the limelight 2011

7/28/2019 The Limelight 2011

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Earthquake and the PeopleDr. Hikmat Raj

Professor, Department of Civil EnginInstitute of Engineering, Tribhuvan Uni

Email: hjoshi@ioe.

Limitations

This write-up is an attempt to analyze theinteraction between people of various backgroundsand earthquake from a civil engineer's view.The analysis is based upon the application ofalgorithm of working or thinking procedure of thepeople involved and the situation faced by them.This is more of sharing experiences and feelingsrather than exploring or establishing new things.

Introduction

rthquake is a natural phenomenon people have toe with and damages and losses due to which couldssibly be controlled or minimized depending upon

preparedness of the people facing it. Preparednessan event like earthquake is raised by increasing theel of understanding of the event and their ability to

ply it among the people. However, this preparednessong people is like 'snooze alarm'. If not built in thetem properly most of it is forgotten or lost between

events. In order to understand the two basic

ments of discussion and the interactions betweenm they have been classified and categorized aslows:

Earthquakerthquake used to be entirely divine wrath uponnkind until they started to understand it as a

ological phenomenon, which could be understood,asured and prepared for. However, it was not until

beginning of the 20th century people were not in asition to understand the tectonic causes of theth k Wh i th t l

cause earthquakes due to their own doings. Accoto the magnitude, extension and severity earthqcould be classified into major, medium and mMajor earthquakes are those, which require natregional or international level of works for st

preparedness and tackling. Medium level earthqmay have to be handled in local or national efforts, whereas minor earthquakes are to be stud

preparation for the major ones. As Prof. R JahnsStanford University says 'The longer it has beenthe last one, the closer it is to the next one'.

Major Medium Minor1976,Tangshan,China

1988,Eastern

Nepal

Earthquakes occuin Katmandu forlast 10 years

Prediction: Attempts are being made to pearthquakes from ancient times. However, it early and too little to say that there is a reliable w

predicting earthquakes.Successful Predictions Aborted Predic

In 1975 in Haicheng, China;1976, in Yunan and Sichuan

by Chinese scientistsIn 1978 in Garm,Tadzhikistan by RussianScientists.

In 1981 by twoscientists for coasts, Peru Chile

The Predictions were based upon tilting ofsurface, fluctuations in the magnetic field, chanthe electrical resistance of the ground, increa

seismicity, change in wave velocity, change in well etc.In order to have established scientific basialgorithm to be followed should be:

Signal, indications (observed repeatability Data (collected systematically) Information (processed and analyzed) Knowledge (established facts, laws, theo

methods) Implementation (regulations, c

commercialization)The earthquake prediction science, it seems, has hreached the third steps in this order.

Interactions

MajorMedium

Minor

Mental:

Awareness

Knowledge

R & DCulture

People

LaityProfessionals

Controllers

Physical:

Buildings

Structures

Geology

Environment

Earthquake


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Peoplecording to the involvement in and contribution tointeractions the people in Nepal have been grouped:

People Groupsaity Upper, middle, lower class in

income bracketsLiterate, Illiterate

Earthquake conscious, notearthquake conscious

rofessionals Directly related to earthquake:Scientists, Engineers etc.Indirectly related to earthquake:Lawyers, Medical doctors, media

people etc.Unrelated to earthquake

ontrollers Professionals directly related toearthquake

Professionals indirectly related toearthquakeImplementers: government officials,

pressure groupse purpose of grouping of people in this table is tod out which way and how the influence should flowmake each and everyone aware of, conscious ande to know the necessary facts about earthquake.

Interactionse interaction between earthquake and people takesce in two media both physically and mentally. Thetinctive reactions of people to try to be safer,entiveness and creativity make people to produce

proved way of interacting with earthquake.

Physical Mentalildings Residential,

PublicAwareness Laity

uctures Lifelines Knowledge Professionalsology Substructures,

SubsoilR & D Professionals

and Scientistsvironm Sustainability

and planningCulture Controllers,

Implementers

areness: The problem of making all the peopleare of the necessary facts and figures of earthquakeo be addressed by all the concerned institutions andanizations. It is right and duty of everyone in the

untry to be aware of these necessary facts andures. For this purpose the institutions like NSET,ANep, NEA etc could be effectively mobilized. Aurse in earthquake should be taught in school levela compulsory part. Every one should know where toand who to ask if s/he has questions. For those who

responsible for informing and educating theentertaining way, if necessary, to mobilize themmake them understand.

Knowledge: One of the challenging tasks disseminate the available knowledge to

professional through systematic channels. professionals involved in design and planning s

be imbued with classics and conventional knowof earthquake. For this purpose courses shouincluded in the professional disciplines and traorganized for those who have missed or who nrefresher course. The knowledge of earthquake s

be made compulsory or should carry weights career development of the professionals. The group from professionals in this case is fresh grad

practicing professionals or even experiprofessionals. The institutions involved aruniversities, professional associations, institutionsocieties, governmental and non-governmorganizations.

R & D:The group of people involved and engagresearch and development in leading roleexperienced, experienced and highly qualifiehighly qualified professionals. They shoulencouraged to their work in a systematic way g

priority to the problems the country is facing. should try to do their R & D in framework foencompass and include the necessary areas

professionals. For example it is also their taskinterested in saving lives of majority of the pliving in non-engineered building by finding out s

building techniques and ways to retrofit the exbuildings to make them safer from earthquake. Sand making the historical monuments safer coul

be a fertile area for R & D.Culture

BuildingsStructures

GeologyEnvironment

6. References1. Gere J M, Shah H C, 1984, "Terra Non

Understanding and Preparing for EarthquakeH Freeman and Company, New York.

2. Joshi H R, 2005, Rebars and the StakehProceedings of National Seminar on RebCivil Construction, jointly organized by Stru

Engineers' Association, Nepal (SEANep)

Hama Iron & Steel Industries Pvt. Ltd, Katma

3. Kawano A, Griffith M C, Joshi H R, Warne1998, Analysis of the behaviour and collaconcrete frames subjected to severe ground m


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Green House Gas Displacement through Installation of

Photovoltaic Solar Home System in

Nepal A GlimpseProf. Dr. Jagan Nath Sh

Center for Energy Studies, Institute of Engineering, Tribhuvan Uni

stract:hough Nepal has been endowed with vast natural energy resources, such as solar, hydro, wind etc. it remains far beh

ir fruitful utilization, with a per capita energy consumption of about 15 GJ only. At least 60% of her population

rived of access to electricity, which is a basic necessity in modern society, and has to depend upon the nonrenew

ported fossil fuels for lighting and other purposes. This has been contributing to the indoor as well as the ou

ironment degradation. Due to the diverse terrain, remote geographical condition and dispersed rural population it

sible to provide grid electricity, in some part of the country at present. This hard fact compels Nepal to lo

entralized off-grid or mini grid electricity sources. Solar photovoltaic (PV) technology is one of the viable option

re have been more than 44,000 Solar Home System (SHS) with above 1.6 MWp installed till now in different parts

ntry. This paper contains a brief account on the potential, present installation and future trend of installation of S

pal and the relevant impact upon the reduction of Green House Gases (GHGs). The paper also accounts for a qua

d quantitative reduction of the GHG emission through the installation of SHS in private sectors. The paper concludere awareness programmes on the PV Technology, its contribution in the protection of the local and global environm

l as its relevant benefits are needed, especially in the remote areas with no access to national grid system. This wi

only in the poverty reduction but also in the protection of the local and eventually global environment as well as supp

national economy.

y Words: Solar Photovoltaic, Rural Electrification, Solar Home System, Green House Gas, Global Warming

Solar Insolation in Nepalpal is a mountainous country with a fragile andep topography (about 60m in the south to 8,848 mnorth). It is located on the southern slopes of the

malayas between 2622 N to 3027 N and 804E8812 E. Nepal has a total population of 23,151,423ng in 4,253,220 households [1].e country is divided into five development regions,zones and 75 districts. The solar energy resource inpal is abundant, evenly distributed over the countryd over the seasons. The average insolation in Nepalaround 4.5 kWh/m2/day at optimum tilt [16]. Nepaloys about 300 sunny days in a year. Solarotovoltaic (PV) system that generates electricity

m the energy of solar radiation has emerged as able option to meet the demand for electric energy,ecially in remote areas of Nepal.

