THE MAKING OF THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT : 1870S -1947SHASHANK GUPTA

VIII-G

WHAT WERE THE EFFECTS OF BRITISH RULE BEFORE FREEDOM MOVEMENT STARTED

• The British conquest of territories, and takeover of kingdoms. • They have introduction of new laws and administrative institutions. • Changes happened in the lives of peasants and tribals. • Educational changes in the nineteenth century • Modern education was introduced. • Debates regarding the condition of women – Women education,

Abolition of Sati. • Challenges to the caste system • By the social reformers • The revolt of 1857 and its aftermath.

AFTER THE DEFEAT OF TIPU SULTAN, MOST OF SOUTH INDIA WAS NOW EITHER UNDER THE COMPANY'S DIRECT RULE, OR UNDER ITS INDIRECT POLITICAL CONTROL

THE EMERGENCE OF NATIONALISM •Within about a hundred years, the British took control of almost every aspect of life in India. Many Indians began to feel that the British control had to end to make India the country for Indians.

GANDHI'S LEADING “QUIT INDIA” MOVEMENT

EARLY POLITICAL ASSOCIATIONS

• After 1850, many political associations were formed. Most of them were formed in the 1870s and 1880s. Most of these associations were led by English-educated professionals. Some of the important ones were; the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, the Indian Association, the Madras Mahajan Sabha, the Bombay Presidency Association.

• The Indian National Congress was also formed during this period. The naming conventions of these political associations suggest that they wanted to take issues which affected all the people of India; although many of these associations functioned in specific parts of the country.

DEMONSTRATORS OPPOSE THE SIMON COMMISION

SOME OF THE REASONS FOR DISSATISFACTION WITH BRITISH RULE IN THE 1870S AND 1880S ARE AS FOLLOWS:• 1.The Arms Act was passed in 1878. This Act disallowed Indians from

possessing arms. • 2.The Vernacular Press Act was passed in 1878. This Act empowered the

government to confiscate the assets of newspapers including their printing presses, if the newspaper published anything “objectionable”. 3.The Arms Act was passed in 1878. This Act disallowed Indians from possessing arms.

• 4. The government tried to introduce the Ilbert Bill in 1883. The bill made provisions for trial of British or European persons by Indians. Thus, the Ilbert Bill sought equality between British and Indian judges in the country. But the whites opposed the Bill and forced the government to withdraw it.

BHAGAT SINGH• Bhagat Singh was an Indian revolutionary socialist who was influential

in the Indian independence movement. He worked with several revolutionary organisations and became prominent in the Hindustan Republican Association (HRA), which changed its name to the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) in 1928.

THE INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS [INC]• The Indian National Congress was established in 1885 at Bombay. In its first

meeting at Bombay, 72 delegates from all over the country were present. • The early leadership was mainly composed of people from Bombay and

Calcutta. Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozeshah Mehta, Badruddin Tyabji, W. C. Bonneryji, Surendranath Banerji, Romesh Chandra Dutt, S. Subramania Iyer, etc. were part of the early leadership of Congress.

THE FIRST MEETING OF INC 1885

A NATION IN THE MAKING• In its first twenty years, the Congress was “moderate” in its objectives and methods. During this period, the main demand of Congress was about getting a greater voice for Indians in the government and administration

SOME OF THE DEMANDS MADE BY THE CONGRESS DURING THIS PERIOD ARE AS FOLLOWS:• The Congress wanted better representation of Indians in the Legislative

Councils. • Introudction of the Legislative Council in those provinces where none

existed. • The Congress made a demand for civil service examinations to be held in

India also. • The Congress also demanded a separation of judiciary and executive, the

repeal of Arms Act and freedom of speech and expression.

LAL LAJPAT RAI

•  Lala Lajpat Rai was an Indian Punjabi author and politician who is chiefly remembered as a leader in the Indian Independence movement. He was also associated with activities of Punjab National Bank and Lakshmi Insurance Company in their early stages.

• He sustained serious injuries by the police when leading a non- violent protest against the Simon Commission and died less than three weeks later. His death anniversary (17 November) is one of several days celebrated as Martyrs' Day in India.

ECONOMIC DEMANDS WHICH WERE DURING THE EARLY YEARS OF THE CONGRESS ARE AS FOLLOWS:

• Reduction in revenue, cut in military expenditure and more funds for irrigation.

• The Congress also passed various resolutions on the salt tax, treatment of Indian labourers abroad and the suffering of forest dwellers.

