SwetsandZeitlingerPublishers.

Levine,A.(2005).Educating School Leaders. Washington:TheEducationSchoolsProject.

McKenzie,P.,Mulford,B.,&Anderson,M.(2007)Schoolleadershipandlearning:AnAustralianoverview.PresentationtotheACERResearchConference,The Leadership Challenge: Improving Learning in Schools.Melbourne,August.

Mulford,B.(2005)Qualityevidenceaboutleadershipfororganisationalandstudentlearninginschools.School Leadership and Management, 25(4),321-330.


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Phillip�McKenzieAustralian Council for Educational Research

PhillipMcKenzieisResearchDirectoroftheTransitionsandPost-SchoolEducationandTrainingprogramatACERandaDirectoroftheMonashUniversity–ACERCentrefortheEconomicsofEducationandTraining(CEET).Dr.McKenzie’scurrentprojectresponsibilitiesincludecoordinationoftheLongitudinalSurveysofAustralianYouth(LSAY)andtheAustralianSchoolTeacherandLeaderSurvey.HisinternationalexperienceincludesworkwiththeOECDinParisonmulti-countrystudiesconcernedwiththeTransitionfromInitialEducationtoWorkingLifeandAttracting,DevelopingandRetainingEffectiveTeachers.

Bill�MulfordUniversity of Tasmania

ProfessorBillMulfordisaninternationallyrecognisededucatorwithadeepinterestintheareasofeducationalleadership,effectiveimplementationofeducationalchangeandschooleffectivenessandimprovement.Hehaspublishedextensivelyonissuesrelatingtoleadershipfororganisationallearningandstudentoutcomes;schoolgovernanceandeducationaloutcomes;schoolprincipalleadership;publicattitudestoschoolsandeducation;andleadershipissuesinruralcommunities.HeholdsnumerouseditorialpositionsoninternationalrefereedjournalsandistheeditorfortheleadershipandmanagementsectionofthenexteditionoftheInternational Encyclopaedia of Education.

Michelle�AndersonAustralian Council for Educational Research

MichelleAndersonisaSeniorResearchFellowatACER.MichellejoinedACERin2005aftertwoyearsasaresearcherwiththeNationalCollegeforSchoolLeadershipinEngland.AtACERMichellehasworkedonStandards for School Leadership(forTeachingAustralia),theAustralian Country Background ReportfortheOECD’sImproving School Leadership Activity(forDEST)andHigher Education Academic Leadership Capabilities(fortheCarrickInstituteforLearningandTeachinginHigherEducation).Currently,MichelleisdoingherPhDwiththeUniversityofLondon,exploringleadershipinmulti-campusschools.

Schoolleadershipandlearning:AnAustralianoverview1

AbstractThispaperdrawstogetherfindingsfromarecentmajorreviewofschoolleadershipinAustralia.In2006,DESTcommissionedanACERteamtopreparetheCountry Background ReportaspartofAustralia’scontributiontotheOECD’sinternationalactivityImproving School Leadership.PreparationofthereportprovidedatimelyopportunitytoconsultwithkeystakeholdersandreflectonschoolleadershipissuesinAustralia.Theresearchconfirmsthatleadershipisimportantforstudentlearning:academicachievement,academicself-conceptandengagementinlearningareshapedbyteacherandschoolpracticesthatareinfluencedbyschoolleadership.Leaderscontributetostudentlearningthroughtheirinfluenceonotherstaff,organisationalcapacityandcontext.However,thereneedstobegreaterclarityaroundtheworkschoolleadersareexpectedtodo,and

howtheycanbestbesupported,iftheyaretoavoidroleoverloadandretainthekeyfocusonimprovingstudentlearning.Creatingtheconditionsforeffectiveschoolleadershiprequiresfocusandsupportfromthesystemswithinwhichmostleaderswork.Thepaperdiscussessomepromisinginitiativesintheseregards,alongwithprioritiesforfurtherdevelopmentandresearch.

Introduction: Why the focus on school leadership?In2006,theOECDlaunchedamajorinternationalproject,ImprovingSchoolLeadership.Ithasattractedagreatdealofinterest:Australiaisoneof22countriestakingpart2.

2 Informationontheprojectisavailablefrom:www.oecd.org/edu

1 ThispaperdrawsonthereportAustralia:CountryBackgroundReport.OECDImprovingSchoolLeadershipActivitybyAndersonetal.(2007).ThereportwascommissionedbytheAustralianGovernmentDepartmentofEducation,Science&Training.ThecontributionsofDEST,theprojectNationalAdvisoryCommittee,andtheindividualsandorganisationsconsultedforthatreportaregratefullyacknowledged.Theviewsinthispaperarethoseoftheauthorsandnotnecessarilyofanyotherorganisationorindividual.


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Theprojectwasstimulatedbyseveralrelatedissues.First,effectiveschoolleadershipisincreasinglyviewedasakeytoeducationreformandimprovedschoolingoutcomes.Asaconsequence,therolesandexpectationsforschoolleadershavechangedsubstantially–beingagoodmanagerabletoimplementdecisionsmadeinheadofficenolongerfulfilsthejobdescriptioninmostOECDcountries.Second,despitethegrowingimportanceattachedtoschoolleadership–orisitbecauseofthegrowingimportance?–anumberofcountriesarestrugglingtoattractwell-qualifiedapplicantstotakeonleadershiproles(OECD,2005).Third,therearealsoconcernsabouttheextenttowhichleadersareadequatelypreparedforthejob,andtheavailabilityofongoingprofessionallearningopportunities.

TheOECDprojectisanexerciseininternationalcollaborationthatisexploringthefollowingkeyquestions:

• Whataretherolesandresponsibilitiesofschoolleadersunderdifferentgovernancestructures?Whatseemtobepromisingpoliciesandconditionsformakingschoolleadersmosteffectiveinimprovingschooloutcomes?

• Howcaneffectiveschoolleadershipbebestdevelopedandsupported?Whatpoliciesandpracticeswouldbemostconducivetotheseends?

TheintentionistohelpbetterunderstandthechangingnatureofschoolleadershipinOECDcountriesandforcountriestoshareexperiencesandlearnfromeachother.

In2006,aspartofAustralia’sinvolvement,DESTcommissionedanACERteamtoprepareacountrybackgroundreportinaccordancewiththeOECD’sguidelinesandquestions.Theguidelinesadoptedabroadviewofschoolleadership:theauthorityandresponsibilitytoleaddonotnecessarily

resideonlyinoneperson,butcanbedistributedwithinschoolsandamongdifferentpeople.Theprojectteamconductedadetailedresearchreviewandconsultedwithabroadrangeoforganisationsandindividualsthroughoutthecountrytoproducethereport(Andersonet al.,2007).

InAustraliathefieldofschoolleadershiphasbeengrowingrapidlyinrecentyearsandawidevarietyofinitiativesareunderway.Partlybecauseofallthisactivity,butalsobecauseofthediversenatureofAustralianschooling,theknowledgebaseaboutschoolleadershipissomewhatfragmentedandpolicyprioritiesarenotalwaysclear.PreparationofthecountrybackgroundreportprovidedatimelyopportunitytoconsultwithkeystakeholdersandreflectonschoolleadershipissuesinAustralia.

Thispaperfocusesonwhatareperhapsthetwokeyissuesexaminedinthereport–howcan(anddo)schoolleadersinfluencestudentlearning?;andwhatcanschoolsystemsdotobettersupporttheminthistask?

Indiscussingtheseissues,cautionisneededingeneralisingacrossthediversityofAustralianschooling.Unlikesomeothercountries,Australiadoesnothaveasingleschoolsystem.Whileschoolingacrossthecountryhasmanycommonfeatures,andtherehavebeensignificantstepstowardsachievinggreaternationalconsistency,thereareanumberofdifferencesthataffectschooloperations.Thesituationismadeevenmorecomplexbytheexistenceofasubstantialanddiversenon-governmentschoolsectorthatenrolsone-thirdofallstudents.

How does leadership influence student learning?Thereareformidableconceptualandempiricalchallengesinestablishingthelinksbetweenschoolleadership

andschooloutcomes.Awiderangeofdifferentfactorsarepotentiallyimportantinshapingstudentoutcomes.Schoolleadershipinfluencesthesefactorsandisinfluencedbytheminwaysthataredifficulttoconceptualiseandmeasure.Nevertheless,anextensiveresearchbasesupportstheviewthatleadershipisofcriticalimportanceineffectiveschooling(forfurtherdetails,seeMulford,2007).

ItcanbeconcludedthatitdoesmatterwhichAustralianschoolastudentattendsandhowthatschoolisorganisedandled.Studentacademicachievement,academicself-conceptandengagementandparticipationinschoolandthenfurtherstudyand/orworkhavebeenshowntobelinkedtoteacherandschoolpractices,thatis,practicesthatcanbeinfluencedbyschoolleadership.

Agreatdealoftheschool’ssuccessdependsonwhichareastheeducationalleaderchoosestospendtimeandattention.Sinceasingleinputbyaleadercanhavemultipleoutcomes,leadersneedtobeabletoseethewholeaswellastheindividualelementsandtherelationshipsbetweenthemovertime.

Australianresearchdemonstratesthatsuccessismorelikelywhentheschoolsarecollegial,consultative,collaborativeandinvolvepartnerships,andmattersaresharedandownedbystakeholders.Small,ruralschoolsofferparticularchallengesinthisregard.AnexampleofAustralianresearchsupportingtheseclaimsisatwo-yearcasestudyandquestionnairestudyinvolving96SouthAustralianandTasmaniansecondaryschools,includingover5,000studentsand3,700teachersandtheirprincipals(Silins&Mulford,2004).Theresearchfoundthatleadershipthatmakesadifferenceinbothposition-based(principal)anddistributed(administrativeteamandteachers)contexts.However,bothformsof


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leadershipareonlyindirectlyrelatedtostudentoutcomes.

Theimportantvariablethatlinksleadership,teachers’workandstudentoutcomesisorganisational learning supported by appropriate and ongoing professional development.Organisationallearninginvolvesthreesequentialdevelopmentstages:atrustingandcollaborativeclimate;asharedandmonitoredmission;andtakinginitiativesandrisks.Theprocessidentifiedbytheresearchisthatleadershipcontributestoorganisationallearning,whichinturninfluenceswhathappensinthecorebusinessoftheschool–theteachingandlearning.Itinfluencesthewaystudentsperceivetheirschooling,howteachersorganiseandconducttheirinstruction,andtheireducationalinteractionswith,andexpectationsfor,theirstudents.

TheSouthAustralianandTasmanianresearchalsofoundthatstudents’positiveperceptionsofteachers’workdirectlypromotestheirparticipationinschool,academicself-conceptandengagementwithschool.Studentparticipationisdirectlyandstudentengagementindirectly(throughretentionatschool)relatedtoacademicachievement.Schoolsizeisnegatively,andsocioeconomicstatusandstudenthomeeducationalenvironmentarepositively,linkedtotheserelationships.

Theresearchindicatesthatparticularleadershippracticesseemtobemoreeffectiveinpromotingimprovedstudentoutcomesinschools:

• valuesheldbysuccessfulprincipalsincludebeingethical,authenticandconsultativeanddemonstratingintegrity,compassionandanabilitytopromotestaffownership;

• successfulprincipalsprovideindividualsupport,developorganisationalculture(workingwithandthroughotherstobuild

professionalcommitmentandcapacitythatfocusesonteachingandlearning),andprovidestructure,vision,expectationsforperformanceandintellectualstimulation;however,thereisaneedforstaffownershipforanychangesinschoolstructureandorganisationtobeaccepted;

• distributedorsharedleadershipisvitalforschoolsuccess,especiallywhereitiscollaborative,facilitative,focusesonstudentlearningandimprovement,ismotivatingforteachersandstudentsalike,anddevelopsacriticalmassofreform-mindedstaff.

Theresearchdoesnotimplythatthatthereisa‘onesizefitsall’formulaforeffectiveschoolleadership.ThecontextforleadershipandschoolreformmustbetakenmoreintoaccountwithvariablessuchasEducationDepartmentpoliciesandpractices,schoollocation,schoolsize,andhomeeducationalenvironmenthavingbeenshowntohaveaclear,interactiveeffectonleadership,theschoolandstudentoutcomes.

AlthoughthebackgroundreportwasabletodrawonawiderangeofAustralianresearchstudies,thisisachallengingareaofworkthatneedsongoingsupport,thedevelopmentofnewconceptualisationsandempiricalapproaches,andcloseinteractionwiththefieldsofpolicyandpractice.

How can leaders be supported in focusing on student learning?Findingthe‘nextgeneration’ofschoolleadersisakeyissueinAustralia.Itdrawsattentiontotheneedforbetterpathwaysandprocessesofsupportforprospectiveandestablishedschoolleaders.Althoughschoolleadershipisprominentinpolicyandpractice,thebackgroundreportsuggeststhat

Australiaisexperiencingseriousleadershipsupplyproblems(e.g.fillingprincipalvacancies,andidentificationofaspirants).Alongwithsuchproblemsareanumberoffactorsinfluencingtheattractivenessofleadershippositions(e.g.negativemediacoverageandtheintensifiednatureofleaders’work).Paradoxically,however,surveysofprincipalsshowthatwhileroleoverloadandstressarecommonlyexperienced,thelargemajorityalsoreportthattheirroleasprincipalgivesthemgreatsatisfaction.Itwouldseemthattheexcitementandrewardsfromleaders’workarenotbeingcommunicatedclearlyenoughtotheteacherworkforceasawholeorthepublicatlarge.

InmostschoolsandschoolsystemsinAustraliatheonlyformalqualificationsrequiredofschoolleaders,includingprincipals,arethesameasthoseforteachers–completionofafour-yearpre-serviceeducationcoursefromarecognisedinstitutionandregistrationwiththeappropriatestateregulatorybody.Manyaspirantandpractisingprincipals,however,doengageinpostgraduatestudyandavarietyofformsofprofessionallearning.Somespecificrequirementsforbecomingaschoolleaderareevidentinsomesectors(e.g.theCatholicschoolsysteminWesternAustralia).

Mostschoolsystemshavenowdevelopedaleadershipcontinuumframeworkthattracesthe‘leadershipjourney’fromaspirationsthroughtobeginninginleadershiproles,consolidationandgrowth,highachievementintherole,andtransitionstootherroles.Suchcontinuaarebeingusedtosupportthepreparationandongoingprofessionallearningofschoolleadersbyidentifyingthetypesoffoundationprogramsandotheractivitiesneededatdifferentstagesofthecareer.


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Alongwithcontinua,theuseofstandardsframeworkstoguidetheprofessionallearninganddevelopmentofschoolleadersisanotabledevelopmentinrecentyears(seealsoIngvarson&Anderson,2007).Developedbyschoolleaderprofessionalassociations,employersandresearchers,themorerecentsetsofstandardsreflectacomplexandcomprehensiveprofessionalknowledgebase.Thisisincontrasttothelistsofcompetenciesandelementsofjobdescriptionswhichcharacterisedmanyofthestatementsaboutleaders’workinthe1990s.