History of Solar PV Technology Development in

Nepalpal could not remain isolated from globalvelopment in the field of solar PV technology. Theact date of the first use of solar PV in Nepal cannot

ascertained. Nepal Telecommunications

rporation (NTC) was the first organization to usear PV power to operate a high frequency transceiverated in Damauli in 1974 [15]. NTC started massive

Centralized electricity supply from solar PV starNepal in 1988. Nepal Electricity Authority (Nwith the assistance from the French governinstalled centralized solar PV power system inlocations: Simikot (50 kWp) in 1988, Kodari/Tat(30 kWp) and Gumgadhi (50 kWp) in 1989. Othese three, the installation at Kodari/Tatopandismantled in 2000 and the modules were re-insin Darchula district as individual solar home systeRecorded use of solar PV power for domelectrification started in 1991/92 when the firstPV company was established. AgricDevelopment Bank of Nepal (ADB/N) had been solar PV power to electrify its 100 branch o

starting from 1987. Use of PV power for electrification gained momentum only aftesuccessful launching of Pulimarang VElectrification Project in late 1993. This projecinitiated by Solar Electric Light Fund (SELF), a

based not-for-profit organization and manageCenter for Renewable Energy (CRE), a Nepalesegovernmental organization. The solar PV scomponents for this project were supplied bysolar PV industry-Solar Electricity Company (

Except PV modules and batteries all other scomponents were locally manufactured. The succthe Pulimarang project played a pivotal role in dr


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e first highly subsidized (95%) 68 SHS weretalled at Chhaimale village in southern part ofthmandu valley in September 1995 [3]. The subsidys provided by Plan International, an INGO, and theS were installed by Wisdom Light Groups Pvt. Ltd.e government of Nepal started providing subsidy to

decentralized SHS from the fiscal year 1995/96.

r the first time, ADB/N provided 50% subsidy totall 40 SHS at six village development committeesDCs) in Kabhrepalanchowk district in June 1996. The SHS were promoted by Lotus Energy Pvt. Ltd.der its LEVEL-UP1 programme funded by the USreau of Oceans and International Environmentalentific Affairs (OES) through the American

mbassy in Kathmandu. As the Pulimarang project, theVEL-UP programme also motivated the governmentrecognize solar PV technology as a tool for ruralctrification.1996, the Alternative Energy Promotion Center

EPC) was established under the Ministry of Scienced Technology, which started providing subsidy toS from 1998/99. The government announcedewable energy subsidy policy in October 2000. The

bsidy policy addresses, among other renewableergy technologies, the policy related to solar energytems. The policy has made separate provisions forS and solar PV powered pumps.other major sector where solar PV is extensively

d is water supply. Royal Nepal Academy of Scienced Technology (RONAST), with financial assistancem Showa Shell, installed the first 1.48 kWp solar

powered water pumping system in Ghorahi ofng district in 1989. The largest solar PV poweredter-pumping system (40 kWp) for drinking waters installed at Bode in Bhaktapur district in 1995ntly by RONAST, Water Supply and Sewagerporation and Tribhuvan University (TU) and

nded by NEDO, Japan.

Solar PV Technologies in Nepalbased electrification has become immediate means

electrifying rural households of Nepal. The numbersolar electrified households has exceeded 34,000 byd 2003 [14]. This is an indication that the solar PVed rural electrification technology has becometure and that its popularity has increased

bstantially. This phenomenon is not unique to Nepaly; globally more than half a million households in

veloping countries are PV electrified [4]. Unlikeer sources of electricity (e.g. hydro, wind, fuel) thehas the shortest installation period, a household can

disposal of used storage batteries. However this can be mitigated by implementing systecollection and recycling of the used batteries.The basic solar PV technologies in use in Nephome systems, water pumping including irrigation, powering telecommunications equip

powering navigational equipment, institutional sy

like lighting community buildings, temdormitories etc., and powering computers in roffices and schools.A major contribution of the SHS is the reductiindoor air pollution. A study conducted by CentEnergy Studies (CES), Institute of engineTribhuvan University, Nepal, shows that the partimatter accumulated in a room of dimension 25 ft ft within 6 hours of burning a single keroseneexceeded the WHO limit of 2.6 g/m3 for 24 operation from kerosene lamp. After burning 1(container capacity of a standardtuki lamp) for 7and 47 minutes, the weight of the soot deposite0.085 gm. For one year this value could be as h11.63 gm at the rate of 3 hours burning time pe[5] The detail results of the study are shown in Ta

Table 1: Measurement of Particulate matter dKerosene Lamp [ 5]S.

No.Time Particulate Level

(g/m3) atRemarks

3 ft. 6 ft. 9 ft.1 10:00 0.48 0.45 0.45 Backgrou

level2 10:15 1.05 1.76 2.62 With lam3 11:00 7.88 8.50 7.50 With lam4 12:00 6.79 7.10 7.47 With lam5 13:00 6.71 5.64 5.93 With lam6 14:00 7.45 7.26 7.56 With lam7 15:00 7.52 7.31 7.46 With lam8 16:00 7.59 7.52 7.49 With lam

4. The Solar Home SystemThe Solar Home Systems (SHS) generally compra PV module, a storage battery, a cregulator/controller and a few DC lights. Thmodule capacity ranges from 10 Wp for smsystems with two lights and a single socket for ra75 Wp for six-seven lamps, a single sockeradio/cassette and color television. The most posystem is with 35 to 45 Wp PV modules in whic

users have facility to use 3-4 lights of 7-10 Watabout three hours per day and to operate a msized black and white television At the loc


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teries generally follow the installed capacity of PVdule. For an average size of PV modules of 35-45

p the size of the battery is around 70 Ampere-hourh) [6].

Trend of SHS Installationse use of solar PV systems for lighting rural

useholds began in early 90s in Nepal. Since then,number of installations has been on an everreasing trend. Various factors, like the growingolvement of civil society organizations and donor

encies, improvement in the environmental policy,vision of subsidy as well as the demonstrationect, have played important roles in maintaining thend. The data on the annual installation numbers andak capacity are shown in the Table 2.ble 2: Installation of SHSsar oftallation

No. ofInstallations

Total Capacity, Wp

92/93 8 27293/94 89 3,27694/95 36 1,24795/96 149 4,89896/97 562 20,39497/98 736 27,27698/99 1,899 68,29099/00 2,715 97,401

00/01 6,082 236,95101/02 12,931 511,101002/03 19,451 690,222al 44,658 1,661,327urce: [6, 9]

nstalled till mid July 2003 [6, 9]

gure 1: Cumulative Capacity wise Installation ofSs

44,600 SHSs as of mid July, 2003; among them 3SHSs have been installed under Alternative EPromotion Centre/ Energy Sector AssiProgramme (AEPC/ESAP) [6] subsidy programtrend of installation of stand-alone SHS is shown Figure 1, from which, it is evident that the growtof SHS installations has increased marked

1995/96-1996/97. This was due to the introductsubsidy on SHS for the first time in 1995 and theof SHS installation shows a steep rise after 1999due to introduction of a new subsidy policy in 20AEPC/ESAP.

6. GHG emission reduction due to installatiSHS

By using the base case scenario model, the reduction due to the installation of SHS is calc

by assumption based on what would have happenthe absence of the project activities. In this cas

baseline scenario is the continued uncontrolled rof GHG emission to the atmosphere due tincreasing use of the imported fossil fuelsKerosene for lighting purpose.The installed SHS is mostly used to power lightand radio in rural areas. The major contribution fGHG emission reduction is through the change ofuel source for lighting, i.e., from kerosene fuel toPV electricity. According to the latest survey

published in 2003, the lighting devices used binstallation of SHS were tuki, petromax, lanterfire wood flame (in Jumla). After the installatiSHS, it was estimated that the resulting reductkerosene use amounted to around 5 litres per hous

per month. [8].Using the base case scenario model, the reductthe GHG due to the replacement of kerosenlighting is given by the equation:The ith GHG reduction per year per SHS, GRi

EFi x T (1)Where,Q = Consumptioon Rate, ltr/monthEFi = Emission Factor for ith GHGT = Time Duration, months

The emission factors of combustion for kerosendifferent GHGs are given in the table 3Table 3: Emission Factors of combustion for ker

FuelSource

GHG EFi CO2e Remarks

Kerosene* CO2 2.457kg/ltr

2.457kg/ltr

IPCC 1996, [1

CH4 0.35 0.007 (Smith et al, 19

0.33.55 103057126

223

460

971

1661

-

200

400

600

8001,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

-

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

1992/93

1993/94

1994/95

1995/96

1996/97

1997/98

1998/99

1999/00

2000/01

2001/02

*2002/03

Cumu

lative

Ins

talledCa

pac

ity

(kW)