• These demands show that in spite of being a body of the educated elite, the Congress also talked about the common people.

• The Moderate leaders wanted to create public awareness about the unjust nature of British rule. In order to do so, they published newspapers, wrote articles and tried to show the bad effects of the British rule.

INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS IN DELHI NEAR RASTRAPATHI BHAVAN

FREEDOM IS OUR BIRTHRIGHTBy the 1890s, many Indians began to question the style of the Congress. New leaders

emerged who began to explore more radical objectives and methods. Bepin Chandra Pal, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Lala Lajpat Rai were among the radical leaders. They criticized the Moderates for their “policy of prayers”. They argued that people should not believe on the so called good intentions of the government and must fight for swaraj. Tilak raised the famous slogan, “Freedom is my birthright and I shall have it”. By the 1890s, many Indians began to question the style of the Congress. New leaders emerged who began to explore more radical objectives and methods. Bepin Chandra Pal, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Lala Lajpat Rai were among the radical leaders. They criticized the Moderates for their “policy of prayers”. They argued that people should not believe on the so called good intentions of the government and must fight for swaraj. Tilak raised the famous slogan, “Freedom is my birthright and I shall have it”.

BAL GANGADHAR TILAK• Born as Keshav Gangadhar Tilak, was

an Indian nationalist,teacher, social reformer, lawyer and an independence activist. He was the first leader of the Indian Independence Movement. The British colonial authorities called him "Father of the Indian unrest." He was also conferred with the honorary title of "Lokmanya", which literally means "accepted by the people (as their leader)". Tilak was one of the first and strongest advocates of "Swaraj" and a strong radical in Indian consciousness.

PARTITION OF BENGAL• Bengal was partitioned in 1905 by Viceroy Curzon. At that

time, Bengal was the largest province of British India. It included Bihar and parts of Orissa. Administrative convenience was cited as the reason for the partition of Bengal. Most of the analysts believe that the partition was done to reduce the influence of Bengali politician and to split the Bengali people.

• Effects of Partition of Bengal: People all over India were angry with the partition of Bengal. All sections of the Congress opposed it. Large public meetings and demonstrations were held to protest the decision. The struggle against the partition of Bengal came to be known as the Swadeshi Movement. It was strongest in Bengal but was felt in other parts of the country as well. It was known as the Vandemataram Movement in Andhra.

SAROJINI NAIDU• Sarojini Naidu was born in Hyderabad to Aghore

Nath Chattopadhyay and Barada Sundari Devi on 13 February 1879. Settled in Hyderabad, where he founded and administered Hyderabad College, which later became the Nizam's College in Hyderabad.

• Her mother,Barada Sundari Devi was a poetess and used to write poetry in Bengali. She was the second woman to become the president of the Indian National Congress in 1925 and the first Indian woman to do so.

MAIN AIMS OF SWADESHI MOVEMENT• Oppose the British rule. • Encourage the ideas of self-help, swadeshi enterprise. • Encourage national education and use of Indian languages.

CHITTARANJAN DAS• Chittaranjan Das (5 November 1869 – 16 June

1925) was an Indian politician and Founder-leader of the Swaraj (Independence) Party in Bengal under British rule. Educated in England, where he became a Barrister, his public career began in 1909 . He was a leading figure in Bengal during the Non-Cooperation Movement of 1919-1922, and initiated the ban on British clothes, setting an example by burning his own European clothes and wearing Khadi clothes. At one time, his clothes were tailored and washed in Paris and he maintained a permanent laundry in Paris to ship his clothes to Calcutta. He sacrificed all this luxury when he became attached to the Freedom Movement.

• The radicals advocated mass mobilization and boycott of British institutions and goods. Some leaders also suggested the use of revolutionary violence to overthrow British rule.

• Muslim League: The All India Muslim League was formed at Dacca in 1906; by a group of Muslim landlords and nawabs. The League supported the partition of Bengal. Some seats in the council were reserved for the Muslims. The League wanted the representatives for those seats to be elected by Muslim voters. This demand was willingly conceded by the government in 1909.

• Split in Congress: There was a split in the Congress in 1907. The Moderates were opposed to the use of any kind of violence. After the split, the Congress came to be dominated by the Moderates. However, the two groups reunited in December 1915. In 1916, the Congress and the Muslim League signed the historic Lucknow Pact. They decided to work together for representative government in the country

GANDHI WITH THE STRETCHER BEARERS OF THE INDIAN AMBULANCE CORPS

THE GROWTH OF MASS NATIONALISM

• The First World War changed the economic and political situation in India. There was a sharp price rise which increased the problems of the common people.