Principalpreparationandotherschoolleadershipprogramsreflectavarietyofstructures,collaborations,institutionalarrangementsandmoreactivemodesoflearning.Theseincludemeasurestoaddressleadershipcapacity-building,first-timeandexperiencedprincipalmentoringandshadowingprograms.AnumberoftheseinitiativeshavebeendevelopedcollaborativelyandsharedacrossStateandTerritoryeducationauthoritiesandsectorsofschooling.

AnewdevelopmentforAustraliaisTeachingAustralia’snationandprofession-wideinitscoverage,LeadingAustralia’sSchoolsProgram.Theprogramisdesignedtomeettheneedsofmid-careerprincipalswithupto80principalparticipantsperyearintwocohorts.Theintentionistodevelopacriticalmassofhigh-performingschoolleaders,whointurncantakeonresponsibilityforschoolimprovementatschoolandsystemlevels.

Overall,professionallearningopportunitiesareprobablymostwidelyestablishedfornewlyappointedprincipals(e.g.inductionprograms).However,anumberofprogramsspecificallytargetwomenandIndigenousleadership.Inlightofcallsforaneedtospreadtheleadershiploadinschoolsandtodevelopschoolsasprofessionallearningcommunities,

theprofessionallearningofleadershipteamsseemsalsosettoincreaseinimportance.

Althoughmuchhasbeenaccomplishedinrecentyearsinbetterpreparingandsupportingschoolleaders,somesignificantchallengesremain:

1 Identifyingthosefactorsthatareofcentralimportanceinthepreparationofschoolleaders.Thedevelopmentanduseofleadershipstandardsframeworkscanplayasignificantroleinthisregardsolongastheframeworksdrawonastrongevidencebaseandaresubjecttoongoingmonitoringandevaluation.

2 Strikinganappropriatebalancebetweendevelopingcapabilityandcompetencyaspectstoleadingandmanagingaschool,andmeetingindividualandschoolsystemneeds,isacontinuingchallenge.

3 ImprovingtheresearchevidenceinAustraliaabouthowspecificprogramcomponentsaffectschoolleaders’developmentandperformanceonthejob,andhowthebenefitscomparetoprogramcosts.Therelativelysmall-scaleandfragmentednatureofmuchresearchmakesitdifficulttodevelopknowledgeandunderstandingofqualityprofessionalleadershiplearning.

ConclusionAlthoughAustraliahasagoodoverallrecordinschooloutcomes,includingininternationalcomparisonsofstudentperformance,therearestrongpressurestoliftschoolingqualityandimproveequity.Moreresponsibilitieshavebeendevolvedtoschoolsandaccountabilitydemandshaveincreased.Theleadersofmostschoolsarerequiredtoworkwiththeirstaffandcommunitytodevelopstrategicplanswithclearlyarticulatedoutcometargetsandimprovementstrategies.Successismorelikely

whentheschoolsarecollegialandconsultative.Creatingtheconditionsforeffectiveschoolleadershiprequiresastrongsenseofpartnershipandsupportfromtheschoolsystemswithinwhichmostleaderswork.

ReferencesAnderson,M.,Gronn,P.,Ingvarson,L.,

Jackson,A.,Kleinhenz,E.,McKenzie,P.,Mulford,B.,&Thornton,N.(2007).Australia: Country Background Report. OECD Improving School Leadership Activity.AreportpreparedfortheAustralianGovernmentDepartmentofEducation,ScienceandTraining.Melbourne:ACER.

Ingvarson,L.,&Anderson,M.(2007).Standardsforschoolleadership:gatewaytoastrongerprofession?PresentationtotheACERResearchConference,The Leadership Challenge: Improving Learning in Schools.Melbourne,August.

Mulford,B.(2007).QualityAustralianevidenceonleadershipforimprovedstudentlearning.PresentationtotheACERResearchConference,TheLeadershipChallenge:Improving Learning in Schools.Melbourne,August.

OrganisationforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment.(2005).Teachers Matter: Attracting, Developing and Retaining Effective Teachers.Paris:OECD.

Silins,H.,&Mulford,B.(2004).Schools as learning organisations: effects on teacher leadership and student outcomes. School Effectiveness and School Improvement.15(3–4),443–466.


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Leadershipforradicaltransformationinschooleducation

Brian�J.�CaldwellEducational Transformations, Victoria

ProfessorBrianJ.CaldwellisManagingDirectorofEducationalTransformationsandAssociateDirectorofiNet(Global)(InternationalNetworkingforEducationalTransformation).BrianisalsoaProfessorialFellowattheUniversityofMelbournewhereheservedasDeanofEducationfrom1998to2004.Hisworkoverthelast25yearsincludesmorethan400presentations,projectsandotherprofessionalassignmentsinorfor37countriesorjurisdictionsonsixcontinents.Heisauthororco-authorofbooksthathelpedguideeducationalreforminseveralcountries,mostnotablythetrilogyonself-managingschools.Re-imagining Educational Leadership(2006)andRaising the Stakes: From Improvement to Transformation in the Reform of Schools(2008,forthcoming)buildthecaseforradicalreforminschooleducationandbuildingastrongercapacityforleadershipandgovernance.HeisadirectorandDeputyChairoftheBoardoftheAustralianCouncilforEducationalResearch(ACER);FellowandLifeMemberoftheAustralianCouncilforEducationalLeaders(ACEL);andaFellowoftheAustralianCollegeofEducators(ACE).

TheassistanceofJessicaHarrisandJimSpinksintheconductofworkshopsandreviewofliteratureisacknowledged.

AbstractTherearenowhighexpectationsinAustraliaandcomparablecountriesforthereformofschooleducation.Changeonthescaleoftransformationisrequired,thatis,significant,systematicandsustainedchangethatsecuressuccessforallstudentsinallsettings.Itisevidentthatsuchanoutcomecanonlybeachievedifthereisadramaticincreaseinresources,butthisdoesnotmeananexclusiverelianceonmoremoney(financialcapital),althoughthisisimportant.Intellectualcapital,socialcapitalandspiritualcapitalarealsoimportant.Buildingstrengthineachandsecuringtheiralignmenthaveprofoundimplicationsforleadershipandgovernanceinschools.

MethodologyIn2004,Ibeganareviewofdevelopmentsinself-managingschools.Aself-managingschoolisaschoolinasystemofeducationthathasexperiencedasignificantamountofdecentralisationofauthorityandresponsibility.Aselfmanagingschoolisempoweredtomakedecisionsrelatedtotheallocationofresourceswithinacentrallydeterminedframeworkofgoals,policies,standardsandaccountabilities.Akeyelementinthereviewwasaseriesofworkshopswithschoolleadersinself-managingschools.Ninewereconductedovernineweeksinearly2005inAustralia,Chile,EnglandandNewZealandandtheseyieldednewinsights,includingthewayinwhichtherolesofschoolleaderswerechanging.FivewereconductedintwostatesofAustraliainlate2005tofocusmoresharplyonschoolleadership.ThefindingswerereportedinRe-imagining Educational Leadership(Caldwell,2006).NineteenworkshopswereconductedaroundAustraliain2006toshareideasfromthebookandlearnmore.IworkedwithJimSpinkstoconductsixworkshopsinEngland

in2006.Weshiftedthefocustohowschoolsacquiredandutiliseddifferentkindsofresourcesintheireffortstoachievetransformation.ThefindingsarereportedinRaising the Stakes: From improvement to transformation in the reform of schools(Caldwell&Spinks,2008).Inmostofthese38workshops,aninteractivetechnologywasemployedtogatherthousandsofresponses.Thispaperisconcernedwiththecomplexityofleadershipandgovernanceinstrengtheningandaligningresourcestoachievetransformation.

A broader view of resourcesWefoundthatfourkindsofresources–werefertothemas‘capital’–arerequiredfortransformationandthateachmustbestrongandtheymustbealignedwiththeuniquemixofneeds,interests,aptitudesandaspirationsthatexistineachschool.Tobuildthisstrengthandsecuresuchalignmentrequiresoutstandingleadershipandgovernance.

• Intellectual capitalreferstothelevelofknowledgeandskillofthosewhoworkinorfortheschool,allofwhomshouldbeattheforefrontofknowledgeandskill.

• Social capitalreferstothestrengthofformalandinformalpartnershipsandnetworksinvolvingtheschool,parents,community,businessandindustry,indeed,allindividuals,agencies,organisationsandinstitutionsthathavethepotentialtosupportand,whereappropriate,besupportedbytheschool.

• Spiritual capitalreferstothestrengthofmoralpurposeandthedegreeofcoherenceamongvalues,beliefsandattitudesaboutlifeandlearning.Forsomeschools,spiritualcapitalhasafoundationinreligion.Inotherschools,spiritualcapitalmayrefertoethicsandvaluesshared


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bymembersoftheschoolanditscommunity.

• Financial capitalreferstothemonetaryresourcesavailabletosupporttheschool.Itisacknowledgedthatsomeschoolsareinmorechallengingcircumstancesthanothers.

• Governanceisconcernedwiththeformaldecision-makingprocessesoftheschool,definedinpartbytheauthorities,responsibilitiesandaccountabilitiesofparticipants,andtheinteractionoftheseprocesseswithcivilsociety(civilsocietyisthenetworkofmutuallysupportingrelationshipsthatlinkgovernment,judiciary,business,industry,home,

community,voluntaryagenciesandinstitutions,educationandotherservicesinthepublicandprivatesectors).

Therelationshipbetweentheseformsofcapital,withafocusonthestudent,isillustratedinFigure1.

Intellectual�capital

Rowe’sreviewofliteratureonstudentachievementconcludedthat:

Ineverycasemorevariance[amongmeasuresofstudentachievement]wasaccountedforatthedepartmentlevelthanbetweenschools,andtheproportionofvarianceattheclasslevelwasmorethanatthedepartmentallevel.Ageneralprincipleemergesfromdatasuchastheseandthatis

thesmallertheunitofanalysisandthecloseronegetstothepupil’sexperienceofeducation,thegreatertheproportionofvarianceexplicablebythatunit.Inaccountabilitytermsthemodelsindicatethatteachershavethegreatestinfluence(adaptedfromRowe,2004,p.9).

Thisfindingissupportedbyresearchonteachingin25countriesbytheOECDbetween2002and2004.Teachers Matterclearlydemonstratesthatteacherquality‘isthesinglemostimportantschoolvariableinfluencingstudentachievement’(OECD,2005,p.26).Hattiedrewonanextensivereviewofliteratureandasynthesisoffindingsinmorethanhalfamillionstudiesandreachedasimilarconclusion:

Weshouldfocusonthegreatestsourceofvariancethatcanmakethedifference–theteacher.Weneedtoensurethatthisgreatestinfluenceisoptimisedtohavepowerfulandsensationallypositiveeffects,buttheymustbeexceptionaleffects.Weneedtodirectattentionathigherqualityteaching,andhigherexpectationsthatstudentscanmeetappropriatechallenges–andtheseoccuroncetheclassroomdoorisclosedandnotbyreorganisingwhichorhowmanystudentsarebehindthosedoors,bypromotingdifferenttopicsforteacherstoteach,orbybringinginmorestickstoensuretheyarefollowingpolicy(citedinRowe,2004,pp.12–13).

AnexemplarisFinland(Harris,2006).OneofseveralfactorsaccountingforthesuccessofFinlandinPISAisthequalityofitsteachers.Finnishteachersarehighlyvaluedandwellpaidprofessionalswhoareexpectedtohavehighlevelsofpedagogicalexpertiseandflexibilitywithinanationalcurriculumframeworkinordertoachievesuccesswithstudentswholearninheterogeneousgroups.Applicationstotertiaryeducationstudiesaresohighthatjust10–12percentofapplicantsareacceptedinteachereducationprograms.Thehighlevelofpre-service

StudentSocialcapital

Financialcapital

Intellectualcapital

Spiritualcapital

…creating unprecedented opportunity for learners a

nd learni

ng

The Global Challenge…

GOVERNANCE

Figure�1:Aligningthefourformsofcapital


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trainingissaidtocontributetothesocialstatusofteachersinFinlandandisanattractiontocapablestudents(OECD,2005,p.100).

Thefollowingsampleindicatorsofintellectualcapitalillustratecomplexityintherolesofleadersandmanagersinschools.Untilrecently,therewerefewcounterparts,especiallyinschoolsinthepublicsector.

1 Thestaffallocatedtoorselectedbytheschoolareattheforefrontofknowledgeandskillinrequireddisciplinesandpedagogies.

2 Theschoolidentifiesandimplementsoutstandingpracticeobservedinorreportedbyotherschools.

3 Theschoolhasbuiltasubstantial,systematicandsustainedcapacityforacquiringandsharingprofessionalknowledge.

4 Outstandingprofessionalpracticeisrecognisedandrewarded.

5 Theschoolsupportsacomprehensiveandcoherentplanfortheprofessionaldevelopmentofallstaffthatreflectsitsneedsandpriorities.

6 Whennecessary,theschooloutsourcestoaugmenttheprofessionaltalentsofitsstaff.

7 Theschoolparticipatesinnetworkswithotherschoolsandindividuals,organisations,institutionsandagencies,ineducationandotherfields,toshareknowledge,solveproblemsorpoolresources.

8 Theschoolensuresthatadequatefundsaresetasideinthebudgettosupporttheacquisitionanddisseminationofprofessionalknowledge.

9 Theschoolprovidesopportunitiesforstafftoinnovateintheirprofessionalpractice.

10Theschoolsupportsa‘no-blame’culturewhichacceptsthatinnovationsoftenfail.

Social�capital

Fukuyamadefinedsocialcapitalas‘theabilityofpeopletoworktogetherforcommonpurposesingroupsandorganisations’(Fukuyama,1995,p.10).Fukuyama(1995)andPutnam(2000)havewrittenofthelossorabsenceofsocialcapital,especiallyinwesterndemocracies.

Therehasbeengrowinginterestinrecentyearsinfamily-andcommunity-schoolpartnerships,onetypeofrelationshipthatcanenhanceaschool’ssocialcapital.Theassumptionisthatschoolsandtheireffortstosecuresuccessfortheirstudentscanbesupportedbymembersofthelocalcommunitywho,inturn,maybesupportedintheiractivitiesbytheschool.IntheexampleofFinland,thelocalmunicipalityfundsbothschoolandextra-curricularactivities,suchasmusictuitionforstudents.Manylocalschools,inturn,allowtheirfacilitiestobeusedbymembersofthelocalcommunityforadulteducationclassesandsupportprovidersbyassistingthemtomaintainlowcostadulteducationprograms(Harris,2006).ToparaphraseFukuyama’s(1995)definitionofsocialcapital,thelocalcouncils,schoolsandadulteducationprovidersinFinlandworktogetherforthecommonpurposeofprovidingmanyformsofeducationtothecommunity.