Noo

fSHSIns

tallation

Time Duration

No. of Installations Cum Total Capacity


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Houghton et al,2001), [11]

N2O 0.063g/ltr

0.020kg/ltr

(Smith et al, 1999),[7, 11]GWP of N2O = 310@CO2, (Source:Houghton et al,

2001), [11]NHV of Kerosene = 35 MJ/ litre, [13]

tal GHG reduction = (GRi GWPi) (2)here,

GWPi = Global Warming Potential for ith GHGen using equation (1) and (2),

CO2 reduction per year per SHS = (5) ltr/month (2.457) kg CO2/ltr 12 months/yr= 147.42 kg CO2/year

CH4 reduction per year per SHS = (5) ltr/month (0.00035) kg CH

4/ ltr 12 months/yr

= 0.021 kg CH4/year= (0.021 X 21)= 0.441 kg CO2e/year

N2O reduction per year per SHS = (5) ltr/month (0.000063) kg N2O/ ltr 12 months/yr= 0.00378 kg N2O/year= (0.00378 X 310)= 1.1718 kg CO2e/year

Total Annual GHG reduction potential per unit

tallation of the SHS= 147.42 + 0.441 + 1.1718= 149.0328 kg CO2e/year

e cumulative annual GHG reduction in CO2e isen in Figure 2. [14]

e total annual GHG reduction due to the installationmid July 2003 is calculated as 6,655.5 tonnes of

be included in the Clean Development Mech(CDM) with Certified Emission Reduction, then generate the Carbon Abatement Revenue of US $497.5 @ US $ 3/tonne CO2e [12].

7. ConclusionThe PV based SHS has become one of the

important Renewable Energy Technology (RETNepal to provide the electricity for lighting tremote areas of the country, which depends entirethe traditional technology like kerosene lamplighting. The annual GHG reduction potentiinstalled SHS considering lighting only in Necalculated as 149 kg per SHS. It is very importa

Nepal, being faced with the problems of excforeign currency reserve expenditure on commfuel import and increasing deforestation, to implCDM, based on the RET, which focuses on imp

petroleum fuel substitution.

References

1. Population Census 2001.National Report, NPC, HMG/Nepal, June 2002

2. Sharma, L. R. 1998. Solar PhotovApplication in Telecommunication

Proceedings of International Conference onof Renewable Energy Technology for

Development, 12-14 October, 1998, KathmNepal.3. Kayastha, Y. 2000. The Role of Solar

Systems in the Promotion of Income GeneActivities in Selected Villages of Kavre D

Nepal, M. Sc. Thesis, University of FlenGermany

4. Photovoltaic: an outlook for 21stcentury Ja2003 in Renewable Energy World,

5. Center for Energy Studies, March 2000.Report on Design, Construction and field T

of a Low Cost Lighting System for the Nepal Submitted to Rural Energy DeveloProgramme, Nep/95/016, UNDP, Nepal

6. Status of Solar Photovoltaic Sector in NJune 2003, CADEC, Kathmandu, Nepal.

7. Shakya, S. R et.al. 2003. RET projcontribution to reduction of the Green H

Gas emissions in Nepal: a case studyConference Proceedings of InternaConference in Renewable Energy Technfor Rural Development, 12-14 Oc

Kathmandu, Nepal.8. TRUST Pvt. Ltd., Kathmandu, Nepal.

Fi l D ft R t U S

1.2

14

.5

19

.8

42

.0125

.8

235

.5

518

.5923

.11,829

.53

,756

.76,6

55

.5

-

1,000.0

2,000.0

3,000.0

4,000.0

5,000.0

6,000.0

7,000.0

-

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

1992/93

1993/94

1994/95

1995/96

1996/97

1997/98

1998/99

1999/00

2000/01

2001/02

2002/03

Cumu

Annua

lGHGRedu

ction

(tonnes

)

NoofSHSInstallation

Time Duration

No. of Installations Cumm CO2e reduction (tonne)


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submitted to ESAP

9. Himalayan Light Foundation, Kathmandu, 2003,

Final Report on Paper & Power Lekhani VDC,Baglunj District (Sep 2001 March 2003)

Community Action Global Impact, UNDP/GEF Small Grant Program, p-34-35.

10. IPCC, (1996),Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for

National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, ReportingInstruction, Workbook and Reference Manual.

11. Randall S. F. 2002, The CDM guidebook A

Resource for Clean Development Mechanism, A

Guidebook for Project Developers in SouthernAfrica, Second Edition.

12. World Bank, (1998), GHG assessment handbook,World Bank Environment Department,

Washington.

13. RWEDP, December 2001, Report on National

Training of Trainers Course on Wood Energy,Report No. 62, p-19, 45,141,184.

14. Shrestha, J. N., et. al., 2003, Renewable E

in Nepal- Progress at a Glance 1998 TO

Pre-Conference Proceedings of InternaConference in Renewable Energy Techn

for Rural Development, 12-14 OcKathmandu, Nepal.

15.Shrestha J.N., 1998, Status of PV Technol

Nepal, Institute of Engineering, Kathmandu16. World Design Insolation, 1996, Solarex, S

Court, MD 21703, USA (The design inso

is the average value of the total solar e

received each day on optimally tilted s

during the month with the lowest solar rad

received on that surface)


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Surface DressingGBS Tam

Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Pulchowk Campus, Institute of Engin

Tribhuvan Uni

stract: Surface Dressing works are extensively executed in the recent years on the different new roads a

existing roads all over the country to prolong the road life and better serviceable condition. Thereforential to know about this works by the persons involved in the construction industries for the proper and qecution.

finitionrface dressing is one of the most common and costective techniques used as wearing coursepes of Surface dressing

Single Bituminous Surface DressingDouble Bituminous Surface DressingTriple Bituminous Surface Dressing

ain function of surface dressing

To provide a dust free surface over a base courseTo provide a water proof layer to preventinfiltration of surface waterTo protect the base course

nstruction Procedure of Surface Dressing

Material Requirement

Bitumen :- Normally 80/100 grade Straight runAggregate :- Clean, strong, durable with following

propertiesLos Angeles Abrasion value (LAA)-35% (Max)Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV)-30% (Max)Flakiness Index (FI) - 25% (Max)Water Absorption - 1 % (Max)Stripping Value - 25% (Max)

adation Requirement of Aggregates (Chipping)

eveze

mm)

Percentage passing by weightNominal sizes

14/20 10/14 6/10 4/65 - - - -0 85 - 100 100 - -4 0 20 80 - 100 100 -0 0 3 0 - 15 80 - 100 100

3 - 0 - 3 0 - 1585 -100

75 - - 0 - 10 -80 - - 0 - 2 0 - 1018 0 - 2 0 - 2 - -

60 - - - 0 - 2075 0 - 0.5 0 - 0.5 0 - 0.5 0 - 0.5

Bitumen Distributor or Spreader Mechanical Broom or Hand Brushes Air Compressor Aggregate or Stone Chip Spreader Pneumatic Roller

Construction Steps Preparation and intensive cleaning o

existing surface by broom and air compre Spreading of binder as per specified r

application Spreading of stone chipping as per spe

rate of application Rolling with the help of pneumatic rol

first or final coat at least four passes (SBS Opening to traffic with controlled lower

(< 10 Kmph) for one or two weeks Broom and clean the loose chips

Application of binder or and stone chippisecond coat

Rolling with the help of pneumatic rolsecond or final coat at least four p(DBSD)

Opening to traffic with controlled lower (< 10 Kmph) for one or two weeks

Broom and clean the loose chips Opening to traffic with controlled lower

(< 10 Kmph) for one or two weeks

Broom and clean the loose chips Application of binder or and stone chippithird coat

Rolling with the help of pneumatic rolleror final coat at least four passes (TBSD)

Opening to traffic with controlled lower (< 10 Kmph) for one or two weeks

Quality Control Checking of the conditions of the equipm Checking of temperature of binder Checking of dust content in stone chippin

Conduction of tests on binder at penetration, viscosity and ductility

il bili f l b f ili i


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Stripping Value or availability of laboratoryfacilities

Checking of rate of application of binder andstone chipping by placing rectangular trayduring spreading of binder and stone chipping

ecaution Equipment condition should be in perfect

running condition before starting

Excellent coordination between the lequipment and supervisor shouldmaintained perfectly