• The business groups reaped huge profits because the war increased the demand for all kinds of goods. Reduced imports meant that the new demand was being met by the Indian business houses. The business groups now began to demand more opportunities for development.

• Many people from the villages were forced to serve in the British army during the war. Exposure to the alien lands helped them in understanding the exploitation being done by the colonial powers in other parts of the world.

• The Russian Revolution took place in 197. News about peasants’ and workers’ struggle and ideas of socialism also reached to the nationalists in India.

NEHRU WITH GANDHIJI

THE ADVENT OF MAHATMA GANDHI

Mahatma Gandhi returned from South Africa in 1915. Because of his movements against racial restrictions in South Africa, he had already become a respected leader. Mahatma Gandhi first wanted to understand the people, their needs and overall situation in India. Hence, he spent his first year in India in travelling throughout the country. His earliest participation in local movements was in Champaran, Kheda and Ahmadabad.

EARLY GANDHI

THE ROWLATT SATYAGRAHA

• The Rowlatt Act was passed in 1919. The Act curbed the freedom of expression and strengthened police powers. Gandhiji gave a call for a satyagraha against the Rowlatt Act. He asked the people to observe 6 April 1919 as the day of non-violent opposition to this Act. Satyagraha Sabhas were set up to launch the movement.

• The Rowlatt Satyagraha became the first all-India struggle against the British government. However, it was mainly restricted to the cities. Many demonstrations and hartals took place in the country. The government used brutal measures to suppress the revolt. The Jalianwala Bagh massacre was one example of such brutal measures. Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood in protest of Jalianwala Bagh incident.

THE ROWLATT SATYAGRAHA

KHILAFAT AGITATION AND THE NON- COOPERATION MOVEMENT• After the First World War, a harsh treaty was imposed on the Turkish Khalifa. The

leaders of the Khilafat Agitation; Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali wanted to associate with the Non-Cooperation Movement. The Muslims wanted the Khalifa to retain control over Muslim sacred places in the erstwhile Ottoman Empire. Gandhiji supported the Khilafat Movement.

• The Non-Cooperation Movement gained momentum through 1921-22. Thousands of students left schools and colleges to join the movement. Many eminent professionals gave up their profession to join the movement. Bonfires of foreign cloths were burnt. The boycott of foreign cloths resulted in imports falling drastically between 1920 and 1922.

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KHILAFAT MOVEMENT

THE NON- COOPERATION MOVEMENT WAS FIRMLY LAUNCHED ON 1 AUGUST, 1920. TILAK PASSED AWAY IN THE EARLY HOURS OF 1 AUGUST

PEOPLE’S INITIATIVES• The Non-Cooperation Movement remained non-violent at most of the places. But

some people interpreted the message of Mahatma Gandhi in their own ways; mostly to suit their local grievances.

• The Patidar peasants of Kheda (Gujarat) organized non-violent campaigns against the high land revenue demand.

• Liquor shops were picketed in coastal Andhra and interior Tamil Nadu. • The tribals and poor peasants in Guntur district (Andhra Pradesh) staged a number of

forest satyagrahas; to protest against the new forest laws. • The Khilafat-Non-Cooperation Movement gave enormous support in Sind and Bengal. • In Punjab, the Akali agitation of the Sikhs demanded to remove the corrupt mahants

from gurdwaras. • In Assam, the tea garden labourers demanded a big hike in their wages. They shouted

the slogan, “Gandhi Maharaj ki jai”. In many folk songs of Assam; Gandhiji was referred to as “Gandhi Raja”.

SUBHAS CHANDRA BOSE

• Subhas Chandra Bose (23 January 1897 – 18 August 1945)was an Indian nationalist whose defiant patriotism made him a hero in India, but whose attempt during World War II to rid India of British rule with the help of Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan left a troubled legacy. The honorific Netaji, , first applied to Bose in Germany, by the Indian soldiers of the Indische Legion and by the German and Indian officials in the Special Bureau for India in Berlin, in early 1942, was by 1990 used widely throughout India.

 BOSE WITH GANDHI IN 1938.

THE HAPPENINGS OF 1922-1929• Chauri Chaura: In February 1922, a police station in Chauri Chaura was set on fire by a

crowd. The peasants were retaliating against police firing on peaceful demonstration. Twenty two policemen were killed in the Chauri Chaura incident. Saddened by this incident, Mahatma Gandhi called off the Non-Cooperation Movement.