Interestincreatingpartnershipsbetweenschools,familiesandcommunitiesisfoundedprimarilyinresearchthatsuggeststhatbyimprovingsocialcapital,schoolsmaybeabletosecurehigherlevelsofsuccessfortheirstudents.Coleman’s(1988)studyfoundthatstudentsfromschoolswithhighlevelsofsocialcapitalachievedbetteroutcomesthanschoolswithlowlevels.Hefoundthelinkbetween

socialcapitalandachievementwasparticularlystronginchurch-basedschoolswhichhadstrongcommunitynetworks.Whiletherehavebeenanumberofinconsistenciesinthefindingsofresearchintotherelationshipbetweensocialcapitalandacademicachievement,researchhasconsistentlyshownthatthereisalinkbetweenparentandcommunityinvolvementinschoolsandimprovementsinstudentoutcomes,includingstudentbehaviour,attendanceandretention(Harris&Goodall,2006).Increasedcommunityinvolvementintheschoolalsohasthepotentialtoassiststudentlearningandincreasetheschool’sintellectualcapitalthroughthespecificskills,expertiseandenthusiasmthatmembersofthecommunitycanoffer.

Intermsofcapitalformation,thereisaconnectionbetweensocialcapitalandintellectualcapital.EdwardLesser,aconsultantattheIBMInstituteforKnowledgeManagement,describedtheimportanceofsocialcapitalintheseterms:‘Knowledgeinorganisationsistypicallythoughtofasbeingeitherexplicit(relativelyeasytocapturewhilemaintainingitsvalue)ortacit(difficulttoarticulateanddocumentwithoutlosingitsvalue).Socialcapitalisnecessarytoenabletheeffectivemanagementofbothexplicitandtacitknowledge’(Lesser,2000,p.9).

Thefollowingaresampleindicatorsofsocialcapital.

1 Thereisahighlevelofalignmentbetweentheexpectationsofparentsandotherkeystakeholdersandthemission,vision,goals,policies,plansandprogramsoftheschool.

2 Thereisextensiveandactiveengagementofparentsandothersinthecommunityintheeducationalprogramoftheschool.

3 Parentsandothersinthecommunityserveonthegoverning


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bodyoftheschoolorcontributeinotherwaystothedecision-makingprocess.

4 Parentsandothersinthecommunityareadvocatesoftheschoolandarepreparedtotakeupitscauseinchallengingcircumstances.

5 Theschooldrawscashorin-kindsupportfromindividuals,organisations,agenciesandinstitutionsinthepublicandprivatesectors,ineducationandotherfields,includingbusinessandindustry,philanthropistsandsocialentrepreneurs.

6 Theschoolacceptsthatsupportfromthecommunityhasareciprocalobligationfortheschooltocontributetothebuildingofcommunity.

7 Theschooldrawsfromandcontributestonetworkstoshareknowledge,addressproblemsandpoolresources.

8 Partnershipshavebeendevelopedandsustainedtotheextentthateachpartnergainsfromthearrangement.

9 Resources,bothfinancialandhuman,havebeenallocatedbytheschooltobuildingpartnershipsthatprovidemutualsupport.

10Theschoolisco-locatedwithorlocatednearotherservicesinthecommunityandtheseservicesareutilisedinsupportoftheschool.

Financial�capital

Anexclusiverelianceonmoneyisunlikelytoachievethetransformationofschools.Whilehismessageisoftengreetedbypuzzlementorevenanger,theHooverInstitution’sEricHanushekfoundthatincreasesinfundingforschoolshavehad,withfewexceptionsforsomeprograms,littleimpactoneducationaloutcomes

overmanydecades.Hisconclusioncouldnotbeclearer:‘Theaggregatepictureisconsistentwithavarietyofotherstudiesindicatingthat[financial]resourcesalonehavenotyieldedanysystematicreturnsintermsofstudentperformance.Thecharacterofreformeffortscanlargelybedescribedas“sameoperationswithgreaterintensity”’(Hanushek,2004,p.12).

WhileHanushekwasdealingwithfinancialresourcesonanation-wideorsystem-widebasis,asimilarlineofargumentcanbeputwhenthefocusistheschool.ConsiderthecaseofBellfieldPrimarySchool,whichservestheMelbournesuburbofWestHeidelberg,acommunitycharacterisedbyhighlevelsofaggression,gambling,alcoholanddrugabuse.Enrolmentisabout220andremainssteady.About80percentofchildren’sfamiliesreceivetheEducationMaintenanceAllowance(anindicatorofsocioeconomicstatus),nearly60percentofstudentscomefromsingleparentfamilies,andslightlymorethan20percentarefromnon-Englishspeakingbackgrounds.ManyofthesestudentsarerefugeesfromSomalia.Thereisanenrolmentofabout20studentsIndigenousAustralianstudents.ItisoneofthemostdisadvantagedschoolsinVictoria.The1996TriennialReviewrevealedthatover85percentofstudentswerebehindstate-widebenchmarksinliteracyandnumeracy.

TransformationatBellfieldPrimarySchoolisreflectedintheperformanceofstudentsonteststhatshowremarkableimprovement,bringingtheschoolclosetotheessenceofthedefinitionoftransformation(‘successforallstudentsinallsettings’).ResultsforBellfieldonstate-widetestsinGrade1,assummarisedinTable1,illustratewhathasbeenaccomplished.Noteworthyarecomparisonswithschoolsinsimilarsettings,withallschoolsacrossthestate,andwithresultsin1998.

Table�1:��PercentageofGrade1studentsreadingwith100percentaccuracyatBellfield

Bellfield2004

Likeschools2004

State-wide2004

Bellfield1998

100 26.3 35.9 34.6

Transformationwasachievedbybuildingthecapacityofstaff(intellectualcapital).Itcalledforoutstandingleadership,notablybyformerprincipalJohnFleming(seeCaldwell,2006).AfeatureofTable1istheperformanceofstudentsatBellfieldcomparedtothosein‘likeschools’(schoolswithasimilarprofileofsocioeconomicindicators).ThelatterarefundedonthesamebasisasBellfieldusingtheneeds-basedapproachtofundingself-managingschoolsintheStateofVictoria.Expressedsimply,Bellfieldand‘likeschools’arestartingwiththesameleveloffinancialcapital,yetstudentsatBellfieldperformatafarhigherlevel.Partofthereasonliesinthewaytheschoolhasbuiltitsintellectualcapital.Anotheristhewayithasbuiltsocialcapitalinthecommunitybyworkingcloselywithparentsandcare-giverstoensuretheyunderstandandsupportwhattheschoolisendeavouringtoaccomplish,evenatthemostbasicleveltoensurethattheysendtheirchildrentoschools.Spiritualcapitalisalsoimportantbecauseitisevidentthattherearesharedvaluesandbeliefsamongstaffthatallstudentscanlearnwell,regardlessofthechallengingcircumstancesofthesocioeconomicsetting.

Thefollowingaresampleindicatorsoffinancialcapital.

1 Fundsareraisedfromseveralsourcesincludingallocationsbyformulafromthepublicpurse,fees,contributionsfromthecommunity,andothermoneyraisedfromthepublicandprivatesectors.


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2 Annualplanningoccursinthecontextofamulti-yeardevelopmentplanfortheschool.

3 Thefinancialplanhasamulti-yearoutlookaswellasanannualbudget.

4 Allocationoffundsreflectsprioritiesamongeducationalneedsthattakeaccountofdataonstudentachievement,evidence-basedpractice,andtargetstobeachieved.

5 Thereisappropriateinvolvementofstakeholdersintheplanningprocess.

6 Appropriateaccountingproceduresareestablishedtomonitorandcontrolexpenditure.

7 Moneycanbetransferredfromonecategoryofthebudgettoanotherasneedschangeoremerge.

8 Actualexpenditurematchesintendedexpenditureallowingforflexibilitytomeetemergingneeds.

9 Educationaltargetsareconsistentlyachievedthroughtheplannedallocationoffunds.

10Thefundsfromallsourcesaresufficientandsustainabletomeeteducationalneeds.

Spiritual�capital

Emergingresearchintospiritualcapitalbuildsoncurrentunderstandingsofsocialcapital.Inhisinfluentialresearchintosocialcapital,Putnamfoundthatsharedreligiousbeliefsandpracticesaccountedformorethanhalfofthesocialcapitalthatwasidentifiedinhisstudy.Coleman’s(1988)influentialstudyofsocialcapitalinschoolsalsonotedthatreligiousbeliefswereoneelementofthecommunitywhichhadaninfluenceonsocialcapital.AccordingtoMalloch:

Theoftenusedtermssocialcapitalandhuman(intellectual)capitalthemselvesarebasedtoalargeextentontheexistenceofgoodfaith,trust,stewardship,asenseofpurposeandothermoralcharacteristicswhich

cannotpersistintheabsenceofpiety,solidarityandhopethatcomefromreligiousandspiritualsentiments.Whenthisislost,societiesandeconomiesoftendeclineratherthangrow.Whenthisaboundssocietiesandeconomiesprosper.(Malloch2003,p.8)

Inotherwords,someformofspiritualcapitalisinherentinourunderstandingsofbothsocialandintellectualcapital,whichisalsoreferredtoas‘human’capital.Takingschoolsasanexample,highlevelsofsocialcapital,networksandrelationshipsformedbyschoolswouldnotfunctioneffectivelywithoutsharedtrustand‘othermoralcharacteristics’.Similarly,aschool’sintellectualcapitalcannotbeeffectivelyimplementedwithoutastrongmoralpurposeandsharedvalues.Theinfluenceofspiritualcapitalonsocialandintellectualcapitalshowstheneedforalignmentbetweenalltypesofresources.

Thestrengthofspiritualcapitalinaschoolcommunityhasanumberofbenefitsfortheschool.VanGalen(1997)foundthatmembersofaschoolcommunitywhoshareschoolvaluesaremorelikelytoparticipateinschoolactivities.Whentheysharetheschool’sbeliefsaboutlifeandlearning,parentsaremorelikelytofeelaconnectionwiththeschooland,basedonthisconnection,havebeenfoundtobemoreactiveinadvocatingforschoolimprovementsandpromotingschoolachievements.Furthermore,VanGalen(1997)foundthatwhentheschoolandschoolcommunityareshapedbysharednormsandvaluestherearefewerdisciplineproblemsandhigherlevelsofachievementforallstudents.

Thefollowingaresampleindicatorsofspiritualcapital.

1 Thereisahighlevelofalignmentbetweenthevalues,beliefsandattitudesaboutlifeandlearningheldbytheschoolandmembersofitscommunity.

2 Thevaluesandbeliefsoftheschool,includingwhererelevantthosethatderivefromareligiousfoundation,areembeddedinitsmission,vision,goals,policies,plansandcurriculum.

3 Thevaluesandbeliefsofthecommunityaretakenintoaccountbytheschoolintheformulationofitsmission,vision,goals,policies,plansandcurriculum.

4 Theschoolexplicitlyarticulatesitsvaluesandbeliefsinpublicationsandpresentations.

5 Publicationsandpresentationsinthewidercommunityreflectanunderstandingofthevaluesandbeliefsoftheschool.

6 Therearehighlevelsoftrustbetweentheschoolandmembersofitscommunity

7 Parentsandotherstakeholdersareactiveinpromotingthevaluesandbeliefsoftheschool.

8 Thevaluesandbeliefsoftheschoolareevidentintheactionsofstudentsandstaff.

9 Staffandstudentswhoareexemplarsofthevaluesandbeliefsoftheschoolarerecognisedandrewarded.

10Thevaluesandbeliefsoftheschoolhavesustaineditorarelikelytosustainitintimesofcrisis.

Implications for leadership and governanceTheindicatorsforeachformofcapitalillustratethecomplexityofleadershipandgovernanceiftransformationistobeachieved.SchoolleadershipitselfhasbeentransformedinlessthanagenerationanditisnotsurprisingthatthenumbersofpeopleapplyingfortherolehavedecreasedsharplythroughoutAustraliaandcomparablenations.Animportantimplicationis


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thehighprioritythatshouldbeplacedonthetransformationofprogramsforthepreparationandprofessionaldevelopmentofschoolleaders.Incentivesandrewardsshouldmorecloselyapproximatethoseintheprivatesector.

Thereareimportantimplicationsforthegovernanceofschools.Schoolsrequiretheengagement,supportandadvocacyofkeystakeholders.Assuggestedattheoutset,governanceincludesformaldecisionmakingbutisalsoconcernedwithlinkswith‘civilsociety’.Thereisaneedfortransformationinapproachestogovernance,especiallyinthepublicsector.Thefollowingindicatorsofgoodgovernancemayhelpshapethetransformation.

1 Authorities,responsibilitiesandaccountabilitiesofthegoverningbodyandprofessionalstaffareclearlyspecified.

2 Mechanismsareinplacetoensurethatobligationsinrespecttolegalliabilityandriskmanagementareaddressed.

3 Thereisaclearlystatedconnectionbetweenthepoliciesoftheschoolandintendedoutcomesforstudents.

4 Policieshavebeenpreparedafterconsultationwithkeystakeholderswithintheschoolandthewidercommunity.

5 Policieshavebeenformallyapprovedbythegoverningbody.

6 Policiesareconsistentintheirapplicationacrosstheschoolsothatstudentswiththesameneedsaresupportedinthesamemanner.

7 Dataareusedinmakingdecisionsintheformulationofpoliciesandmakingjudgementsabouttheireffectiveness.

8 Dataaregatheredacrosstherangeofintendedoutcomes.

9 Informationaboutpoliciesandtheirimplementationisreadilyavailabletoallstakeholders.

10Thereisastrongsenseofcommitmenttopoliciesandtheirimplementationonthepartofallstakeholders.

TheseandotherindicatorsprovidedthestartingpointfortheInternationalProjecttoFrametheTransformationofSchoolstobeconductedbyEducationalTransformationsPtyLtd,fundedinpartbytheAustralianGovernment,withpartnersinChina,England,Finland,theUnitedStatesofAmericaandWales.

ReferencesCaldwell,B.J.(2006).Re-imagining

educational leadership. Camberwell:ACERPressandLondon:Sage.

Caldwell,B.J.,&Spinks,J.M.(2008).Raising the stakes: From improvement to transformation in the reform of schools.London:Routledge.

Coleman,J.(1988).Socialcapitalinthecreationofhumancapital.American Journal of Sociology. Volume94,pp95–120.

Fukuyama,F.(1995).Trust: Social virtues and the creation of prosperity.London:HamishHamilton.

Hanushek,E.A.(2004).Somesimpleanalyticsofschoolquality.InvitedpaperattheMakingSchoolsBetterConferenceoftheMelbourneInstituteofAppliedEconomicandSocialResearch,UniversityofMelbourne26–27August.

Harris,J.(2006).Alignment in Finland.OccasionalPaper1.Melbourne:EducationalTransformations.

Harris,A.,&Goodall,J.(2006).Parentalinvolvementineducation:Anoverviewoftheliterature.Unpublishedreportpreparedforthespecialistschoolsandacademiestrust.London:SSAT.

Lesser,E.L.(2000).Leveragingsocialcapitalinorganisations.InLesser,E.L.(Ed.)Knowledge and social capital.Boston:ButterworthHeinemann.Chapter1.

Malloch,T.R.(2003).Social,humanandspiritualcapitalineconomicdevelopment.PaperfortheSpiritualCapitalPlanningMeeting,Cambridge,Massachusetts,October10–11,2003,accessedathttp://www.metanexus.net/spiritual%5Fcapital/pdf/malloch.pdfon5June2007.