Never attempt to start the work wheambient temperature is below 16 0 C

Stock of aggregates for surface dressing Bulk bitumen brought by tanker delivering Packed bitumen pouring into the storage tankworks in crusher plant in the storage tank at construction site camp at construction site camp

Washing of stone chipping before transporting Intensive broom with hard and soft brushes Use of the compressor for cleaning theto laying site to reduce the dust in chips and removal of the dust from the existing surface and make free from foreign materia

surface after intensive broom

Heating of bitumen to the required Chip spreader and pneumatic rollers are in Bitumen spreader and chip spreader in readtemperature at site to be ready for spraying ready position to execute surface dressing position to execute surface dressing workfor the surface dressing work work

Spraying of the bitumen by distributor. Covering of the spread bitumen by the chips Immediate rolling after spraying ofAggregate spreader is following to cover with the help of chip spreader aggregates by pneumatic rollerthe spread bitumen


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Perfect arrangements of the different Good spacing between bitumen spreader, Covering of the spread bitumen by the chipsequipment in sequence for better performance chip spreader and pneumatic roller in SD work with the help of chip spreader followingSD works immediately

Back up rolling by pneumatic roller. It is better Manual spraying of aggregates on uncovered Escorting by motorbike for controlling traffio roll when road surface attain high edge of the pavement by labors for better and safe guarding the executed surface from

emperature finish of Surface Dressing stripping of aggregates


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Historical Development of Engineering Higher

Education in NepalDr.(Er.) Bharat Raj P

Associate Professor

Institute of Engin

roduction higher education in Nepal incepted during Vediciod as Gurukul and subsequently developed in therse of time. Modern higher education that beganr the Tri-Chandra College in 1918 is at present

ng disseminated from different universities throughr constituent and affiliated colleges. Many collegese been established with the delivery of diversified

cipline and having affiliation with one of thoseversities. The state of condition of the universities

the colleges is different. Tribhuvan University islargest one and expanding in the span of thentry. It has the highest numbers of students,ulties, programs and staffs. Sanskrit University isning traditionally the subject matters in Sanskritdium. This university is hardly functioning with theernment financing. Kathmandu University

ablished from private sector and has establisheddemic excellence. It seems to be satisfied with its'n endeavours and the outputs. Purwanchal andkhara Universities are largely running with thength of affiliated colleges. They are sustaining froming affiliation to private colleges and governmentstance. Lumbini Bauddha University is still in therse of developing its infrastructure. BPKIHS inaran is running satisfactorily and National academymedical sciences is running in Bir Hospital.

Right from the beginning of the civilization,hnology has been instrumental for the change. In thely days, the skill of hunting and the development ofe were engineering and later on this was developed

to the production of weapons, survey of theography and construction of roads. In the earlyiod, engineering was the part of military activities in

ploring new ventures and developing civilization. Incourse of time, this process developed into the

dern complex technology. The life is becomingre and more dependent on the technology. This hasde inevitable to develop a technologically literateiety (Jones, 2006).

It is obvious that transformation of society isssible with knowledge and skill, more specifically,h the engineering knowledge and skill. At present,

At present, there are 31 engineering coincluding constituents and affiliated colleges four universities; Tribhuvan University, KathmUniversity, Pokhara University and PurwaUniversity, disseminating engineering higher eduin Nepal (NEC, 2007).

Historical Development of Engineering Educ

in NepalStacks of information are found in different rel

doctrines on engineering education. Among Vastushastra is well known. There are difliterature illustrating engineering fundamentals, of them are; Vastupuran, Vasturatnakar, VasVastumandan, Mayamatam, Manashar, MatsyapMahabharat, Prashadmandan, ShukBrihatsamhita etc. (Pandey, 2001). The Taksha

Nalanda and other universities of the early pwere some evidences of delivering formal engineducation. However, all these treaties of the panot the content of present day conventional engineducation (Sharma, 2000).

In the historical period, there was more inftechnical education, transferring technology generation to generation through experiencesgreat legend Balabahu (Araniko) was the architthe 13th century, well-known for establishinghistory of pagoda architecture in China. Vocaeducation was very much popular in Kathmandu during Malla period as a tool to increase revThere was a special degree for citizens to learn kind of skills and involve in production and busMalla period was famous for handicraft. It wagolden period for all types of architectures. The from parts other than valley were also found cautious on the importance of technical works. Tillustrated in the decree of King Prithwi Malla ofstate in the west Nepal (Sharma, 2000).

During Rana dynasty (1846-1950) MrShamsher was found to be aware of the tec

service for the development of the country. As aof this, his son, Gehendra Shamsher, along with ostudents were sent to Japan for higher technical


24/80

ucation in Nepal. However, the policy regardinghnical education did not prevail.

Formal technical education started in 193087/11/19 B.S.) after the establishment of technical

hool in Kumari Chowk, Kathmandu. At theginning, this school began the trade course on textilell. In 1942 (1998/10/17 B.S.), engineering section

s introduced in the school offering two years sub-erseer course for SLC graduates. This school wasfted to Tri-Chandra campus in 1945 and renamed asgineering school in 1950. It was in 1958 that thishool was accepted as a formal institution to delivergineering education and once again renamed aspal Engineering Institute and it was shifted to Nepalministrative Training Council Complex, Jawalakhelthe beginning of 1958. By the end of same year58, it was taken to Ananda Niketan, Pulchowk. It

ered overseer course in civil engineering and laterin 1971 offered electrical overseer course. In 1965,hnical training institute was established inapathali under the assistance of Germanvernment offering overseer course in mechanical

d electrical engineering.

After the introduction of New Education Systemn in 1972 in the country, Institute of Engineerings formed under Tribhuvan University and both thepal Engineering Institute and Technical Training

titute were brought under Institute of Engineering.pal Engineering Institute was renamed as Pulchowkmpus and Technical Training Institute was renamedThapathali Campus. Later on, in 1984 and 1987

rbanchal Campus in Dharan and Paschimanchalmpus in Pokhara were established respectively.lchowk Campus started Bachelor level (B.E.) invil Engineering in 1978. Similarly, B.E. in Electricald Electronics Engineering began in 1994,chitectural and Mechanical Engineering began in

95, and Computer Engineering began in 1998 inlchowk Campus. Paschimanchal Campus of IOE inkhara started B.E. Civil Engineering in 1999 andctronics Engineering in 2005. Similarly,

rwanchal Campus of IOE started B.E. inricultural Engineering in 2000 and Civilgineering in 2004. Thapathali Campus began B.E. inustrial engineering in 2005 and civil engineering in

07 (IOE, 2007).

It was after the adoption of bill of multi-university

m the parliament in 1994, there was a momentum toablish engineering colleges in private sectors. Nepalgineering College was first of this kind to be

have also launched engineering program. Theabout 31 engineering colleges today running dip

bachelor degree and master degree and Ph.D. coin multi-dimensional Engineering discipline. Athem 24 colleges are affiliated with difUniversities and seven colleges are the constcolleges of universities. At present, engineering h

education is disseminated in 14 different engindiscipline, namely; civil, electrical, electroniccommunication, mechanical, computer, environmagriculture, architecture, electrical and electrelectronics, biomedical, software, informtechnology, industrial etc (NEC, 2007).

Inception and Growth of Higher Engine

EducationThe planned development of Nepal was inceptedthe democratic change of 1949. National plans

formulated for the overall development of the coThe first national plan began in Nepal in 1956planned attempt of engineering human resdevelopment was initiated in fifth plan under Col

plan; as a result of this substantial numbeengineers were produced. As a part of Karnali

power project large contingent of engineers produced from Roorkee University that begin1980. However, the issue of engineering educatioconsidered in the seventh plan by the introductengineering education project and formulating th

for overall development of the infrastructurefaculties. The issue of human resource developwas stressed in the 8th Plan statement:

Capacity will be increased and quality educatiobe promoted to produce medium and high manpower production within the country in agricumedicine, engineering and forestry through TribUniversity (NPC, 1992, p. 28).

The first engineering education project und

assistance of World Bank, Swiss & Canada, thincepted in seventh plan was in the implementatthe eighth plan after 1986. It was instrumendevelop curriculum, faculties and estinfrastructures necessary for engineering heducation.