• After that, Gandhiji’s followers wanted to take on constructive work in the rural areas to increase the base for the Congress. On the other hand, some leaders wanted to fight elections to the councils. They wanted to enter the government so that they could influence certain policies. The Gandhians worked in villages during the mid-1920s and could be able to extend their support base. This proved very useful during the Civil Disobedience movement.

• The Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) and the Communist Party of India were formed during the mid-1920s. The revolutionary leader Bahgat Singh was also active in this period.

• Simon Commission: The British government decided to send a commission in 1927 to decide on India’s political future. This was headed by Lord Simon but it had no Indian representative. Absence of an Indian in the Commission infuriated the political groups in India.

THE MARCH TO DANDI• The salt law gave a monopoly right to the state on the manufacture and

sale of salt. Mahatma Gandhi and other nationalist leaders argued that salt was an essential item of our food and hence it was wrong to impose a tax on salt. Moreover, the issue of salt affected all; the rich and poor; alike. Gandhiji declared that he would lead a march to break the salt law. Gandhiji and his followers marched from Sabarmati to Dandi to break the salt law. Gandhiji picked up a handful of salt to symbolically protest the salt tax.

• The salt movement attracted supporters from all walks of life; including the peasants, tribals and women. The government tried to crush the movement by taking brutal actions. Thousands were sent to jail. Most of the eminent leaders were arrested.

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• The Government of India Act of 1935 prescribed provincial autonomy. Elections to provincial legislatures were held in 1937. The Congress formed governments in 7 out of 11 provinces.

• The Second World War broke out in 1939. The Congress leaders were critical of Hitler and hence they decided to support the British in the war. But they wanted independence of India after the war; in return of this gesture. However, the British did not agree with this demand. The Congress ministries resigned in protest.

DANDI MARCH MAHATMA GANDHI LEADING VOLUNTEERS OF THE INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS

INDIAN NATIONAL ARMY [INC]• The entry of India into the war was strongly opposed by Subhas Chandra

Bose, who had been elected President of the Congress in 1938 and 1939, but later resigned due to differences in opinion with Gandhi. However, he remained a member of the Congress throughout his life. Bose then founded the All India Forward Bloc. In 1940, a year after war broke out, the British had put Bose under house arrest in Calcutta. However, he escaped and made his way through Afghanistan to Nazi Germany to seek Hitler and Mussolini's help for raising an army to fight the British.

• The Free India Legion comprising Erwin Rommel's Indian POWs was formed. However, in light of Germany's changing fortunes, a German land invasion of India became untenable and Hitler advised Bose to go to Japan and arranged for a submarine. Bose was ferried to Japanese Southeast Asia .Its aim was to reach India as a fighting force that would build on public resentment to inspire revolts among Indian soldiers to defeat the British raj.

•  The INA was to see action against the allies, including the British Indian Army, in the forests of Arakan, Burma and in Assam, laying siege on Imphal and Kohima with the Japanese 15th Army.

• During the war, the Andaman and Nicobar islands were captured by the Japanese and handed over by them to the INA.

• The INA failed owing to disrupted logistics, poor supplies from the Japanese, and lack of training. It surrendered unconditionally to the British in Singapore in 1945. Bose, however, attempted to escape to Japanese-held Manchuria in an attempt to escape to the Soviet Union, marking the end of the entire Azad Hind movement.

QUIT INDIA AND LATER• Mahatma Gandhi decided to begin a new phase of movement against the

British; while the Second World War was going on. Gandhiji urged the people to “DO OR DIE”. Gandhiji and several other leaders were arrested. Nevertheless, the movement spread. Peasants and youths participated in the movement in large numbers. Symbols of state authority were attacked all over the country. Telephone lines were cut off. People set up their own governments in many areas.

• The British responded with severe repression. By the end of 1943, over 90,000 people were arrested and around 1,000 were killed in police firing. But the Raj had to finally concede the ground.

TOWARDS INDEPENDENCE AND PARTITION• Demand for Separate Nation: In the 1940, the Muslim League moved a resolution

to demand “Independent States” for the Muslims in the north-western and eastern areas of the country. From the late 1930s, the League began to visualize the Muslims as a separate nation from the Hindus. This notion escalated the tension between some Hindu and Muslim groups in the 1920s and 1930s. Furthermore, the results of the provincial elections of 1937 apparently convinced the League that Muslims were a minority.