OECD.(2005).Teachers matter: Attracting, developing and retaining effective teachers.Paris:OECD.

Putnam,R.D.(2000).Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community. NewYork:Touchstone.

Rowe,K.J.(2004).Theimportanceofteaching:Ensuringbetterschoolingbybuildingteachercapacitiesthatmaximisethequalityofteachingandlearningprovision–ImplicationsoffindingsfromemerginginternationalandAustralianevidence-basedresearch.InvitedpaperattheMakingSchoolsBetterConferenceoftheMelbourneInstituteofAppliedEconomicandSocialResearch,UniversityofMelbourne26–27August.

VanGalen,J.A.(1997).CommunityElders:TheRolesofParentsinaSchoolof‘Choice’.Urban Review. Volume29,Number1.


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Michael�BezzinaAustralian Catholic University

MichaelBezzinajoinedtheSchoolofEducationalLeadership,ACUNationalasanAssociateProfessoratthestartofthe2007academicyear.Fortheprevious15years,hehadbeeninsystemleadershiprolesinCatholiceducationintheDioceseofParramatta,withresponsibilityforareasasdisparateascurriculum,studentwelfare,professionalandleadershipdevelopment,specialeducation,andreligiouseducation.Foronememorablesix-monthperiodheevenactedintheroleofDirectorofFinance!

Inarichandvariedcareerineducationhehasbeenaclassroomteacher,schoolleader,teachereducator,consultant,systemadministratorandresearcher.HehasworkedinprimaryandsecondaryschoolsandwithteachersandleadersinAustralia,NewZealand,PapuaNewGuinea,MauritiusandPakistan.Hehasapassionatecommitmenttotheenhancementofleadershipcapacityinschools,andinparticular,acommitmenttofindingwaysofmakingsharedleadershipareality–aquesttowhichhebringstheperspectivesofbothpractitionerandacademic.

AbstractSharedleadershipineducationhasbeenthefocusofagreatdealofactivity,butlessattentionhasbeenpaidtosharedmoralpurposeandtotheconnectionbetweenitandsharedleadershipinthepursuitoflearning.TheLeadersTransformingLearningandLearners(LTLL)pilotprogramsetouttoexplorethisgap.Thispaperpresentssomeoftheemergingunderstandingsfromthepilot,drawinginparticularonfocusgroupinterviews,journalsandweb-baseddiscussionsasasourceofdata.

Thestudyreinforcestheimportanceofsharedmoralpurpose,butemphasisestheneedforexplicitnesswhichissupportedthroughacommonconceptualframeworkandaconsistencyintheuseoflanguage.

TheexperienceoftheLTLLschoolsalsoaffirmstheplaceofsharedleadershipinthepursuitofauthenticlearning,butatthesametimewarnsagainstsimplisticformulationsofhowthismightbestbelivedout.

IntroductionThispaperexplorestheroleofsharedmoralpurposeandsharedleadershipinsupportingteachersastheystriveforauthenticlearningintheirschoolsandclassrooms.Muchhasalreadybeensaidandwrittenaboutsharedleadershipwithitsmanylabelsandmanyforms,butlessattentionhasbeenpaidtowhatsharedmoralpurposemightlooklikeinpractice,andtotheconnectionbetweenthisandsharedleadershipinthepursuitoflearning.Thisgapwillbeexploredthroughabriefexaminationoftheliteratureandbyexploringtheinsightswhicharegrowingoutofapilotprogramconductedinnineschoolsduring2005and2006.ThisprogramisknownasLeadersTransforming

LearningandLearners(LTLL).IacknowledgeherethecontributionstothisprojectofmyacademiccolleaguesProfessorPatrickDuignanandAssociateProfessorCharlesBurford,whohavebeencloselyengagedintheresearchelementoftheproject.

Shared moral purposeWhetherlabelled‘sharedwholeschoolvisionandgoals’(Cuttanceetal.,2003)or‘communityvalues’(Andrews&Lewis,2004)orsimply‘moralpurpose’(Fullan,2001;MacBeath,2005),asharedmoralpurposehasbeenconsistentlyidentifiedintheliteratureasoneofthefundamentalnecessitiesforbringingaboutthekindofchangeandimprovementthatwilldeliverdesirablestudentlearninginschools.

BarberandFullan(2005)provideausefulworkingdefinitionofmoralpurpose.Itis:

thelinkbetweensystemsthinkingandsustainability.Youcannotmovesubstantiallytowardsustainabilityintheabsenceofwidelysharedmoralpurpose.Thecentralmoralpurposeconsistsofconstantlyimprovingstudentachievementandensuringthatachievementgaps,wherevertheyexist,arenarrowed.Inshort,it’saboutraisingthebarandnarrowingthegap.

Thereisaneedforthissharedsenseofpurposetobegroundedinasharedcommitmenttoexplicitvalues(Andrews&Lewis,2004).Inotherwords,itisnotsufficienttohaveabroadaspiration.Thereneedstobeclarityanddetailinthewaythepurposeisunderstood–andinparticularaboutthevaluesthatunderpinit.

Thechallengeistofindawaytosurfacethismoralpurposeandthentomakeitpartofthediscourseoftheschoolsothatitcanbeembeddedinpractice.Whilethesourcescitedsofar

Moralpurposeandsharedleadership:Theleaderstransforminglearningandlearnerspilotstudy


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inthispapergivestrongsupporttotheneedforsharedmoralpurpose,andgosofarastoencourageexplicitness,theydevotemoreattentiontoissuesofsharingthantothedetailedunderstandingofthemoralpurposeofwhichtheyspeak.Inparticular,sharedleadershipisseenasaprimarywayofenhancingthepursuitof,andcommitmenttomoralpurpose.

Shared leadershipInastudyofleadershipinserviceorganisations,Duignan(2003)advocatestheneedforanimportantshiftinthemeaning,perspectiveandscope(depthandbreadth)ofleadershipinschools,inordertobuildorganisationalculturesthatpromote,nurtureandsupportsharedleadership.Inotherwords,increasedattentionisbeingdevotedtounderstandingsoftheexerciseofinfluencewithinschoolswhichgoesbeyondtheindividualinaformalroleorwithastrongpersonality.Forreasonsthatrangefromsurvival,toefficacy,throughtoprinciple,thepracticeofinvestingleadershipsolelyinindividualsisnolongersustainable(Duignan&Bezzina,2006).

Theargumentsforthisformofleadershipusemanylabels:‘sharedleadership’(e.g.Lambert2002);‘distributedleadership’(e.g.Hargreaves&Fink,2004;NCSL,2006);or‘parallelleadership’(e.g.Crowther,Hann&Andrews,2002;Crowther,Kaagan,Ferguson&Hann,2002).Thesearchforleadershipnowisforapropertythatinheresintheschoolcommunityratherthanitsindividualmembers.

Thereseemstobeanassumptionthatbecauseleadershipthatissharedreflectsamoredemocraticandcollaborativeapproach,itisnecessarilya‘goodthing’,andthatonceweacceptthisconclusionsuchformsofleadershipareeasilyachieved.DuignanandIhavecanvassedtheproblemswiththisassertionelsewhere(Duignan&

Bezzina,2006),andthesewillnotberevisitedinthispaper.Sufficeittosaythat,whilesimplisticassumptionsaboutsharedleadershiparenothelpful,therearestillpowerfulargumentssupportingitspractice.

Havingclarifiedunderstandingsofsharedmoralpurpose,andsharedleadershipasameansofbringingthisintoreality,attentionnowturnstothecentralpillarofsharedpurposeinschools–authenticlearning.

Authentic learningStarratt’s(2004)challengetoeducatorsistoinfuseacademiclearningwithapersonaldimension,andtherebytoenrichthewholelearningprocess.Hearguesstrongly–evenconfrontingly–thatlearningthatisnotauthentictotheneedsofthestudents’lifeorworldisnotonlyinappropriatebutunethical.Thisisarealchallenge.

Whatdoesauthenticlearninglooklike?Amongotherthings,itwouldpromote:

• developmentofpersonalmeaning;

• awarenessofrelationshipbetweentheselfandthesubject/objectofstudy;

• respectfortheintegrityofthesubject/objectofstudy;

• appreciationofimplicationsforthetrajectoryofone’slife;

• applicationofarichunderstandingofthesubject/objectofstudyinpractice;

• transformationintoamorefullyhumanindividual.

(Duignan&Bezzina,2004)

TheLTLLpilotsetouttoexplorehowleadershipandlearningpracticesbasedonasharedmoralpurposemightfacilitatetheworkofteachersandleadersinenhancingauthenticstudentlearning.

Leaders transforming learning and learners pilotLTLLwasdesignedandmanagedcollaborativelybyrepresentativesoftheAustralianCatholicUniversity,thecasestudyschoolsandthesystemstowhichtheybelonged.Ithadthreemajordimensionsacrossthe18monthsofitsduration.

First,atentativeconceptualframeworkwasdeveloped,whichelaboratedandmadeexplicitthedimensionsofvalues,ethics,leadershipandlearningwhichwereseenaslikelytocontributetoauthentic(transformed)learningforstudents.

Second,thecasestudyschoolswereengagedinaprofessionaldevelopmentprogramwhichfamiliarisedthemwiththeframeworkandassistedthemtoimplementitsinsightsinself-selectedschoolimprovementprojects.Thisprogramprovidedthemwithexposuretoelementsofthemodelandtheopportunitytoengagewithalltheothercasestudyschoolsastheyworkedthroughtheirownschool’sproject.

Third,aresearchelementtappedintoparticipantperceptionsusingreflectivetools,discussions,web-basedsharing,journals,focusinterviewsandschoolpresentationsataclosingconference.

Therewereninecasestudyschools,drawnfromfourCatholiceducationalsystemsinNSW.TwoofthesesystemswerebasedincountrycitiesandtheothertwowereinmetropolitanSydney.Thirty-threeteachersmadeupthenineprojectteamswhowerepartofthestudy.

Aconceptualframeworkwasattheheartoftheinitiative.Theresearchersmadeuseoftheadvantageofhavingagroupofschoolswithacommonreligiousbackgroundtoworktowardsanelaborationofmoralpurpose,and


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thentoalignthisinapreliminarywaywithwhattheysawastheemergingconsensusintheresearchonleadershipandlearningbehavioursthathadbeenshowntoenhancestudentlearning(e.g.Crowther,Hann,&Andrews,2002;Crowther,Kaagan,Ferguson,&Hann,2002;Cuttance,etal.,2003;Marzano,Waters,&McNulty,2005).

IntheframeworkwhichemergedinthecaseofLTLL,thevaluesystemgivesrisetotheidentificationofanoverarchinggoal(transformedlearners)thatcanbeattainedbymeansofaseriesofbehavioursintheleadershipandlearningdomains(whicharethemselvesvaluebasedandethical).Theframeworkisnecessarilytentative,andwasintendedtobeastartingpointforstructuredconversationsaboutvalues,ethics,learningandleadershipinthecasestudyschools,withtheobjectiveofexploringunderstandingsofthedynamicsatwork,anddeterminingwhethersuchaframeworkwouldbeseenasusefulbypractitioners.

ThemodelappearsinFigure1.

Thefindingsfromthepilotstudyaresummarisedbelow.

LTLL and shared moral purposeTable1summarisestheperceptionsofthenineprojectteamsrelatedtomoralpurpose,gatheredinfocusinterviews.Nospecificquestionaskedintheinterviewaddressedthisissuedirectly;howeverthefrequencywithwhichitismentionedhighlightsitssignificanceforparticipants.

Thetranscriptsoftheinterviewscontainnumerousreferencestothemoralandethicalbasesofleadershipandlearning.Typicalcommentsincludedthefollowing:

themodelformehasreallyemphasised…themoralnatureofteaching…

and:

(themodel)highlightedthevaluesandethicsthatunderpin…authenticleadership.

OneofthekeybenefitsoftheLTLLapproachnotedbyparticipantswasthewayinwhichitmadethemoralpurposeexplicit.

Wepresenteddifferentaspectsofthemodeltotheteachersandlookingatalltheindicators…wellthisiswhatweshouldbedoingifweareCatholic,orexcellent,orjust…Itwasfabulous

Figure�1:��Aframeworkfortransforminglearningandlearners

Table�1:��PerceptionsofLTLLcasestudyschoolsrelatedtosharedmoralpurpose

ThemeNumber�of�

schools

Themodelfocusedusonissuesofidentity,authenticityandtransformation 8

Thevalues/ethicscomponentswereofparticularsignificance 7

Transformationwasseenasakeyelementofauthenticlearning 6

Leadershipisunderpinnedbyvalues/ethics 5

Theneedforauthenticity,significance–asenseofthebigpictureinstructuringlearning

4

TRANSFORMINGLEARNERS

VALUES

• Catholicity• Excellence• Justice• Transformation• Common good

ETHICS

• Authenticity• Presence• Responsibility

LEADERSHIP

• Participative Practice

• Evidence-based practice

• Professional learning• Sustainability• Community and

culture• Change• External networking• Capabilities

LEARNING

• Curriculum standards and targets

• School and class organisation

• Pedagogy-teaching• Pedagogy-learning• Intervention

programs• Monitoring,

assessment and reporting

TRANSFORMING�LEARNING


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becauseitreallyprickedsomepeople’sconsciences.

Animportantdimensionofexplicitnesswasthedevelopmentofsharedlanguage.Forexample:

It’sthecombinationofthetheoryandthebottomendstuffbecausewe’vebeengiven,throughthetheory…awholelotoflanguagethatwe’vebeenabletouseandvalidatewhywewoulddothingsinacertainway,that’smadeitreallylogicalandsothat’sgotteneveryoneonboard.

TheuseoftheLTLLprocessandframeworkwasvaluedbyparticipatingschoolsforitsstrongfoundationsinthemoralpurposeoftheirschools,forthewayinwhichitmadeexplicitvariousdimensionsofthispurposethroughtheidentificationofindicatorsandtheuseofconsistentlanguage,foritsimpactonteacherbeliefsandpracticesandforitscapacitytoengagepeoplecollaborativelyinconsiderationofmoralpurpose.

LTLL and shared leadershipTable2summarisestheperceptionsofthenineschoolsrelatedtocollaborationandsharedleadership,gatheredinfocusinterviewswithprojectteams.Again,respondentswerenotprompteddirectlytocommentonthisdimension.

ThecollaborativenatureoftheLTLLprojectwasvaluedbyparticipantsforitscapacitytoenhanceprofessionallearning,toovercometensionsaroundtheprospectofchangeandtoovercometheisolationoftheclassroom.

Onecommentcapturedtheveryrealsenseofownershipthatwasafeatureoftheproject:

Soonceyouownit,inthesenseyoustartleadingthatlearningratherthanbeingpasseddownfromonhigh,andthere’snoownership.