The ninth plan was more specific human resdevelopment. This was included in the strateg

policy statement (NPC, 1997). The ninthemphasized on the formation of Nepal Engin

Council with the idea of regulating the enginprofession. The tenth plan illustrated the hresource development among its four strategies


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pacity for the development of the country. Tenthn was more specific on maintaining and enforcingality control measures of engineering colleges and ofgineering education (NPC, 2002). It is envisaged that

human resource agenda is in the lime-light sinceenth plan. The issues of engineering education has

und included in the three years interim plan (2008-

10) as well. According to which the process ofparatory works are underway for the establishmentengineering university, technical university and

mmed university. The World Bank at present isnching second higher education project underional three years interim plan. A component of thisject is obviously the engineering education.

Henceforth, higher education is drawing theention of the policy makers. The focus is naturallyengineering human resources. The reason behind

s is that the activities that drive the industrial stated the activities that implement scientific advance arenerally rooted in engineering.

In the course of time, attempts were made toitalize the higher education of Nepal throughferent education commissions. In this process, newicy decisions were made regarding engineering

ucation.

The education policy drafted by the first educationmmission formed in 1955 illustrated that the pace ofvelopment of the country may take momentum if thecational education could be managed in a propery (HEC, 1955). The commission had alsophasised on the compulsory vocational education in

hool and established a notion that selection of acational subject has to be a part of basic education.

National education system plan adopted in 1961forward the recommendation to change engineering

hool to engineering college under the Tribhuvaniversity (National Education Committee [EC],61). With this recommendation, government hadepted engineering as a formal education. Besides, itnot talk much about engineering education.

After a decade, the government thought toerhaul the prevailing education system. Newucation system project was launched in 1972. Thistem said on education, 'the country needs such

ucation that makes people competent in anyfession having high moral and serve the country'

C, 1972). It had also emphasized on the optionalcational subjects in the high school. As a result ofs, vocational education was extensively applied in

formed the royal higher education commission into look over the student's issues and entrusted thof formulating new education policy. recommendation of this commission can be takelandmark in the process of developing teceducation. It had emphasised on the need of tecmanpower for the development of the country

four areas of technical education were idennamely; Engineering, Agriculture and animal scForestry and Medicine (EC, 1984).

Regarding engineering education, the commrecommended; "Institute of Engineering shouestablished as a centre for producing qengineering manpower and promoting and devetechnology as required in the national develop

process"(EC,1984, p. 38).

The commission also talked about the pl

system of engineering higher education. In additthis, commission proposed the board of technicavocational training and education to conduct course and training. This commission streamlinetechnical education to the national policy as theof development.

After the restoration of democracy in the coun1991, there was the notion of remoulding edu

policy in democratic setting and then goverformed the national education commission in 19work in this direction. This commission hadforward some of the crucial policies regaengineering education. It emphasized on the promof informal and non-formal way of basic skill train one way and in other way the medium and hlevel trainings should be conducted in the vocatraining schools (EC, 1993).

Once again, a high level national educommission was formed in 1998. This commissioentrusted to analyze the prevailing education s

and suggest the rational and timely directieducation system. This commission had prescomprehensive vision regarding engineering educThe objectives were clearly spelled out aninfrastructure necessary for this were noticillustrated and also gave direction for establengineering University for the cause of nadevelopment. Special focus was given to ennational technical capacity of the country throug

production of the engineering human res

development of appropriate technology and tecservices (EC, 1998).

I th f ti th t f


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nagement of school education. This committee wasused on the school education in general and did not

k anything about the engineering education.

So far stating higher education in engineering, its started in 1978/79 as Bachelor in Civilgineering in Institute of Engineering. The enrolments only 22 students in the first batch. The graduates

duced from Nepalese colleges were limited inmbers (72 nos.) up to 1997. This number wasreased after the establishment of private engineeringleges including engineering program of Kathmanduiversity from 1994.

tal enrolment of students in the higher engineeringucation (B.E. Level) in the fiscal year 2003 was14 numbers (UGC, 2004). There has beenmendous increase in the numbers of students after

establishment of private colleges. The enrolment

pacity of 31 numbers of engineering collegesredited from Nepal engineering Council in 2007s found to be 4417 (refer table 1). But, actual entrythe student was only about 70 percent of theolment capacity.

ble 1udent Enrolment Capacity of Engineering Collegesiversity Engineering Colleges Students

enrolmentcapacity

Constituents Affiliated

bhuvaniversity

4 7 1638

wanchaliversity

1 8 1078

kharaiversity

0 9 1522

hmanduiversity

2 0 179

tal 7 24 4417

urce: (NEC, 2007)e scenario of students' pass/ fail rate is varying inferent universities. In Tribhuvan University, theerage fail rate in all eight semesters is found to be 33cent to 47 percent the data of past two batch ofduation from IOE- 2004 and 2005, from both

nstituents and affiliated colleges respectively. Thise is slightly high in the first and second year andghtly low in the third and fourth year (IOE-exam,06). The average fail rate in Kathmandu University

found to be 14 percent to 36 percent in the past fivears-2003-2007 (KU-exam, 2008).The drop-out rate in the 2004 and 2005 batch

(KU-exam, 2008). The drop-out rate in Purwaand Pokhara Universities are slightly higher. Stufail rate in constituent colleges of IOE is foundslightly lower in compare to the affiliated college

References1. Sharma, G.N. (2000). Nepal ko Shaikshik Itih

(History of Education in Nepal). Bidhyarthipublication.

2. HEC. (1984).High level education commissioReport 2040 B.S. His Majesty's Government oNepal: Author.

3. HEC. (1955).High level education commissioReport 2011 B.S. His Majesty's Government oNepal: Author.

4. Jones, R.C. (2006). Updating for engineeringfaculty members in developing countries.

International education digest, World ExpertLLC (USA), 10(64), 27-30.

5. NEC, (2007).Annual report 2007, NepalEngineering Council: Author.

6. Pandey, S.(2001).Rajballabhamandanam, a of vastushastra. A Hindi Script on vastu

philosophy. Ist edition, Varanashi, India.Chaukhamba Surbharati publications.

7. IOE, (2005),Annual report of the Institute ofEngineering. Tribhuvan University, PulchowkLalitpur.

8. IOE-exam (2006). IOE exam report. InstituteEngineering, Examinations Control Division,

Pulchowk, Lalitpur.9. NPC, (1992). 8th five year plan (1992-1997),National Planning Commission of Nepal: Aut

10.NPC, (1997). 9th five year plan (1997-2002),National Planning Commission of Nepal: Aut

11.NPC, (2002), 10th five year plan (2002-2007),National Planning Commission of Nepal: Aut

12.National Education Committee[EC], (1961).Rof the National Education Committee. MinistrEducation, HMG Nepal: Author.

13. EC, (1972).Report of the National EducationCommission. Ministry of Education, HMG NAuthor.

14. EC. (1984).High level education commissionReport 2040 B.S. His Majesty's Government oNepal: Author.

15. EC, (1998).Report of the High level NationalEducation Commission. Ministry of EducatioHMG Nepal: Author.

16. University Grant Commission [UGC], (2004)Annual Report-2003/2004 of University GranCommission, Kathmandu: Author.

17. IOE-exam (2006). IOE exam report. Institute

Engineering, Examinations Control Division,Pulchowk, Lalitpur.

18 KU exam (2008) The record from 2003 to 20


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Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA)Nagendra Bdr A

Department Chief, Eng. Science and HumanitieInstitute of Engineering, Tribhuvan Uni

nbaamatya@ioe.

ploratory Data Analysis (EDA) is anproach/philosophy for data analysis that employs aiety of techniques (mostly graphical) to

1. Maximize insight into a data set;2. Uncover underlying structure;3. Extract important variables;4. Detect outliers and anomalies;5. Test underlying assumptions;6. Develop parsimonious models; and7. Determine optimal factor settings.

ost EDA techniques are graphical in nature with aw quantitative techniques. The reason for the heavy

ance on graphics is that by its very nature the maine of EDA is to open-mindedly explore, and graphicses the analysts unparalleled power to do so, enticing

data to reveal its structural secrets, and beingways ready to gain some new, often unsuspected,ight into the data. In combination with the naturaltern-recognition capabilities that we all possess,phics provides, of course, unparalleled power tory this out. The particular graphical techniques

ployed in EDA are often quite simple, consisting ofious techniques of:

Plotting the raw data (such as data traces,histograms, bi-histograms, probability plots, lag

plots, block plots, and Youden plots.Plotting simple statistics such as mean plots,standard deviation plots, box plots, and maineffects plots of the raw data.Positioning such plots so as to maximize ournatural pattern-recognition abilities, such as using

multiple plots per page.

nerally we use following approach for data analysisClassical 2. Exploratory (EDA) 3. Bayesian

These three approaches are similar in that they alwith a general science/engineering problem anyield science/engineering conclusions. The diffeis the sequence and focus of the intermediate stepFor classical analysis, the sequence isProblem => Data => Model => Analysi

ConclusionsFor EDA, the sequence isProblem => Data => Analysis => Mode

ConclusionsFor Bayesian, the sequence is

Problem => Data => Model => Prior Distrib=> Analysis =>Conclusions

Thus for classical analysis, the data collectifollowed by the imposition of a model (normlinearity, etc.) and the analysis, estimation, and tthat follows are focused on the parameters omodel. For EDA, the data collection is not followa model imposition; rather it is followed immed

by analysis with a goal of inferring what model wbe appropriate. Finally, for a Bayesian analysi

analyst attempts to incorporate scientific/engineerknowledge/expertise into the analysis by imposdata-independent distribution on the parameters selected model; the analysis thus consists of forcombining both the prior distribution on the paramand the collected data to jointly make inferences atest assumptions about the model parameters.