• The League feared the Muslims would have play second fiddle in any democratic structure in the future. The Congress’ rejection to form a joint Congress-League government in the United Provinces in 1937 further annoyed the League.

• The Congress somehow failed in mobilizing the Muslims in the 1930s. This allowed the League to widen its support base. At the end of the war in 1945, the British facilitated negotiations between the Congress, the League and themselves for the independence of India. The League persisted with its demand for Pakistan.

•  Cabinet Mission: In March 1946, a three-member Cabinet Mission was sent to Delhi to suggest suitable framework for independent India. The Mission suggested a loose confederation; with some autonomy for Muslim-majority areas. But the Congress and the Muslim League could not agree to specific details of the proposal.

• After the failure of the Cabinet Mission, the Muslim League decided on mass agitation for winning its Pakistan demand. It announced 16 August 1946 as “Direct Action Day”. Riots broke out in Calcutta on this day. The riot lasted for several days in which thousands of people were killed. The violence spread to different parts of north India; by March 1947.

• Finally, partition turned into a reality and two new nations; India and Pakistan were born.

SAROJINI NAIDU (EXTREME RIGHT) WITH MAHATMA GANDHI DURING SALT SATYAGRAHA, 1930

WHAT WE HAVE UNDERSTOOD [SUMMARY• By the 1850s, Indians from all walks of life were beginning to realize their

loss of identity and wanted to end the British rule. • In the 1870s and 1880s the dissatisfaction was intensified with new laws

imposed by the British. The Arms Act of 1878 was passed that stopped Indians from owning arms. This was followed by the Vernacular Press Act, which allowed the British to confiscate the assets of any newspaper that wrote against them. The final straw came when the British opposed the Ilbert Bill, which allowed Europeans to be tried by Indians in court.

• This led to the setting up of organizations like the Indian National Congress, the Indian Association, the Bombay Presidency Association and the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha. The Indian National Congress was formed in December 1885.

• The Congress, in its initial years, adopted a moderate outlook in its demands. It demanded more Indians in high positions in the government, the abolishment of the Arms Act, the separation of the executive from the judiciary, and the freedom of speech and expression for the Indians.

• The Congress passed resolutions on issues like forest laws, the salt tax, and the welfare of Indian labourers working abroad. o By the 1890s, the moderate rationale of the Congress was questioned by many radically thinking Indians like Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Bipin Chandra Pal. These leaders believed in self-reliance rather waiting for the British government to understand the needs of the Indians. In 1905, the British partitioned Bengal which enraged Indians leading to the Swadeshi Movement. It advocated national education, self-help, Swadeshi enterprise and the use of Indian languages. The partition of Bengal was supported by the All India Muslim League, an organization formed in Dacca, in 1906. o The Congress split in 1907, and was now led by the moderates, while the radical group led by Tilak worked separately. In 1915, both the groups united again and signed the historic Lucknow Pact in 1916 with the All India Muslim League.

QUESTION AND ANSWERS• 1. Why were people dissatisfied with British rule in the 1870s and 1880s?• Answer There was great dissatisfaction with British rule in the 1870s and 1880s.

Some of the reasons for this dissatisfaction are as follows: • → The Arms Act- Passed in 1878, this Act disallowed Indians from possessing arms.• → The Vernacular Press Act in 1878, this Act was aimed at silencing those who were

critical of the government. Under this Act, the government could confiscate the assets of newspapers if they published anything that was found “objectionable”.

• → The Ilbert Bill controversy- In 1883, the government tried introducing the Ilbert Bill. This bill provided for the trial of British or European individuals by Indians, and sought equality between British and Indian judges in the country. However, the white opposition forced the government to withdraw the bill. This enraged the Indians further.

2. WHO DID THE INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS WISH TO SPEAK FOR?• Answer• Indian National Congress wished to speak for all the people of India,

irrespective of class, colouc caste, creed, language, or gender.• It stated that India, its resources and systems were not of any one class or

community of India, but of all the different communities of India

3. WHAT ECONOMIC IMPACT DID THE FIRST WORLD WAR HAVE ON INDIA?• The First World War led to a huge rise in the defence expenditure of the

Government of India. • The government in turn increased taxes on individual incomes and business

profits. • Increased military expenditure and the demands for war supplies led to a

sharp rise in prices which created great difficulties for the common people. • On the other hand, business groups reaped fabulous profits from the war.