Sharedleadershipwasnottakenforgrantedbyparticipants,andtheopportunitiespresentedbyLTLLfortheexerciseofsuchleadershipwerevalued,whilestillrecognisingtheessentialnatureofindividuals(andusuallytheprincipal)totakestronginitiatives.Oneparticipantcommentedabouttheirschool’sinitiative:

Itdidn’tcomefromstaff,itdidn’tcomeaboutasrecommendationsofstaff,itcameaboutfromsomebodywhohadtheoverviewoftheschoolandaveryclearandrecentoverviewasaresultofschoolreviewandrecommendationsmadethroughthatreview.SoIthinkthatleadershipwascrucialatthatpointbecausetheinitialconceptionoftheprojectcamefromthatpoint.

Thusfartheissuesofsharedmoralpurposeandsharedleadershiphavebeentreatedinisolation.Thefocus

turnsnexttotheinterplaybetweenthesetwodynamics.

Shared moral purpose and shared leadership: the interplayThedynamicinterplaybetweensharedmoralpurposeandsharedleadershipwasaccuratelycapturedbyaparticipantinoneschool’sfocusgroupinterview,whosaid:

Well,Ithinkthefurtherwegotintoit,themoreitbecameapparentthatthemoreownershipeverybodyhas,andthemoreyoubecomealeader,thebetterthequalityoflearning.Andthemorewelearned,thebetterallofusbecameatarticulatingwhatwewantedtoachieve,sharingwhatwewerelearning,anditwasalmostanaturalprogressionaroundwhattookplace.

Thenotionofa‘naturalprogression’isverycompelling.Logically,moralpurposecanonlybesharedifitisunderstood(madeexplicit),ifitbecomesinternalisedbyindividuals,andifitsinternalisationiswidespread–factorsthatareunlikelytocomeintoplayintheabsenceofthesharedlearningandownershipwhichareattheheartofsharedleadershipasexperiencedinLTLL.Ontheotherhand,thedevelopmentofsharedleadershipimpliescommonalityofpurpose,clarityofconceptualisationandasharedlanguage–whichfeaturestronglyintheexperienceofsharedmoralpurposeinLTLL.Thereisaprocessofreinforcinginteractiontakingplacehere.

Simplyhavingnamedasharedmoralpurpose,orcommittingtosharedleadershipdoesnotwipeawayalltheobstaclestosuccess.Asinallexamplesofchange,anxietyandlackoftrustcanworktopreventpeopleactinginwaysthatwillreflecttheirespousedvalues.Theprincipal’sjournalofoneofthecasestudyschoolsgivesaveryclearinsightintotheroleofemotion

Table�2:PerceptionsofLTLLcasestudyschoolsrelatedtosharedleadership

ThemeNumber�of�

schools

Thevalueofsharedleadership/ownership,gainingandmaintainingcommitment 8

Theimportanceofsharedprofessionallearninganddialogue 7

Challengeofinvolvingthewholestaff 7

Maintainingstaffharmonywhenthreatenedbychange 7

Awarenessthatallcancontributetoleadership 5

Breakingdownsilosamongdepartmentandyearlevels 4

Teachersandtheirworkbeingexposedtocolleagues 4

Thereisaneedforcleardirectionfromformalleaders 3


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–andinparticularanxiety–inactingasanobstacletosharedleadership,eveninthepresenceofasharedmoralpurpose.Inthefirstmonthoftheinitiative,anxietyorrelatedideaswerementionednofewerthan22times.Inthesecondmonth,15times.Inthethird,threetimes.Journalentriesstartedtothinoutafterthis,butfromOctober2005tomid-March2006therewereonlyfivementionsandfromthenuntiltheendofthejournalinOctoberofthatyear,onlytwomore.Infact,bythen,theabsenceoffearwasitselfasubjectofreflection.Oneparticipantdescribedtheexperiencethisway:

Ourrelationshipshavegonetoanotherlevelbecausepriortothisproject,toaskateachertogointoaclassroomwouldhave……..,well,theprojectalmostdidn’tgoahead.Imeanthatwasourinitialobstacle,thefirstdaywetalkedaboutit,weknewwhatitwasgoingtoinvolve.Wewerefairlysureeverybodywascomfortableandthefirstdayitwasabouttogoahead,theteacherwhowasgoingtobevisitedwasjustinsuchalatherofanxietyandIwasthinking,we’regoingtopulltheplugbecausewecan’tnotbepresenttotheextremeanxietythatthisteacher’sgoingthroughandstillgoaheadwithit.

Theexperienceofcasestudyschoolsillustrateshowcloselysharingmoralpurposeandleadershipareintertwinedwithinthenetworkoftrustingrelationships.Withoutthese,itappearsunlikelythatteacherswouldhavehadeithertheconfidenceorthereasontoengageintakingonthemantleofeducationalleadershipinacollaborativefashionwhichpromoteddeepeningthesenseofsharedmoralpurpose.

What have we learned from LTLL?Firstofall,theLTLLpilothasreinforcedtheimportanceattachedtosharedmoralpurposebysomuchoftheliterature.Ithasreinforcedalsotheviewthatthereisaneedtobequite

explicitaboutthismoralpurpose,andhasdemonstratedtheusefulnessofacommonconceptualframeworkandlanguage,eveninafairlyunrefinedstate.LTLLhasalsodemonstratedthepowerofthecommonlanguageembodiedinthisframework,andhowopportunitiesfordiscoursewillleadtocommitmenttopurpose,andthisinturncanacttochangeteacherbehaviours.

TheexperienceoftheLTLLschoolsalsoaffirmstheplaceofsharedleadershipinthepursuitofauthenticlearning,butatthesametimehasreinforcedthewarningagainstsimplisticformulationsofhowthismightbestbelivedout.Thereisclearlyaplaceforstrongindividualinitiative,butinthecontextofsharedmoralpurpose,thisisabletobecomecollectiveactionbasedonownership,commitmentandsharedleadership,ratherthanaheroicindividualstruggle.

Wehaveseenthepowerofplacinganemphasisonthemoralandethicaldimensionsofschoollifeasanenablerofleadership.Theinterplaybetweenthese,asdocumentedintheLTLLexperience,wasabletomoveatleastoneschoolfromaplacewhereindividuallyandcollectivelyteacherswerealmostparalysedbyfear,toaconfidentandproactivelearningcommunitypursuingadeepmoralpurpose.

TheinitialversionoftheLTLLframeworkisalreadyundergoingmodificationinthelightoftheexperienceofthepilot,andisbeingusedwithanewcohortofschools.Welookforwardtothisprovidingmorerichinsightintooneofthecoredynamicsofschooling.

Itisfittingtoleavethelastwordstooneofthecasestudyprincipals.Whenshereadadraftofthefullversionofthispaper,shewrotetome,inwordsthatcaptureallthemostsignificantlearningsinthispaperfarmore

eloquentlythanIhave:(Theemphasesarehers.)

Iamveryproudofwherewehavearrived,andwherewecontinuetogrow.Since2006everymemberofstaffhastakenanewformalleadershiprole,someforthefirsttime.Thepersonalgrowth,confidence,hopeanddecisiontomakeadifferencecontinuetoburnstrongly.Evenbetteristherealitythatitisunthinkablethatachildcouldfail.Everydaycontinuestobecharacterisedbysweat,determinationandthebeliefthatwedomakeadifference.

ReferencesAndrews,D.,&Lewis,M.(2004).

Buildingsustainablefutures:Improving schools,7,(2),PP129-150.

Barber,M.,&Fullan,M.(2005).Tri Level Development: It’s the system. RetrievedMay11,2007fromhttp://ww.michaelfullan.ca/Articles_05/Tri-Level%20Dev’t.htm

Bezzina,M.,Burford,C.,&Duignan,P.(2007).Leaders Transforming Learning and Learners: Messages for Catholic leaders. PaperpresentedattheFourthInternationalConferenceonCatholicEducationalLeadership.Sydney,July29–August1.

Crowther,F.,Hann,L.,&Andrews,D.(2002).Rethinkingtheroleoftheschoolprincipal:successfulschoolimprovementinthepostindustrialera,The Practicing Administrator, 24,(2),10–13.

Crowther,F.,Kaagan,S.,Ferguson,M.,&Hann,L.(2002).Developing teacher leaders: how teacher leadership enhances school success,California:Sage.

Cuttance,P.,Stokes,S.,McGuinness,K.,Capponi,N.,Corneille,K.,Jones,T.,&Umoh,C.(2003).The National Quality Schooling Framework: An interactive professional learning network for schools.


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Monograph.Melbourne:UniversityofMelbourne.

Duignan,P.(2003).SOLRProject:Contemporarychallengesandimplicationsforleadersinfrontlineserviceorganizations,Sydney:FlagshipforCreativeandAuthenticLeadership,ACUNational.

Duignan,P.,&Bezzina,M.(2004).Leadership and Learning: Influencing what really matters. PresentationattheTeacherEducationCouncilConference,Strathfield.ACUNational.

Duignan,P.,&Bezzina,M.(2006).Distributed leadership: The theory and the practice.PaperpresentedattheCommonwealthCouncilforEducationalAdministrationConference,Lefkosia,Cyprus.

Fullan,M.,(2001).Understanding Change: Leading in a Culture of Change.Jossey-Bass:SanFrancisco.

Hargreaves,A.,&Fink,D.(2004).Thesevenprinciplesofsustainableleadership.Educational Leadership,61,(7),8–13.

Lambert,L.(2002).AFrameworkforsharedleadership.Educational Leadership, 59,(8),37–40.

Marzano,R.,Waters,T.,&McNulty,B.A.(2005).School Leadership that Works.Alexandria,VA:ASCD.

MacBeath,J.(2005).Leadershipasdistributed:Amatterofpractice.School Leadership and Management, 25,(4),349–366.

NationalCollegeofSchoolLeadership.(2006).Fivepillarsofdistributedleadership(Monograph3.1,Distributedleadership)RetrievedApril30,2007fromwww.ncsl.org.uk/distributedleadership.

Starratt,R.J.(2004).Ethical leadership.SanFrancisco:Jossey-Bass.

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PosterpresentationsPosterpresentations


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1 Peter WeddellNational Awards for Quality Schooling, ACT

Recognising�and�rewarding�excellence�in�schools

Pictorialdisplayof2007awardwinnersandtheirachievements.–Thispostercoversafullrangeofcurriculumandteacher/schoolleader/schoolcommunityinitiativestoimproveandsustainlearninginschools.

2 Dr John LeeCurriculum Coordinator, Freeman Catholic College NSW

Building�a�culture�of�successful�learning�though�high�expectations�and�professional�learning:�the�experience�of�one�Catholic�Secondary�School�in�South�Western�Sydney

FreemanCatholicCollege,Bonnyrigg,isalocalnon-academicallyselectiveCatholicsecondaryschoolwithanenrolmentof1230students.OverthepastsixyearstherehasbeenasignificantimprovementinHSCresults.Thepercentageofcourseswherethestudents’meanresultisabovethestateaveragehasincreasedfrom50%(2001)to83%(2006).Theposteridentifiesreasonsforthissustainedimprovementincludingdevelopingacultureofhighexpectationsandprofessionallearning.Sixsuccessfactorsareanalysed:1.StrongauthoritativeinstructionalleadershipfromthePrincipalandallstaff;2.Relationalpastoralcareethospermeatesinteractionandpedagogy;3.Forensicanalysisofexaminationresultsdata;4.Regularreviewofschoolstructuressuchastimetable,studentsubjectselectionprocesses;5.Professionallearningcommunityapproachthatmaximiseseffectivenessofstaff;6.EstablishmentofanactiongroupcalledtheLearningCommitteethatimplementsinitiativesincludingrunningcoursesforinexperiencedteachersofHSCclasses.

3 Dr. Jean Thompson Research Manager, raddii.org Vic.

Real-time�performance�monitoring�of�learning�and�school�effectiveness

Emerginginformationsystemsprovidethecapacitytodeliverreal-timeevidenceaboutstudentlearningandfeedbackfromteachers,studentsandparents.Acontinuousflowofcriticalinformationwillreplacethe‘one-shot’collationandanalysisofmuchofthedatathatisusedatpresent.

SchoolLeadershipTeamsandclassroomteacherscannowhaverealtimeaccesstodiagnosticinformationprovidingtheinformationrequiredtoadjustthedeploymentofresourcesandmonitortheimpactonanyareathattheschoolseekstochangetoimproveeffectivenessandperformance.

ProfessorPeterCuttanceandDr.JeanThompsonwilldemonstratenewdevelopmentsfromcollaborativeresearchwithschoolsnationallytoprovideareal-timeinformationsystemforLeadershipTeamstomonitorschoolperformance.

Thesystemthathasbeendevelopedisavailablethroughradii.og–aNon-ProfitEducationFoundation–andcanbeaccessedin2008atacostof$1perstudentbyAustralasianschoolsthathavesubscribedtotheHERMESSurveyKioskandtheHERMESAssessment4LearningKiosk.


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4 Carmel RichardsonACER

Value�Adding�at�Senior�Secondary�School:�student,�class�and�subject�effects

Thisresearchhighlightsnewwaysofdisplaying“LikeSchools”data,toassistallstakeholders(teachers,schoolstaff,externalpolicyandmanagementpersonnel)tobetterunderstandstudentability-adjustedachievementwithinandacrossschools.