In the real world, data analysts freely mix elemeall of the above three approaches (and approaches). The above distinctions were ma

emphasize the major differences among the approaches.

Classical approach EDA approach

he classical approach imposes models (both deterministic and probabilistic)n the data. Deterministic models include, for example, regression modelsnd analysis of variance (ANOVA) models. The most common probabilisticodel assumes that the errors about the deterministic model are normallystributed--this assumption affects the validity of the ANOVA F tests.

The Exploratory Data Analysis appdoes not impose deterministic

probabilistic models on the data. Oncontrary, the EDA approach allows theto suggest admissible models that best fdata.

assical techniques are generally quantitative in nature. They includeNOVA, t tests, chi-squared tests, and F tests.

EDA techniques are generally grapThey include scatter plots, character b l hi bihi


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assical techniques serve as the probabilistic foundation of science andngineering; the most important characteristic of classical techniques isat they are rigorous, formal, and "objective".

EDA techniques do not share in that rigformality. EDA techniques make up folack of rigor by being very suggeindicative, and insightful about whaappropriate model should be.

lassical estimation techniques have the characteristic of taking all of theata and mapping the data into a few numbers ("estimates"). This isoth a merits and a demerits. The merit is that these few numbers focus onmportant characteristics (location, variation, etc.) of the population. The

merit is that concentrating on these few characteristics can filter out otherharacteristics (skewness, tail length, autocorrelation, etc.) of the sameopulation. In this sense there is a loss of information due to this "filtering"ocess.

The EDA approach, on the other hand, makes use of (and shows) all of the avadata. In this sense there is no corresponloss of information.

he classical approach is that tests based on classical techniques are usuallyry sensitive it depend on underlying assumptions (e.g., normality), andnce the validity of the test conclusions becomes dependent on the validity

f the underlying assumptions. The exact underlying assumptions may benknown to the analyst, or if known, untested. Thus the validity of theientific conclusions becomes intrinsically linked to the validity of the

nderlying assumptions. In practice, if such assumptions are unknown orntested, the validity of the scientific conclusions becomes suspect.

Many EDA techniques make little or noassumptions--they present and show thedata--all of the data--as is, with fewerencumbering assumptions.

ample of EDA approach:us consider the 4 sets of data

Y1 X2 Y2 X3 Y3 X4 Y48.04 9 8.77 9 7.11 8 8.846.95 11 9.26 11 7,81 8 8.477.58 14 8.10 14 8.84 8 7.08.81 6 6.13 6 6.08 8 5.258.33 4 3.10 4 5.39 19 12.59.96 12 9.13 12 8.15 8 5.56

7.24 7 7.26 7 6.42 8 7.914.26 5 4.74 5 5.73 8 6.8910.824.825.68

antitative analysis on data set 1, 2, 3 and 4 are aslows11, mean of X = 9, Mean of Y = 7.5, b0 (Intercept) b1= 0.5sidual standard deviation =1.237 and correlation =

16ich implies that in some quantitative sense, all fourthe data sets are "equivalent". In fact, the four datas are far from "equivalent" and a scatter plot of eacha set, which would be step 1 of any EDA approach,uld tell us that immediately.

Conclusions from the scatter plots are:1st data set 1 is clearly linear with some scatter.2nddata set 2 is clearly quadratic.3rddata set 3 clearly has an outlier.4th is obviously the victim of a poor experimdesign with a single point far removed from the bthe data.These points are exactly the substance that providdefine "insight" and "feel" for a data set. They a

goals and the fruits of an open exploratoryanalysis (EDA) approach to the data. Quantistatistics are not wrong, but they are incomThey are incomplete because they are nusummaries which in the summarization operationgood job of focusing on a particular aspect of th(e.g., location, intercept, slope, degree of relateetc.) by judiciously reducing the data to a few numDoing so also filters the data, necessarily omittinscreening out other sometimes crucial informat

the focusing operation. Quantitative statistics focalso filter; and filtering is exactly what makequantitative approach incomplete at best misleading at worst.The estimated intercepts (= 3) and slopes (= 0.data sets 2, 3, and 4 are misleading becausestimation is done in the context of an assumed model and that linearity assumption is the fatal flthis analysis.The EDA approach of deliberately postponinmodel selection until further along in the analysmany rewards, not the least of which is the ultconvergence to a much-improved model an


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HVDC Light Technology(Evolution, operation & application)

Dipesh LMSc. Co-ordinator, Power System Engin

IOE, Pulchowk C

Introduction

The competition in the electricity industry forced

the government world wide to achieve cost

effective outcomes. However, while competition in

the generation sector is now well established, to

date the achievement of market outcomes in the

provision of network services has been ignored.

This situation is largely due to assumptions

regarding economies of scale and scope and the

inevitability of loop flow. These assumptions have

delayed the exploitation of advanced transmissiontechnologies, including HVDC Light. The conceptsof HVDC arose when it is required to transmit bulk

power to hundreds of KM.HVDC Light is a

technology for power transmission using high

voltage direct current. It employs the latest in

power semiconductor technology, the IGBT, and

is based on Voltage Source Converters which has

characteristics well suited to meet the demands

from the new markets. HVDC light technologywas evolved due to essence of power transmission

through sea. IGBT is used as switching the

converters in HVDC Light technology. Since

IGBT is light in nature, the term Light is used.

The HVDC classic used thyristor or MOSFETs for

switching the converters but they are bulky and

costly. HVDC Light is also know as HVDC plus

(Power Link Universal System ).It has a

standardized design, power ratings up to 200 MW;

short delivery times and is friendly to theenvironment. The Light concept uses extruded DC

cables to transmit the power which are easy to

install.

Why IGBT?

BJTs have low power losses but have long

switching time (especially at turn off). MOSFETs

have very fast switching characteristics (low turn

ON & turn OFF) but have high power losses. ButIGBTs have low switching time as well as well as

l l S IGBT i l d

History of HVDC Light Technology

HVDC transmissions have been built for more

half a century with a capacity of a single conver

to about 1500 MW at a transmission voltage

600 kV. Applications have normally been

transmissions from distant power generation,

underground or sub-sea cable transmission

asynchronous ties between different power sy

Applications to feed power to or from of

installations, using HVDC, have been discusse

many years. However, due to the naturconventional HVDC which requires certain strenac system, to operate, this has not been feasible

past. Not until the HVDC Light technology

developed about ten years ago. The new technolo

based on transistors as opposite to the conven

HVDC, which use thyristors. This difference mak

new converters self commutated i.e. they do not r

an existing ac.

The first application of the HVDC Light technwas put into operation in 1997 and 2 years lat

first commercial project was commissioned o

island of Gotland, Sweden. A total of 11 HVDC

transmission systems are now in operation in dif

parts of the world. The first offshore applicatio

commissioned early 2005 to feed the new compr

on the Troll a platform outside Bergen, Norway

is a double circuit, 2 x 40 MW sub-sea HVDC

installation from Kollsnes to the Troll A platfor

km offshore feeding two large compressors.