The war created a demand for industrial goods such as jute bags, cloth and rails, and caused a decline in the imports from other countries into India.

• As a result, Indian industries expanded during the war.

4. WHAT DID THE MUSLIM LEAGUE RESOLUTION OF 1940 ASK FOR?• Answer• The Muslim League resolution of 1940 asked for "Independent States" for

Muslims in the North-Western and Eastern areas of the country

5. WHO WERE THE MODERATES? HOW DID THEY PROPOSE TO STRUGGLE AGAINST BRITISH RULE?• Answer • In the first twenty years of its existence, the Congress was “moderate” in its objectives

and methods. The Congress leaders of this period were called the Moderates.• They proposed to struggle against British rule in non-violent manner which the radicals

called “politics of petitions”. • They wanted to develop public awareness about the unjust nature of British rule. • They published newspapers, wrote articles, and showed how the British rule was leading

to the economic ruin of the country. • They criticised British rule in their speeches and sent representatives to different parts

of the country to mobilise public opinion.

6. HOW WAS THE POLITICS OF THE RADICALS WITHIN THE CONGRESS DIFFERENT FROM THAT OF THE MODERATES? • Answer • The Radicals were opposed to the “politics of prayers” followed by the

Moderates within the Congress. They explored more radical objectives and methods.

• They emphasised the importance of self reliance and constructive work. • They argued that people must rely on their own strength, not on the “good”

intentions of the government (as was the stated policy of the Moderates). They believed that people must fight for swaraj.

7. DISCUSS THE VARIOUS FORMS THAT THE NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT TOOK IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF INDIA. HOW DID THE PEOPLE UNDERSTAND GANDHIJI?

• Answer During 1921 and 1922 the Non-Cooperation Movement gained momentum.• → Thousands of students left government-controlled schools and colleges → Many lawyers gave up their practises →

British titles were surrendered - Legislatures were boycotted → People lit public bonfires of foreign cloth. In most cases, the calls for non-cooperation were related to local grievances. → In Kheda, Gujrat, Patidar peasants organised non-violent campaigns against the high land revenue demand of the British. → In coastal Andhra and interior Tamil Nadu, liquor shops were picketed. → In the Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh, tribals and poor peasants protested against the colonial state for restricting their use of forest resources. They staged a number of “forest satyagrahas”, sometimes sending their cattle into forests without paying grazing fees. → In Punjab, the Akali agitation of the Sikhs sought to remove corrupt mahants - supported by the British - from their gurudwaras. → In Assam, tea garden labourers demanded a big increase in their wages. When the demands were not met, they left the British-owned plantations. People thought Gandhiji as messiah, someone who could help them overcome their misery and poverty

8. WHY DID GANDHIJI CHOOSE TO BREAK THE SALT LAW?• Answer • Gandhiji choosed to break the salt law as British government had a

monopoly on the manufacture and sale of salt. It also imposed a tax on the sale of salt.

• Gandhiji believed that it was sinful to tax salt as it was an essential part of food. He led a march to the coastal town of Dandi, where he broke the salt law by gathering natural salt found on the seashore, and boiling sea water to produce salt.

• This march related the general desire of freedom to a specific grievance shared by everybody, and thus, did not divide the rich and the poor.

9. DISCUSS THOSE DEVELOPMENTS OF THE 1937-47 PERIOD THAT LED TO THE CREATION OF PAKISTAN.• Answer The developments leading to the creation of Pakistan:• A two-nation theory - From the late 1930s, the Muslim League began viewing the Muslims as

a separate “nation” from the Hindus. • Provincial elections of 1937 - The provincial elections of 1937 convinced the League that

Muslims were a minority, and they would always have to play second fiddle in any democratic structure. It feared that Muslims may even go unrepresented.

• Rift between Congress and Muslim League - In 1937, the Congress rejected the Muslim League's proposal for a joint Congress-League government in the United Provinces. This annoyed the League.

• Wide mass support base for Muslim League - In the 1930s, the Congress failed to mobilise the Muslim masses. This allowed the Muslim League to widen its social support. It sought to enlarge its support in the early 1940s when most Congress leaders were in jail.

• Failure of talks - At the end of the Second World War in 1945, the British opened negotiations between the Congress, the League and themselves for the independence of India. However, the talks failed as the League saw itself as the sole spokesperson of India's Muslims, and the Congress could not accept this claim since a large number of Muslims still supported it.