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ConferenceprogramConferenceprogram

Monday 13 August

9.00 Conference�Opening ProfessorGeoffMasters,ChiefExecutiveOfficer,ACER Grand Waldorf Ballroom 3-6

9.30 Keynote�Address�1 ‘Research on the practice of instructional and tranformational leadership: Retrospect and prospect’ ProfessorPhilipHallinger,MahidolUniversity,Bangkok Chair Dr. John Ainley, ACER Grand Waldorf Ballroom 3-6

10.30 Morning�Tea

11.00 Concurrent�Sessions�1

SessionA‘Quality Australian evidence on leadership for improved student learning’ProfessorBillMulford,UniversityofTasmania

Chair: Kerry-Anne Hoad, ACERGrand Waldorf Ballroom 3-6

SessionB‘Got a Minute? Can instructional leadership exist despite the reactive nature of principalship?’ProfessorSherylBoris-Schacter,Principal,HunnewellSchoolWellesley,Massachusetts,USA

Chair: Dr. Sheldon Rothman, ACERState Ballroom 1-2

SessionC‘Why would anybody want this job? The challenge of attracting and sustaining effective leaders for Australian schools’Dr.LouiseWatson,UniversityofCanberra,ACT

Chair: Marion Meiers, ACERGrand Waldorf Ballroom 1-2

SessionD‘Authoritative leadership, action learning and student accomplishment”ProfessorStephenDinham,ACER

Chair: Dr. Neil Carrington, ACERGrand Waldorf Ballroom 3-6

SessionE‘Leaders, acting to improve outcomes for Indigenous students’Professor,PaulHughes,Uni.S.A,MsSusanMatthews&MrGavinKhan,NationalAboriginalPrincipalsAssociation(NAPA)

Chair: Dr. Nola Purdie, ACERState Ballroom 1-2

SessionF‘Standards for school leadership: Gateway to a stronger profession?’Dr.LawrenceIngvarson&Ms.MichelleAnderson,ACER

Chair: Pam Macklin, ACERGrand Waldorf Ballroom 1-2

12.15 Lunch�and�Poster�Displays


2.30 Afternoon�Tea

3.00 Keynote�Address�2 ‘Take me to your leader: Leadership and the future’ ProfessorElizabethLeo,UniversityofDundee,Scotland Chair: Dr. John Ainley, ACER Grand Waldorf Ballroom 3-6

� 4.15� Close�of�Discussion

7.00 Conference�Dinner GrandWaldorfBallroom,SebelAlbertParkHotel,Melbourne

Sunday 12 August

6.00–7.30 Welcome�Reception GrandWaldorfBallroom,SebelAlbertParkHotel

Tuesday 14 August

9.15 Keynote�Address�3 ‘The impact of leadership on student outcomes: Making sense of the evidence’ ProfessorVivianeRobinson,TheUniversityofAuckland,NZ Chair: Dr. John Ainley, ACER Grand Waldorf Ballroom 3-6

10.30 Morning�Tea


12.15 Lunch�and�Poster�Displays

1.15 Keynote�Address�4 ‘Embracing the challenge of leadership in Indigenous education’ DrChrisSarra,IndigenousEducationLeadershipInstitute,QLD Chair: Dr. John Ainley, ACER Grand Waldorf Ballroom 3-6

2.25 Minister’s�Address Hon.JohnLenders,MinisterforEducation,Victoria Grand Waldorf Ballroom 3-6

2.40 Closing�Address ProfessorGeoffMasters,ChiefExecutiveOfficer,ACER Grand Waldorf Ballroom 3-6

3.00 Close�of�Conference

SessionG‘School leadership and learning: An Australian overview’Dr.PhillipMcKenzie,ACERProfessorBillMulford,UniversityofTasmania&Ms.MichelleAnderson,ACER

Chair: Dr. Margaret Forster, ACERGrand Waldorf Ballroom 3-6

SessionH‘Leadership for radical transformation in school education’ProfessorBrianCaldwell,EducationalTransformationsVIC

Chair: Dr. Ken Rowe, ACERState Ballroom 1-2

SessionI‘Moral purpose and shared leadership: The leaders transforming learning and learners pilot study’AssociateProfessorMichaelBezzina,AustralianCatholicUniversity,NSW

Chair: Dr. Neil Carrington, ACERGrand Waldorf Ballroom 1-2


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ConferencedelegatesConferencedelegates


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Dinner table no. Delegate Name Delegate Organisation

12 TBA MinistryofEducation,Malaysia12 TBA MinistryofEducation,Malaysia

MrsElkaAdlerHead of Primary

LeiblerYavnehCollege,VIC

16 MrJeanAgior-TisHead of Faculty

StIgnatius’College,Riverview,NSW

17 MrsCarmelAgiusPrincipal

StMargaretMary’sSchool,NSW

2 DrJohnAinleyDeputy CEO (Research)

ACER,VIC

25 MrStephenAitkenPrincipal

MacKillopCatholicCollege,NSW

MrSteveAlbonPrincipal

WarranwoodPrimarySchool,VIC

MrsLeanneAldermanPrincipal

WaddingtonPrimarySchool,WA

MsJanAlenManager

DETA,QLD

MrCraigAllambyCampus Principal

DandenongHighSchool,VIC

MrsFionaAllanDeputy Principal

LathamPrimarySchool,ACT

19 MrsGabrielleAllan-SmithDeputy Principal

HomebushPublicSchool,NSW

9 MrPaulAllenPrincipal

MarymountCollege,QLD

11 MsAmnaAlsakepPrincipal

UnitedArabEmirates

MsKerrieAnderson BoxHillNorthPrimarySchool,VIC2 MsMichelleAnderson

Senior Research FellowACER,VIC

MrBruceArmstrongPrincipal

BalwynHighSchool,VIC

MrSimonArmstrongDeputy Principal

TownsvilleGrammarSchool,QLD

MsNaomiArnoldDistrict Director

DECS,SA

MrWarrenArrowsmithDeputy Principal

MacKillopCollege,VIC

26 MsMaryAsikasPrincipal

Seaford6-12School,SA

26 MrTonyAustinExecutive Manager

AustralianTechnicalCollege,VIC

MrAlanAxtenAdviser to Schools

MasseyUniversityCollegeofEduc,NZ

3 MrDavidAxworthyDirector

DET,WA

24 MrPeterBaddockCoordinator

StJohn’sPrimarySchool,NSW


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26 MsVirginieBajutProgram Manager


MrPaulBarklambHead of Junior School

WestbourneGrammarSchool,VIC

MsLorraineBarlowEducation Consultant

CatholicEducationOffice,NSW

MrCraigBassingthwaightePrincipal

WitsundayAnglicanSchool,QLD

MrsAmraBazdarPrincipal Brighton

AutismQueenslandInc.QLD

20 MrDavidBeanDeputy Headmaster

HaleSchool,WA

MsSueBeathManager, Aboriginal Education

DET,WA

4 DrAdrianBeavisResearch Director, Policy Analysis and Program Evaluation

ACER,VIC

11 MrsJoBednallPrincipal

TranbyCollege,WA

MrMichaelBellDean of Curriculum

AquinasCollege,WA

23 MrIanBelotSenior Consultant

SladePartners,VIC

MrBertBennePrincipal

StJohn’sPrimarySchool,VIC

MrsAnnetteBennetPrincipal

KingswoodCollege,VIC

MrsMicheleBernshawPrincipal

TheKingDavidSchool,VIC

20 MrRedmondBersonPrincipal

StKieranCatholicPrimarySchool,WA

13 MrsTrishBevanPrincipal

StMary’sPrimary,NSW

3 Ass.Prof.MichaelBezzinaEducational Leadership

AustralianCatholicUniversity,NSW

MrsNoeleenBieskePrincipal

StMary’sCollegeforHearingImpaired,VIC

MrChrisBlackDeputy Principal

KillesterCollege,VIC

MrEdgarBlissSenior Education Adviser

CatholicEducationOffice,SA

MrNeilBloxsidgeArea Supervisor

BrisbaneCatholicEducationCentre.QLD

1 Prof.SherylBoris-SchacterPrincipal

HunnewellSchool,USA

MrDavidBourneCampus Principal

StAndrewsCollege,NSW

20 MrSteveBousfieldDirector of Studies

WestminsterSchool,SA

MsClareBoutchard Dept.ofthePrimeMinister&Cabinet,ACT


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MrSydBoydellDirector, Educational Research and Development

ScotchCollege,VIC

MsAliciaBoylanTeacher

ImmaculateHeartofMary,SA

22 MrSimonBreakspearTeacher

StAndrew’sCathedralSchool,NSW

26 MrsLynneBrennerAssistant Principal

BerwickLodgePrimarySchool,VIC

MrsJoanneBrewerPrincipal

StMary’sSchool,VIC

27 MsVickiBrewerPrincipal

NSWSPC

5 MrPeterBrittonHead of Senior School

BrisbaneBoys’College,QLD

17 DrKerenBrookingSenior Researcher

NZCER

10 MrPaulBrooksProfessional Assist to Director


10 MsTrishBrownRegional Consultant


6 MrWayneBrownDirector of Sport

TheHutchinsSchool,TAS

MsLisa-MarieBrowningCurriculum Coordinator

CarolineChisholmCollege,NSW

MrsKathrynBruggemannPrincipal

HewettPrimarySchool,SA

MrsDeborahBryanDirector, Policy & Planning

DEET,NT

MsJoanneBurkeDeputy Head of Middle School

StLeonard’sCollege,VIC

12 MrsMaureenBurnsTeacher

StDeclan’sPrimarySchool,NSW

23 MrsDeborahBuscallPrincipal

StLeo’sCatholicCollege,NSW

MsHelenButlerTeacher

WembleyPrimarySchool,VIC

MrAdrianByrneAssist. To Head of Dept

BarkerCollege,NSW

MsKeiranByrnesAssistant Principal

GoodShepherdSchool,NSW

DrMichelleCafiniHead of Junior School

NewhavenCollege,VIC

3 MrsMaryCahillManager, Leadership Projects

ACERLeadershipCentre,VIC

MrsKathyCairnsAssistant Principal

TerraSanctaCollege,NSW

1 Prof.BrianCaldwellManaging Director

EducationalTransformationsPtyLtd,VIC


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MrPeterCamilleriPrincipal

HolySpiritCommunitySchool,VIC

MrBradCampbellPrincipal

GilroyCatholicCollege,NSW

MrClydeCampbellPrincipal

EatonsHillStateSchool,QLD

MrGaryCampbellPrincipal

AuburnSouthPrimarySchool,VIC

15 DrGlendaCampbell-EvansDirector Transnational Education

EdithCowanUniversity,WA

DrMaryCannonAssistant Principal

WarrandyteHighSchool,VIC

MsLeanneCarrPrincipal

StJoseph’s-Hectorville,SA

3 DrNeilCarringtonDirector

LeadershipCentreACER,QLD

DMrRichardCarrollDirector of Studies

BallaratGrammarSchool,VIC

MrMaxCarusoDirector of Students

StJoseph’sCollege,VIC

MrsHelenCaseyPrincipal Human Resources Officer

CatholicEducationOffice,ACT

MrThomasCasey ASAS,QLD9 MsTraceyCashman StrettonCollege,QLD12 MrMalcolmCater

Acting HeadmasterMentoneGrammarSchool,VIC

27 MrsChristineCawseyPrincipal

NSWSPC

22 MsToniaChalk HarristownStateHighSchool,QLD23 MrsSusyChandler

PrincipalFintonaGirlsSchool,VIC

MsSherylChardPrincipal

BrandonParkPrimarySchool,VIC

MrAdrianCheerPrincipal

StMary’sPrimarySchool,VIC

MsOliveaChellew WembleyPrimarySchool,VIC21 MrRobertCherry

PrincipalTateStreetPrimarySchool,VIC

MrsBernadetteClaytonA. Principal

BalwynHighSchool,VIC

MrTimothyClearyPrincipal

StAugustine’sCollege,NSW

MsRobyneCleaverPrincipal Consultant

DET,WA

23 MrsLisaCoatesLearning Community Manager

CometBayCollege,WA

10 MsToniCocchiaroDistrict Director

DECS,SA

15 DrAnneCoffeySenior Lecturer

UniversityofNotreDame,WA


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MsAngelaCoghillCurriculum Manager

DET,WA

17 DrGrahamCollinsSenior Adviser

MinistryofEducation,NZ

MsJayne-LouiseCollinsEducation Officer

CatholicEducationOffice,VIC

25 MrsJennyCollinsPrincipal

TinternSchools,VIC

MsSuzanneCollinsA/Manager, Assessment for Improvement

DET,WA

MrBrettCollisonPrincipal

StBrigid’sPrimarySchool,VIC

23 MrChristopherComerfordPrincipal

StPaul’sCatholicCollege,NSW

23 MrsVickiComerfordPrincipal

StPeter’sCatholicCollege,NSW

MrTimothyCondrenDeputy Principal

MackayNorthStateHighSchool,Qld

MsJudyConnellManager

CEOMelbourne,VIC

14 MrWayneConnopSenior Policy Officer

DEET,NT

MrsIreneCooperNational President

NZEITeRiuRoa

MrPeterCooperDeputy Principal

KingswoodCollege,VIC

MsLeoneCoorey CatholicEducation,SAMrStephenCopePrincipal

StBernadette’sSchool,VIC

MrWilliamCorbishleyProfessional Officer


11 MrsSheridanCoverdaleLower Primary Coordinator

BrightonGrammarSchool,VIC

15 MrTrevorCowardHead of Middle School

RostrevorCollege,SA

MsMegCoweyManager

DET,WA

5 MsCarmelCranitchEducation Consultant, Professional Learning

ACER,QLD

MsMaryCreenaunePrincipal


MrMichaelCroucherLearning and Teaching Coordinator

TerraSanctaCollege,NSW

9 MrPedroCruzPrincipal

EmmanualChristianCommunitySchool,WA

25 MrPinoCutinelliHead of Year 8

ScotchCollege,VIC

7 ProfessorPeterCuttanceExecutive Director

RADIIPtyLtd,VIC


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MrWalterCzernezkyjPrincipal

UrrbraeAgriculturalHighSchool,SA

20 MrAlanDallasHead of Campus

GraceLutheranCollege,QLD

MrDickD’AloiaPrincipal

ElizabethNorthPrimarySchool,SA

19 MrTomDalyAssistant Principal

WantirnaCollege,VIC

MrTonyDalyPrincipal

MtStPatrickCollege,NSW

25 MsAnneD’AmbrosioHead of Campus

TinternSchools,VIC

27 MrAminuDauda DadasArt&Business,Ghana24 MrsHawysDavies

Head of Senior SecondaryStMargaret’sAGS,QLD

MrStevenDaviesHead of House

AllSaints’College,WA

MrStuartDavisHead of Campus

WesleyCollege,VIC

MSueDeanAssistant Principal

WarranwoodPrimarySchool,VIC

6 DrJohnDeCourcyHead of Strategic Accountabilities Services

ParramattaCatholicEducationOffice,NSW

7 MrLanceDevesonLibrary & Information Manager

ACER,VIC

MsSandraDiafasPrincipal

StaroftheSeaCollege,VIC

10 MrsSybilDickensRegional Consultant


24 MrPaulDickieExecutive Officer

ParentsandFriendsFed.OfCatholicSchools,QLD

1 Prof.StephenDinhamResearch Director, Teaching & Leadership

ACER,VIC

26 MrClaytonDisleyCounsellor


MsRayleneDoddsManager

Dept.ofEducation,VIC

MsLuanaDokoStudent Development Coordinator


4 MrStephenDonattiA/Director

CurriculumCouncil,WA

MrsColleenDouglasAdviser to Schools

MasseyUniversity,NZ

MrsLeanneDowlingPrincipal

SouthGeelongPrimarySchool,VIC

2 DrLawrenceDrysdaleSenior Lecturer

UniversityofMelbourne,VIC

13 MrStephenDunkDirector of Studies

PymbleLadies’College,NSW


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11 MrChrisDutfieldPrincipal

StPaulsCatholicCollege,NSW

22 MissPatriciaDwyerVice Rector, Curriculum

PaduaCollege,QLD

21 MrsSueDwyerCoordinator

StPatrick’sPrimarySchool,NSW

8 MrJohnEdwardsData Analysis Officer


11 MrAlanEgbertManager

ACER,Dubai

16 MrsKimElith StIgnatius’College,Riverview,NSWMrBradleyElliottHead of Senior School

NambourChristianCollege,QLD

14 DrJillElsworthActing Principal

DETA,QLD

MrLeeElvyUpper Primary Coordinator

GoodShepherdLutheranCollege,QLD

MrsVeronicaEmeryPrincipal

OatlandsSchool,TAS

MsGabrielleEnglandManager

CurriculumCorporation,VIC

MrPaulEnrightMYP Coordinator

CrosswaysLutheranSchool,SA

20 MrsJennyExtonHead of Middle Years

NorthernBeachesChristianSchool,NSW

MrKevinFaganManager, Learning

Dept.ofEducation,TAS

5 MrNigelFairbairnHeadmaster

SunshineCoastGrammarSchool,QLD

MsBrendaFalheimSchool Adviser/Lecturer


MrNevilleFeeneyPrincipal

ChisholmCatholicCollege,QLD

12 MrsGayleneFehlbergPrincipal

MalvernValleyPrimarySchool,VIC

MrDavidFetterplaceDirector of Teaching

StGregory’sCollege,NSW

12 MrWarrenFinebergHead of Senior Years

MentoneGrammarSchool,VIC

MrGregFisherPrincipal

DET,WA

MrAnthonyFitzgeraldDeputy Principal

StGregory’sCollege,NSW

MrsAnneFoalePrincipal

StJamesCollege,TAS

19 MsCatherineFordAssistant Principal

WantirnaCollege,VIC

22 MrRichardFordHead of History

StAndrew’sCathedralSchool,NSW


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4 DrMargaretForsterResearch Director, Assessment and Reporting