Basic theory

HVDC Light technology uses the series-conn

power transistors (IGBT) connecting voltage s

converters to networks at high voltage level. Th

be used for power transmission, for reactive p

compensation and for harmonic/flicker compens

With fast vector control, this converter offe

ability to control active and reactive pindependently while imposing low levels of harm

i k id


30/80

n HVDC Light, Pulse Width Modulation, PWM issed for generation of the fundamental voltage. Itlso provides the steady state and dynamic MVArapability reducing flicker, improving stability andegulation. It improves steady state and dynamicerformance of the network. In HVDC Light, Pulse

Width Modulation, PWM is used for generation ofhe fundamental voltage. Using PWM, the magnitudend phase of the voltage can be controlled freely andlmost instantaneously within certain limits. This islso called phase angle control compensation. If, theower angle due to the line inherent parameters is notuitable to transmit desired amount of power throughhe line keeping |Vs| and |Vr| constant to previousalue, then phase angle control can be used. Forhase shifter can be used which is a voltage source

whose phase angle is /2 out of phase with respecto Vs in such a way that,

|||| VrVsVseff == In phasor term;

=

+=

+=

)2(21

1)1/Xl(by,givenislineofductance

)Sin()V2/X(Psferred,Power trantive

VVsseff

Sin

L

his allows independent and very fast control ofive and reactive power flows. PWM VSC (Voltageurce Converter) is therefore a close to idealmponent in the transmission network. From a systemnt of view, it acts as a zero-inertia motor or

nerator that can control active and reactive powermost instantaneously. Furthermore, it gives only amited contribution to the short-circuit power, as the

current can be controlled. Principle of pulse widthdulation, PWM is no need for communicationween the rectifier control on land and the inverter

ntrol on the platform in case of offshore is onlyantity that needs to be detected in both ends of the

i i i th d li k lt Th HVDC Li ht

switching of the bridge between 0 kV and -15makes optimal use of the coaxial HVDC cable dwith the center conductor at high voltage and the conductor close to the grounded screen. The d

philosophy enables operation both steady statdynamic, with extremely low levels of induced gcurrents. This feature is one of the critical factoimplementing an HVDC system in an ofenvironment. There is no need for any caprotection in conjunction with the instalOperation with fixed 60 Hz frequency in the ofend and fixed 50 Hz grid frequency in the onshordoes not require main circuit equipment that dfrom the normal design. The design principles adfor normal transmission system applications can

be used to feed a local offshore ac network. So

the more important benefits with an Htransmission feeding a platform are; Control ovoltage and frequency Direct On Line (DOL) stlarge asynchronous machines, ride through of maac system disturbances. The performance of the Htransmission system together with the platforsystem has been verified in simulations using EMan Electro Magnetic Transient Stability Prograsimulation of e.g. power transmission systemssimulation set-up includes an equivalent o

mainland AC network, a detailed model of the Hmain circuits including e.g. a switching conbridge, filters and a dc cable model. The HVDCconverter compensates almost momentarily foactive and reactive power needed by the accelemotor. The bus voltage is therefore almost unaffIt is only in the very first moments that a small d

be seen. A HVDC Light converter is easy to coThe performance during steady state and traoperation makes it very attractive for the s

planner as well as for the project developer.

Fig. Principal components of HVDC light


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Fig. Principles of Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

ntrol of active and reactive powere control makes it possible to create any phase angleamplitude, which can be done almost instantly. This

ers the possibility to control both active and reactivewer independently. As a consequence, no reactivewer compensation equipment is needed at thetion, only an AC-filter is installed. While thensmitted active power is kept constant the reactivewer controller can automatically control the voltagethe AC-network. Reactive power generation and

nsumption of HVDC Light converter can be used formpensating the needs of the connected networkhin the rating of a converter. As the rating of the

nverters is based on maximum currents and voltagesreactive power capabilities of a converter can be

ded against the active power capability. Thembined active /reactive power capabilities can mostily be seen in a P-Q diagram (positive Q is fed toAC network).

Fig. Capability chart, PQ Diagramwer quality controle Light converter has a switching frequency of 2z that is 40 times faster compared to a phase

mmutated converter operated at 50 Hz. This offers

w levels of performance regarding power qualityntrol such as flicker and mitigation of voltage dipsd sags harmonics etc caused by disturbances in the

as well as for the general public. In the presencfault which would normally lead to an AC vdecrease the converter can be rapidly deblockeassist with voltage support to avoid severe disturbin local industries that are sensitive to voltage dipresponse time for a change in voltage is 50 ms i.estep order change in the bus voltage the new sett

reached within up to around 3 Hz, thereby helpkeep the AC bus voltage constant.

Advantages of HVDC Light TechnologySpace and weight are scarce resources on offinstallations. Particularly in the light of constraints, the HVDC Light concept offers impadvantages. Since the filters are small, HVDC can be made compact and light weight compaother solutions. Apart from the obvious needs to the converter station compact and lightweighoffshore environment places a number of demands on the converter station and equipExamples include: Safety for personnel as well equipment in a production and procenvironment. Reliability and Availability is of uimportance since a shutdown means shut down whole production. The offshore environment istough with salt and humid air which imposes requirements on the choice of materials and sutreatment. The high voltage equipment has

installed inside a module in offshore and indbuilding onshore. The ventilation system inmodule/building will be designed to protect the voltage equipment and the electronics from sahumid air. The main circuit equipment is theexposed to lower environmental requirements tnormal outdoor installation, which allows for acompact design. The ventilation also has to take cthe airborne losses. An advantage of being offshthat cold (5-11 C) water for cooling is r

available. Another requirement on the ventisystem comes from possible presence of gas area. The installation offshore will be over pressto ensure that no gas can enter high voltage arecase gas is detected, the system is trippeddeenergized directly. A conclusion is that there aadditional requirements on main circuit equipwhen installed in an offshore environment. advantages of HVDC light technologies are delivery times, large rated power up to 200environmentally friendly solutions.

The benefits are technical, economical, environm


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work without any generation), power qualityntrol, modular compact design, short delivery times,d unmanned operation, robust against griderations. Major electrical equipment is delivered inclosures and tested at factory before shipment. Thisminates the need of any buildings and also makes

installation and commissioning faster than for a

ditional converter. The heaviest piece of equipmentights about 20 tons and is transportable by truckect to site. The modular design also facilities aocation of the converters, should that be desired duechanged conditions.

plicationse VSCs performance and characteristics invite tony new applications and concepts which previous not been considered due to technical and

onomical limitations. The major driving force is theegulation of the electricity market, where shortivery times, flexible systems and power ranges up to0 MW are frequently used. Some applications of

VDC light technology are:onnecting Wind power farms to the gridistributed generation

Multiterminal DC-gridnterconnecting networkstilizing existing Rights-Of-Way

ConclusionsIt is widely recognized that the role of network sehas changed as a result of the introductiocompetitive power markets. HVDC Light is transmission technology that has important advanfor application in competitive markets. advantages include its modularity, standardized d

leading to short delivery times, and compact stand cables reducing environment impactscontrollability giving possibilities to match the pneed and/or to control the voltage in the netThese features mean that HVDC Light facilities cinstalled quickly in response to competitive msignals.

References:1. Asplund, G, Eriksson, K, Svensson, K:

Transmission based on Voltage Source Conve

Cigr SC14 Colloquium on HVDC and FACSouth Africa, 1997.

2. Asplund, G, Eriksson, K, Drugge, B: Electric transmission to distant loads by HVDC Light,Distribution 2000, Sydney, Australia, 1997.

3. Asplund, G, Eriksson, K, Jiang, H, Lindberg, J, PR, Svensson, K: : DC Transmission Based onVoltage Source Converters, Cigr Conference,France, 1998.

4. Weimers L. New Markets Need New TechnoPowercon 2000, Perth Australia, Dec 2000.


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Civil Engineering: An IntroductionSantosh Kumar Sh

Civil EnLecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, Pulchowk C

vil Engineering is a discipline that deals mainlyh the DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION AND

AINTENANCE of the physical and naturally builtvironment, including works such as Buildings,dges, Roads, Canals, Dams, Tunnels etc.

design engineercreates the initial blueprints andhematics for various structures. Most designgineers use advanced computer technology andplications, such as computer-aided design (CAD)ftware, to help them create and test virtual models.

pending on the type of structure that is being built, aign engineermay be asked to construct a

ysical model or prototype to test in realisticuations.

Figure 1: Design

nstruction Engineers implement the plans to builductures so that construction occurs safely whileeting legal code requirements. The construction

gineeralso does cost estimation, orders buildingterials, and selects equipment.