ACER,VIC

MrKimForwardHead of Senior School

AitkenCollege,VIC

MrDavidFoxDeputy Principal

GriffithHighSchool,NSW

19 MrDesFoxPrincipal

StVincent’sPrimarySchool,NSW

16 MrsJoFoxPrincipal

StPatrick’sSchool,NSW

MsKathrynFoxHead, T&L

CatholicSchoolsOffice,NSW

MrsBeaulahFrankstonCoordinator


1 MrDarrellFraserDeputy Secretary

DepartmentofEducation,VIC

24 MrsLindaFraserPrincipal

LuhoolmsdenPrimarySchool,NZ

MrsHelenFreemanPrincipal

AlbanyRisePrimarySchool,VIC

11 MrsRosalindFrostPrincipal

RosedalePrimarySchool,SA

13 MrPhilipGaneAssistant Principal

StPatrick’sCollege,NSW

MrShirleyGauciEducation Officer


MrsJudithGauntPrincipal

StTeresa’sSchoolBrighton,SA

MsRoslynGayeDeputy Principal

StAiden’sAnglicanSchool,QLD

MrsStephanieGeddesLeading and Managing Adviser

MasseyUniversity,NZ

MsLoraineGentlemanPrincipal

DET,NSW

MrsStephanieGeorge StMarysCentralSchool,NZ6 MrBrianGiles-Browne

National School’s CoordinatorAPAPDC-DaretoLeadProject

MrsVirginiaGillLeadership Consultant

DECS-SA

26 MrCaineGillard Seaford6-12School,SA13 MsJodieGioria

Assistant PrincipalMaryImmaculatePrimary,NSW

MrRonaldGormanConsultant

AIS,WA

4 MrJohnGougoulisDirector

CurriculumCouncil,WA

MrsValerieGouldDeputy Executive Director

AIS,WA


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MrMarkGowYear Level Coordinator

TheDandenongHighSchool,VIC

MrBarryGraham StGregory’sCollege,NSW13 MrRobertGraham SaintIgnatius’College,NSW

DrJanGraySenior Lecturer

EdithCowanUniversity,WA

4 MrAlanGreenDirector, Data Managaement & Accountability

DECS,SA

19 MrsDeborahGrossekPrincipal

GlendalPrimarySchool,VIC

21 MrHenryGrossekPrincipal

BerwickLodgePrimarySchool,VIC

MrShaneGubbinHead of Curriculum

StPaul’sCollege,SA

MsLeanneGuillonHead of Learning

CareyBaptistGrammarSchool,VIC

7 DrDavidGurrSenior Lecturer


5 MsSaraGuthrie ACER,QLDMsRhondaHallPrincipal

StMary’sSchool,VIC

1 Prof.PhilipHallingerChief Academic Officer

MahidolUniversity,THAILAND

MrNicholasHamer-Smith LyndhurstSecondaryCollege,VIC7 MsMegHansen

PrincipalLauristonGirls’School,VIC

21 MrsRobinHarbidgeDeputy Principal

McAuleyCatholicCollege,NSW

MsRosemaryHardenPrincipal

YankalillaAreaSchool,SA

MsCaroleHardyAssistant Principal

OurLady’sCollege,QLD

8 MrsJulieHardy DECS-SouthernSea&Vines,SAMrTonyHarknessPrincipal Education Officer

BrisbaneCatholicEducation,QLD

MrTonyHarknessHead

MelbourneGrammarSchool,VIC

6 MsAndreaHarmsNational Coordinator

APAPDC-DaretoLeadProject,SA

13 MrsJulieHarrisHead of Science

ChristChurchGrammarSchool,WA

MrMichaelHarrisPrincipal

StAnne’sSchool,VIC

20 MrStephenHarrisPrincipal


MrDennisHarveySenior Education Officer, Curriculum


MsJanineHarveyAssistant Director

DECS,SA


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MrBarryHarvieConsultant

CatholicEducationOffice,WA

MrPeterHatton TurramurraHighSchool,NSW12 MrPeterHauser

HeadmasterToowoombaGrammarSchool,QLD

8 MrsWendyHawkingTeacher

YarraValleyGrammarSchool,VIC

MrWayneHaworthVCE Course Manager

TheDandenongHighSchool,VIC

MrMichaelHayesDirector of Studies

MLCSchool,NSW

MrPeterHayesConsultant

CatholicEducationOfficeofWA

26 MrsJillHealeyExecutive Principal

FlindersChristianComm.College,VIC

MrsJudithHearneRegional Officer

CatholicEducationOfficeofWA

MsCatherineHenbestTeam Leader


MrsMeredeneHillPrincipal Project Officer

DETA,QLD

19 MrPeterHillHead of Middle School

StPaul’sAnglicanGrammar,VIC

27 MrsLizHinrichsenHead of Junior School

TrinityNorthSchool,SA

3 MsKerry-AnneHoadManager, Centre for Prof. Learning

ACER,VIC

19 MsCathyHoggCampus Principal

FrankstonHighSchool,VIC

16 MrJaimieHollandHead of Smith House

PembrokeSchool,SA

MrsMerilynHollandsSenior Project Officer

DEST,ACT

MrRobertHollowayPrincipal

UniversitySeniorCollegeatAdelaide,SA

MrJamesHonorPrincipal

StGeorgeChristianSchool,NSW

MrsDelmaHoranPrincipal

StColumbasHighSchool,NSW

MsTrishHornerSenior Campus Principal

MillParkSecondaryCollege,VIC

MrGregHoughtonDeputy Principal

LutherCollege,VIC

MsChristineHowePrincipal


14 MrMichaelHudsonDistrict Leader

DECSSouthernSea&Vines,SA

MsVickiHudsonCurriculum Coordinator

SantaMariaCollegeLtd,VIC

2 Prof.PaulHughes UniversityofSouthAustralia,SA


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MrsJeanHunterPrincipal

StJoseph’sSchool,VIC

6 MrJeremyHurleyNational Corodinator, Leaders Lead

APAPDC

2 DrLawrenceIngvarsonPrincipal Research Fellow

ACER,VIC

19 MrPatriciaJacksonDirector, Curriculum

WilliamCareyChristianSchool,NSW

MrsSueJagerPolicy Advisor

DECS,SA

MrMichaelJamesHead of Economics

BarkerCollege,NSW

20 MrPaulJamesDirector, Professional Practice


12 MrsGeniaJanoverPrincipal

BialikCollege,VIC

MrsNadaJarniEducation Officer


MrsChristineJenkinsPrincipal

KorowaAnglicanGirls’School,VIC

MsWendyJohnsonPrincipal

VictorHarborHighSchool,SA

23 MrsFionaJohnstoneHead of Junior School

PerthCollege,WA

MrsAnnmareeJonesAssistant Principal


MsBernadetteJonesVice Principal

BallajuraCommunityCollege,WA

16 MsGlynisJonesEducation Consultant

PanaflexEducationPtyLtd,NSW

25 MrsSuzanneJonesProgram Manager


MsLindenJones-DrzyzgaPrincipal

StMary’sPrimarySchool,NSW

8 MrsJillianJordan DECS-SouthernSea&Vines,SADrGeorgiaKamperosDirector Curriculum

RosevilleCollege,NSW

MrChrisKayHead of Secondary

DonvaleChristianCollege,VIC

MrRoyKelleyHeadmaster

King’sCollege,NZ

24 MsDebraKelliherHead of School

PLCArmidale,NSW

16 MrStephenKennaughAssistant Principal

EmmausCatholicCollege,NSW

2 MrGavinKhanPrincipal

WilliamstownPrimarySchool,VIC

MsAnneKilleenEducation Consultant



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MrsSheereenKindlerAssistant Principal

ParkdaleSecondaryCollege,VIC

MrGregoryKingAssistant Princiipal


MrsKarenKingKLA Coordinator


MrRossKingDean of Studies

IonaCollege,QLD

7 MsPatKnightSenior Librarian

ACER,VIC

MrRichardKochHead of Secondary

PlentyValleyChristianCollege,VIC

DrJulieKosSenior Research Fellow

ACER,VIC

MrTedKosickiActing Principal

GMAS,WA

MrsCarmelKrizEducation Officer


MsAngelaLaceyPrincipal

OurLady’sSchool,VIC

MsJandeeLaidlawPrincipal

AutismQueenslandInc.QLD

9 MrMickLaidlerDeputy Principal


MrsMareaLankiHead of School P-6

GenazzanoCollege,VIC

MrChrisLawsonDeputy Principal

YarraValleyGrammarSchool,VIC

MrsJenniferLeePrincipal Education Officer

DET,WA

6 DrJohnLeeCurriculum Coordinator

FreemanCatholicCollege,NSW

MrsAnondaLeMessurierPrincipal

StJamesSchool,VIC

MrChristopherLennonEducation Officer

CatholicEducationOfficeMelbourne

MsLisaLentiniDeputy Head of J.S.


2 Prof.ElizabethLeoDean & Head of School of Education

UniversityofDundee,UK

21 MrsKerryLestalCoordinator


MrsHeatherLinesHead of Middle School Maths

PembrokeSchool,SA

6 MrsJanetteLlewellynPrincipal

RowellynParkPrimarySchool,VIC

22 MrCliveLoganDirector of Studies

TheKing’sSchool,NSW

MrsGeaLovellHead of Campus

WesleyCollege,VIC


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MsJulieMacFarlanePrincipal

HallamPrimarySchool,VIC

MrsLouiseMackayPrincipal

StLukesPrimarySchool,VIC

1 MrTonyMackayExecutive Director

CentreforStrategicEducation,VIC

MrChrisMackenzieSenior Project Officer

Department.ofEducation,VIC

25 MsMarionMackenzieProgram Manager


1 MsPamMacklinDeputy CEO (Professional Resources)

ACER,VIC

MsSandraMaharManager, Research Unit


13 MrEdmondMaherDeputy Headmaster

StEdmund’sCollege,ACT

MrNickMajorPrincipal

BeckenhamSchool,NZ

MrStevenMalesDean of Junior School

AquinasCollege,WA

MrsLorraineMandersonDirector of Studies

OxleyCollege,VIC

MrMichaelManiskaPrincipal

TelopeaParkSchool,ACT

22 MrsAnneMareeMarrinsPrincipal

OurLadyofMtCarmelPrimary,NSW

22 MrGeoffMarshDeputy Head

FrenshamSchool,NSW

MrPeterMartinPrincipal

PeterCarnleyACS,WA

MsSusanMartinPrincipal Educ. Officer

DET,WA

MrsMaryMasonDirector of Teaching and Learning

TheGeelongCollege,VIC

1 Prof.GeoffMastersCEO

ACER

2 MsSusanMatthewsVice-President

NSWAECG

MrJohnMcCarthy DepartmentofEducation,VIC16 MrsKimMcCue

Assistant PrincipalStPatrick’sSchool,NSW

MsNicoleMcDowellSpecial Education Adviser

AISSA,SA

MsPaddyMcEvoyDeputy Principal

StMary’sCollege,SA

10 MrGeoffMcEwenMaths Coordinator

StPaulsCatholicCollege,NSW

MsJennyMcGieCo Head of Middle School

Ballarat&ClarendonCollege,VIC


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MrNeilMcGoranA/Senior Education Adviser


MrAndrewMcGregor CareyGrammarSchool,VICMsKathrynMcGuiganDeputy Principal

CardijnCollege,SA

17 MsHeidiMcGuinnessDeputy Principal

TaraAnglicanSchoolforGirls,NSW

MrStephenMcIllhattonEducation Consultant


MrsMariaMcIntyrePrincipal

StPaul’sSchool,Monbulk,VIC

3 DrPhillipMcKenzieResearch Director, Transitions and Post-School Education

ACER,VIC

21 MrRomaMcKinnonActing Principal

CranbourneSouthPrimary,VIC

MrPeterMcLoughlinPrincipal

StJoseph’sCollege,NSW

MrTimMcMahonHouse Leader

SwanHillCollege,VIC

MsAnneMcNaughtonDeputy Head


MrSteveMcPhailLeadership Team


MsLizMcQuade-JonesCoordinator - Learning Pathways Team


8 MrsChristineMcRaeRegional Consultant


22 MrsMargaretMeadPrincipal

WahroongaPreparatorySchool,NSW

4 MrsMarionMeiersSenior Research Fellow

ACER,VIC

16 MsSuzanneMellorSenior Research Fellow

ACER,VIC

MsCathyMesaricSenior Education Officer


5 MrAnthonyMicallefDeputy Headmaster Students

BrisbaneGrammarSchool,QLD

23 MsJennyMichaelPrincipal

HackhamWestSchools,SA

MrStevenMifsubHead of Middle School

SantaMariaCollegeLtd,VIC

24 MrMichaelMifsud StJohn’sPrimarySchool,NSW21 MrsKarenMilkins-Hendry

Deputy Principal - Teaching and LearningNewhavenCollege,VIC

5 MrsGaylelMillettActing Deputy Principal

DETA,QLD

22 MrKevinMillsPrincipal

StPatrick’sPrimary,NSW


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MrNoelMisfudPrincipal

ChristianBrothersCollege,SA

25 MrsCatherineMissionHead of Junior School

StCatherines,NSW

5 MrJohnMorathEducation Consultant, Assessment Services

ACER,VIC

MrsGailMorganDirector of Teaching and Learning

SacredHeartCollegeSenior,SA

MrMichaelMorgan NewmanHighSchool,WA13 MrMarkMorrissy

Director of Co-curricularChristChurchGrammarSchooL,WA

27 MsLilaMularczykPrincipal

NSWSPC

3 Prof.BillMulfordProfessor and Director Leadership for Learning Research Group

UniversityofTasmania,TAS

14 MrTrevorMulliganPrincipal

FrankPartridgeVCPrimarySchool,NSW

27 MsLindaMunnsPrincipal

TrinityNorthSchool,SA

21 MrsRozMuscatCluster Educator

CranbourneSouthPrimary,VIC

MrsPatriciaNeatePrincipal

IronsideStateSchool,QLD

MrRobinNeatePrincipal Adviser

BrisbaneNorthDistrictEduc,QLD

MissBrianaNeilPolicy and Project Officer

DEST,ACT

15 MrKeithNewbyAssistant Principal

MaranathaChristianCollege,WA

MsCatherineNikkerudSchool Improvement Coordinator

DECS-SACentreforLeadersinEduc.

MrsAnneO’BrienCampus Principal

StJoseph’sHighSchool,NSW

MrsHelenO’BrienAssistant Director

CatholicEducation,SA

8 MrsElizabethO’CarriganSenior Regional Consultant


9 MrSeamusO’GradyDirector


MsErynO’MahonyCurriculum Leader

StColumba’sCollege,VIC

MrsPruO’MalleyLearning Leader

MacKillopCollege,VIC

MrsLynneO’Meara StMary’sPrimarySchool,VIC24 MrKennethOrmerod

PrincipalOakhillCollege,NSW

MrBruceOsborneHead of Senior School

AlphingtonGrammarSchool,VIC


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9 MrMatthewOsbornePrincipal

LeadershipCentre,WA

MrJohnO’SheaPrincipal

MowbrayCollege,VIC

MrsMaryOskiManager, Leadership & Accountability

CatholicEduationOfficeMelbourne,VIC

MrAndrewOsleyDeputy Principal


MrPeterO’SullivanPrincipal

EdenHillsPrimarySchool,SA

MsLeanneO’Toole WembleyPrimarySchool,VIC14 MsMarieO’Toole

District DirectorDECSFlindersDistrictOffice,SA

20 MsLenaOtwayLeading Teacher

ParkwoodGreenPrimarySchool,VIC

4 MsStephaniePageDirector

Dept.ofthePremierandCabinet,SA

9 MrFrankPansini LeadershipCentre,WADrStephenParkinAssistant Principal


MrWarrenParkinsonHead of Junior (Middle) School

BrisbaneSchoolofDistanceEduc.,QLD

MsAmandaParslow TenisonWoodsCollege,SA17 MsLesleyParton

FacilitatorTeamSolutions,NZ

MrSantoPassarelloPrincipal

PatricianBrothers’College,NSW

MsSallyPatersonDeputy Principal Curriculum

UrrbraeAgriculturalHighSchool,SA

16 MrsLisaPattersonAssistant Principal

StJoseph’sSchool,NSW

MsJennyPattisonCurriculum Coordinator

JohnPaulCollege,VIC

24 MrRayPaxtonPrincipal

MercyCatholicCollege,NSW

9 MrRobertPeacockPrincipal


15 MrLindsayPearsePrincipal

HamptonSeniorHighSchool,WA

MsVirginiaPederickAssistant Manager

DET,ACT

MrGeoffPellPrincipal

TaylorsLakesSecondaryCollege,VIC

MrsJeanPerksPrincipal

OneTreeHillPrimarySchool,SA

9 MrKennethPerrisPrincipal Consultant

LeadershipCentre,WA

4 MrsJudithPetchAssistant General Manager



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MrRodneyPetersonPrincipal

StJudetheApostleSchool,VIC

20 MrsHedwigPetrePrincipal

StMary’sStaroftheSeaPrimary,NSW

MsGlennisPitchesPrincipal


MrsKimPlattsCoordinator


MrBarryPotterAdviser

MasseyUniversityCollegeofEduc.,NZ

MrChrisPoultonHead of Campus

WesleyCollege,VIC

15 MrJohnPowerDeputy Principal

IreneMcCormackCatholicCollege,WA

MrJimPrendergastReligious Education Coordinator

PatricianBrothers’College,NSW

MrRobertPrestDirector of Curriculum

WoodcroftCollege,SA

2 DrNolaPurdiePrincipal Research Fellow

ACER,VIC

MrPeterQuigleyPrincipal Consultant


15 MrFrankRanaldoDirector of Curriculum

RostrevorCollege,SA

MrDannyRankinSenior Education Officer


MrsSarojiniRaoPrincipal

IndustrialInternationalSchool,India

MrJeffRayAP Curriculum

MountStJosephMilperra,NSW

MsJanRaymondTeam Leader Assessment

SSABSA,SA

MsGeorgeReedDeputy Principal


MrsSusanReganPrincipal

StDamian’sPrimarySchool,VIC

14 MsJacquelineReidPrincipal Consultant

DET,WA

MrDennisReyeAssociate Director

AdventistSchoolsAustralia,VIC

MsChristineRheinberger CatholicSchoolsOffice,NSWMrsSharonRichAssistant Principal

ElizabethNorthPrimarySchool,SA

6 MsCarmelRichardsonSenior Research Fellow

ACER,VIC

MrsAlmaRichmondPrincipal

TokanuiSchool,NZ

24 MrsLeanneRileyHead of Junior Secondary

StMargaret’sAGS,QLD


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14 MsAlisonRobbPrincipal Consultant, Inclusive Education

DET,WA

MrsCarylRobertsHead of Primary - Duncraig Campus

StStephen’sSchool,WA

MrsJoyRobertsCurriculum Coordinator

StMarysCentralSchool,NZ

17 MrMartinRobertsHead of Middle School

BlackfriarsPriorySchool,SA

19 MrsSylviaRobertsonYear 4 Coordinator

Abbotsleigh,NSW

MrGeoffRoberts-ThomsonDeputy Principal

OxleyCollege,VIC

8 MrsCherryRobinson DECS-SouthernSea&Vines,SA1 Prof.VivianeRobinson

School of Teaching, Learning & Development

TheUniversityofAuckland,NZ

MrJaimeRodriguerzAssistant Principal

StCharbel’sCollege,NSW

12 MsMareeRooke StDeclan’sPrimarySchool,NSWMsMargaretRossDirector

help!(adolescentbehaviour),NZ

DrSamRothmanPrincipal Reseach Fellow

ACER,VIC

3 DrKenRoweResearch Director, Learning Processes

ACER,VIC

MrPeterRubiraYear 11 Team Leader

GenazzanoCollege,VIC

MsSheenaRuedasSpecial Education

CatholicEducation,SA

MrsBrendaRussellPrincipal

StPatrick’sPrimarySchool,VIC

DrEricaRyanEd. Officer


15 MsGeraldineRyanExecutive Officer

NewZealandEduc.Institute,NZ

MrsJoyRyanDeputy Principal

GoodNewsLutheranSchool,QLD

16 MrPaulRyanPrincipal


MrsSophieRyanHead of School Services


MrVaughanSadlerPrincipal

CorpusChristiCollege,WA

MrsCrisSandriPrincipal

HighgatePrimarySchool,WA

2 DrChrisSarraDirector

IndigenousEducationLeadershipInstitute,QLD

DrHiroshiSatoAssociate Professor

OkayamaUniversity,Japan


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MrRalphSaubernGeneral Manager, ACER Press

ACER,VIC

MrJonathanSaurineLeading Teacher - Pedagogy

MLC,NSW

MrMichaelSawbridgePrincipal

SlacksCreekStateSchool,QLD

7 MsDeirdreSchaefferAssistant Director

DEST,NSW

MissKarinSchraderCoordinator

ChisholmCatholicPrimarySchool,NSW

MsCathySchultzAssessment Field Officer

SSABSA,SA

MsCathyScottPrincipal

ChisholmCatholicPrimary,NSW

MrsMaeScottHead of School Administration

BeaconhillsCollege,NSW

MrsDianneScoullerDean of Education

MastersInstitute,NZ

MrCharlesScudamoreVice Principal/Head of Corio

GeelongGrammarSchool,VIC

21 MsMarilynSeenPrincipal

ToorakPrimarySchool,VIC

7 MsAnneSempleEducation Consultant

11 MrsKhawalaAlMuallaSheikhaAssistant Undersecretary

MinistryofEducation,UnitedArabEmirates

17 MrsBeverleyShepherdFacilitator

TeamSolutions,NZ

MrsRitaShepherdCurriculum Coordinator

StDominic’sPrimarySchool,SA

4 DrKhooSiekToonPrincipal Research Fellow

ACER,VIC

MrsSherylSilcoxDeputy Principal

HelenaValleyPrimarySchool,WA

DrSteffanSilcoxPrincipal

BallajuraCommunityCollege,WA

DrRolandSimonsPrincipal Education Officer

DETA,QLD

10 MrsCatherineSkudderAssistant Principal

MarnebekSchool,VIC

14 DrMichaelSlatterySecondary Schools Consultant


MrPhillipSlatteryPrincipal

StMary’sPrimarySchool,NSW

MsAnnSmallCoordinator of Learning


MsAlisonSmithPEO - School Improvement

BrisbaneNorthDistrictEduc,QLD

5 MrsBarbaraSmithEducation Consultant, ACER Press

ACER,VIC


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MrsCarolSmith DECS,SAMrGarrySmithPrincipal

ArranounbaiSchool,NSW

MrsGeorginaSmithPrincipal

StFrancisdeSalesCollege,SA

MsKathySmithDeputy Principal


7 MrVaughanSmithHead of Research

CaulfieldGrammarSchool,VIC

5 MrMarkSnarttSenior Education Officer


MrBarrySoraghanEducation Consultant


MrsRaeSpenceCoordinator, Teaching Learning

TrinityCatholicCollege,NSW

MrHarryStassiopoulosDeputy Principal


15 MrsKayStevensPrincipal

RiversdaleSchool,NZ

8 MrRobertStewartProject Manager

LeadershipCentre,WA

23 MrRobertStewartPrincipal

IllawarraPrimarySchool,WA

25 MrChristopherStockPrincipal

StPaul’sCollege,VIC

MrsCeciliaStonePrincipal

CarrumDownsPrimarySchool,VIC

8 MrJeffStoneProject Manager

LeadershipCentre,WA

MrPeterStoylesCampus Principal


MrGrahamStylesAssistant Principal

CleelandSecondaryCollege,VIC

MrsMargaretSwainPrincipal

AlinjarraPrimarySchool,WA

MrWilliamSweeneyDirector

StPeter’sCollege,SA

1 MsHelenSymeonakisPrincipal

SalisburyHighSchool,SA

MrsCarmelTapleySecondary Curriculum


22 MrDavidTaplin NewingtonCollege,NSW26 MrsHelenTaylor

Assistant PrincipalBrauerCollege,VIC

3 MsMargaretTaylorAdmin. Officer, Centre for Prof. Learning

ACER,VIC

MrRobertTaylorDeputy Head Junior School

PenrhosCollege,WA

MsVyvyanTaylorTeacher



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MsDeidreThompsonEducation Officer


MrIanThompsonHead of Junior School

OvernewtonAnglicanComm.School,VIC

DrJeanThompsonResearch Managaer

RADIIPtyLtd,VIC

4 MrsPatriciaThompsonDarn Senior School

WilliamClarkeCollege,NSW

MrsJohannaTilbrookPrincipal

SacredHeartPrimarySchool,VIC

MrAnthonyTrevittPrincipal

StRichard’sPrimarySchool,VIC

17 MrBarneyTrezonaHead of Faculty

ImmanuelCollege,SA

MMarilynTrothProject Officer

TeachingAustralia,ACT

9 MrMarkTurkingtonRegional Director


26 MrsDebraTurleyAssistant Principal

SalisburyHighSchool,SA

MrDavidTurnerHead

CentralQldUniversity

11 DrPaulineTurnerPrincipal

TheGeelongCollege,VIC

MsKathleenUpfoldDeputy Principal


MsJillianUssherLeadership and Management Adviser

MasseyUniversity,NZ

20 MrGilbertvanderJagtDirector


MrGeoffreyvanderVlietDeputy Principal

NambourChristianCollege,QLD

MrPeterVanstanPrincipal


MrsAnneWalkerPrincipal

FernworthPrimarySchool,NZ

MrsSharonWalkerAssistant Principal


19 MrsJudyWallAssistant Principal

GlendalPrimarySchool,VIC

MsAnneWallingtonHead of Senior School

MethodistLadiesCollege,VIC

24 MrStephenWalshPrincipal

StJoseph’sCatholicCollege,NSW

MrsSueWalshHead of School Services


MrRichardWansPrincipal

HolyTrinityPrimarySchool,VIC

MrJohnWardPrincipal

StMartinDePorres,SA


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6 MrsRaeleneWarnerAssistant Principal

RowellynParkPrimarySchool,VIC

MrDavidWassonDirector

DET,NSW

5 MrAndrewWatsonPublishing Manager, ACER Press

ACER,VIC

4 DrLouiseWatsonAssoc. Prof. & Principal Researcher

UniversityofCanberra,ACT

MrGrantWebbPrincipal Advisor

DETA,QLD

21 MrsJenniferAnneWebbPrincipal


MrPeterWeddellCoordinator

Nat.AwardsforQualitySchooling,ACT

MrJohnWeeksHeadmaster

KnoxGrammarSchool,NSW

16 MrChrisWelchAssistant Principal


MrDirkWellhamDeputy Headmaster

AnglicanChurchGrammarSchool,QLD

26 MrRayWerrenPrincipal

MaterMariaCatholicCollege,NSW

11 MrHowardWestAssistant Principal

Aust.InternationalSchool,HongKong

MrsDebbieWest-McInnesPrep Coordinator

GoodNewsLutheranSchool,QLD

8 MrsBronwynWhite LeadershipCentre,WAMsNaomiWhiteAdviser to Schools

MasseyUniversityCollegeofEduc.,NZ

MrsAmandaWhitfieldEducation Officer

CSOBrokenBay,NSW

MsBethWhitingAssistant Director, Teacher Education

DEST,ACT

10 MrsVirginiaWhittleTeacher

MsHelenWildashGeneral Manager, Curriculum

VCAA,VIC

BrWilliamWilding3 DrHelenWildy

Associate ProfessorMurdochUniversity,WA

MrAdrianWilesPrincipal

LutherCollege,VIC

MsJennyWilkinsonResearch Fellow

ACER,VIC

10 MrsJenniferWilliamsHead of Campus - Village

BeaconshillsCollege,VIC

MrGeoffWillsPrincipal

AngleValePrimarySchool,SA

MrsAnneWilsonHead of Science

MoretonBayCollege,QLD


100


10 Mrs Jill WilsonHead of Campus - Valley

Beaconshills College, VIC

17 Mr Nigel WilsonNational Executive Member

NZEI Te Riu Roa

Mr Bruce WintherHead of Primary

Matthew Flinders Anglican College, QLD

14 Ms Judy WintourHead of Middle School

Redeemer Lutheran College, QLD

Mrs Victoria WissellPrincipal

Sacred Heart School, VIC

13 Mrs Kerry WoodDirector of Curriculum

Pymble Ladies’ College, NSW

17 Miss Renee WoodAssistant Principal

St Raphael’s School, NSW

Ms Kaye Woodman Box Hill North Primary School, VICMr Graeme WrightManager, Education Services

DET, WA

Mr Ian YarhamHead of Middle School

Noosa District SHS, QLD

27 Ms Judy YaronNational Coordinator

YALP, VIC

10 Mr Alexander YoungCEO

FlickNTick Pty Ltd, TAS

Ms Eileen YoungPrincipal

St Mary’s College, SA

Mr Jason YoungEducation Officer

Catholic Schools Office, NSW

13 Ms Sara Young Holy Family School, NSWMr Robert ZordanHeadmaster

Guildford Grammar School, WA

590 delegates listed as ofWednesday 25 July 2007

the leadership challenge : improving learning in schools

Documents