Figure 2: Constructiond M i t E i k th h i l

Figure 3: Maintenance

History of the Civil Engineering ProfessionEngineering has been an aspect of life sinc

beginning of human existence. The earliest practiCivil engineering may have commenced betweenand 2000 BC in Ancient Egypt and Mesopo(Ancient Iraq) when humans started to aband

nomadic existence, thus causing a need foconstruction of shelter. During this time, transporbecame increasingly important leading todevelopment of the wheel andsailing.The Pyramids in Egypt, Great Wall of Chinstupas in ancient Sri Lanka and the extensive irriworks in Anuradhapuraare the major civil enginstructures constructed in the past. SimilarlyRomans developed aqueducts, insulae, har

bridges, dams and roads throughout their empire.

Figure 4: Egyptian Pyramid

History of Civil EngineeringIn the 18th century, the term civil engineering
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gineer was John Smeaton who constructed the

dystone Lighthouse. In 1771, Smeaton and some of

colleagues formed the Smeatonian Society of Civil

gineers. In 1818 the Institution of Civil Engineers

s founded in London, and in 1820 the eminent

gineer Thomas Telfordbecame its first president.

e institution received a Royal Charter in 1828,mally recognizing civil engineering as a profession.

most countries, a Bachelor's degree in engineering

resents the first step towards professional

tification and it is certified by a professional body.

Nepal Diploma in Civil Engineering is considered as

rst step but it is recognized by Engineering Council

y after attaining Bachelors degree.

b-disciplines

general, civil engineering is concerned with the

erall interface of human created fixed projects with

greater world. General civil engineers work closely

h surveyors and specialized civil engineers to fit and

ve fixed projects within their given site, community

d terrain by designing grading, drainage, pavement,

ter supply, sewer service, electric andmmunications supply, and land divisions. General

gineers spend much of their time visiting project

es, developing community consensus, and preparing

nstruction plans. General civil engineering is also

erred to as site engineering, a branch of civil

gineering that primarily focuses on converting a tract

land from one usage to another. Civil engineers

ically apply the principles of geotechnical

gineering, structural engineering, environmentalgineering, transportation engineering and

nstruction engineering to residential, commercial,

ustrial and public works projects of all sizes and

els of construction. The following are the major sub

cipline of Civil Engineering.

uctural Engineering

uctural engineering is concerned with the analysis

d design of structures such as buildings, bridges,

ms towers flyovers tunnels off shore structures

structure and the forces and stresses which arise w

that structure due to those loads, and then designin

structure to successfully support and resist those l

Figure 5: Burj Khalifa, worlds tallest buildin

Earthquake Engineering

Earthquake engineering covers ability of vstructures to withstand hazardous earthquake expat the sites of their particular location. Earthengineering is a sub discipline of the broader catof Structural engineering. The main objectivearthquake engineering are to understand interactstructures with the shaky ground; foreseeconsequences of possible earthquakes; and dconstruct and maintain structures to perforearthquake exposure up to the expectations a

compliance with building codes.
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Figure 11: A filter bed for sewage treatment

rveyingrvey engineers measures certain dimensions thatnerally occur on the surface of the Earth by the helpsurveying equipment, such as levels, theodolites,ctronic distance measurement (EDM), total stations,S etc. This information is crucial to convert the datao a graphical representation of the Earth's surface, in

form of a map. This information is then used toign from, build on, and trade, respectively.hough surveying is a distinct profession witharate qualifications and licensing arrangements,il engineers are trained in the basics of surveying

d mapping, as well as geographic informationtems.

Figure 12: Surveying

unicipal or Urban Engineeringunicipal engineering is concerned with municipalrastructure. This involves specifying, designing,nstructing, and maintaining streets,sidewalks, waterpply networks, sewers, street lighting, municipalid waste management and disposal, storage depotsvarious bulk materials used for maintenance and

blic works (salt, sand, etc.), public parks andbicyclehs.

astal Engineeringastal engineering is concerned with managing

astal areas. In some jurisdictions, the terms seafense and coastal protection are used to mean,

ti l d f i t fl di d i Th

field has expanded to include techniques that erosion to claim land.

Materials EngineeringMaterial engineering deals with development anof different material to be used in engineering wCement, Concrete, HDPE polyethylene pipe etc acontribution of material engineer. It focuse

increased strength, durability, weight, cost etc.

Career Opportunity:There is no one typical career path for civil engiHowever Civil Engineering graduates will havgood opportunity to take part in the development nation. Being a developing country, Nepal ne

build the infrastructures like Hydropower, RBridges, Airports, Dams, Irrigation canals, supply schemes and residential and bucomplexes. From survey, design, estimate

construction, civil engineers have major role to psuch projects. In Nepal, Civil Engineer can buildcareer in:

Government Sectors: Different government minsuch as Ministry of Local Development which inDistrict Development Committee and MunicipaMinistry of Housing and Physical planning incDepartment of Roads, Civil Aviation AuthDepartment of Building, Department of Water Sand Sanitation; Ministry of Water Resource in

Department of Irrigation, Ministry of Energy epresent, approximately 2500 civil engineeremployed in Government Sector.

Consulting firms (Consultancy): More than huconsulting firms are providing service and most employees are Civil Engineers. At papproximately 2000 Civil Engineers are employed

Construction Companies: More than five huregistered construction companies and morethousand unregistered contractors are involv

construction of infrastructures all over the coSome construction companies are employing mor50 civil engineers alone. Thus we can guesthousands of civil engineers are employed inindustry.Similarly, hundreds of Civil engineers are work

National and International Non- Goverorganizations most of which are registered in Kalyan Parisad (Social Welfare Council).More than 6000 Civil Engineers are registered in

Engineering council and more than thousandengineers are being produced every year. Countryto utilize these valuable manpower for the develop
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Urban Mobility: The Role of Public TransportationDr. Padma Bahadur

E-mail: pb_shahi@yaho

stract:s paper deals with the current problems of urban mobility in developing countries like Nepal, from the perspective of

nsport services. Pollution and congestion have rapidly become a key problem in many cities of developing countries, le

delays in transport and side-effects such as sickness and long travel times. However, solutions to these problems appeaticularly complicated, especially because the policy of transport sector is often poorly formulated to reflect the neect resources towards efficient provision of services, which most part of the population could utilize. This is made evenficult by the fact that subsidized public transport will reduce private sector incentives to service provision, leadwding out effects. However, these issues are confronted by the fact that infrastructure and use of it are crucial componeevelopment process. This paper aims to sharpen the current policy focus on urban transport system development eloping countries, taking into consideration the problems and advantages of a transport system where public transp

ectively prioritized against other forms of transport. Some aspects of the public transport service of Kathmandu werecase study. The results of a questionnaire survey conducted by the students for the academic project work are presenpaper.

TRODUCTIONansportation infrastructure is vital to the economicwth and well-being of cities, particularly in

veloping parts of the world, where transportestments account for as much as 40 per cent of

blic-sector expenditures.mpetitiveness of cities is based on theirrastructure. Cities are no longer considered as fixedations for production but logistical centers thatnage flows between distant points. This type of anument is gaining ground in the literature on urban

nsport, no doubt because it is derived from theckbone of current infrastructure development inan settlements: number of passenger is increasing,

mand on infrastructure is very high and landcomes scarce, especially in the urban areas. But what

the experiences so far? Do we have any guidelinesgive based on the past developments? Do we havey information on how we should deal with issuesh as cost recovery, subsidies, contracting, privatevision of services vs. public provision etc?

is paper tries to identify the necessary framework forcessful provision of public transport in the cities

e Kathmandu. State of the problem at present,pefully provoke discussion and help to avoid futurews in Public Transport planning, design anderation.

is paper is an attempt to conceptualize the role ofblic transport in development. This

nceptualization in based on the fact that almost everynsport system in the world has a component ofblic transport, yet the role of this component is far

the key questions is what will be the outcome country reaches a higher level of development? Csustain this effort? Efficient and reliable transystem, with special emphasis on the needs of the

people, is a necessary condition for devecountries to maintain their competitiveness. experiences of countries with a rapid speedevelopment and associated high GDP growth suthat constraints to economic development may wimposed by labour and transport markets. We sgrasp the role of public transport for the reason is the part of transport provision, most likely to bthe poor people and sustainable developmentarguments to support this are the following:

In developing countries, a large share opopulation lives below poverty line, meaninthey cannot afford private means of transpo

For the very same reason, a relatively smaof the population can afford car ownewhich makes investments into infrastructursupports car use peculiar.

Fina

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