The Media

Journalism in History• US media has much more

freedom than in other countries• Our media is privately owned• Only need licenses from the

gov’t to operate• GB – politicians can sue

media that pokes fun at them.

• FR – controlled by national agency that decides what to show public

• Some people believe since the media is a business, they will distort facts to satisfy advertisers and readers

• Probably isn’t true because: they have different types of advertisers and readers

The Party Press• Early Republic – early factions and

parties created and controlled newspapers to further their interest• Circulation was small• Newspapers expensive• Very few large advertisers to help

pay for it• Political parties or presidents

provided gov’t money to help pay for newspapers

• Very partisan views

Popular Press• New development:

• High speed rotary press can print thousands quickly and cheaply

• Invention of telegraph got news to newspapers quickly

• 1848 – creation of the Associated Press• Telegraphed non-biased

stories to newspapers all over the US

• Newspapers became cheaper in urban areas because retailers put ads in papers

• Now if newspapers were partisan, it was because of the views of their editors

• Began to attract readers with “sensationalism” and “yellow journalism”

Magazines of Opinion

• began to discuss issues of public policy around late 1800’s and early 1900’s

• Developed a national constituency for certain issues like “trustbusting”, reforming civil service, etc.

• “muckrakers” were intent on exposing bad behavior in business or politics

• Set pattern for “investigative reporting”

• Big newspapers started buying up competition

• Sensationalism gradually reduced

• Today’s magazines focus mostly on politics and they are a declining market

Electronic Journalism• Radio – 1920’s• Television – 1940’s• Major change in the way

news was gathered and disseminated

• Politicians can speak directly to viewers without having to speak through someone who can change their words and tone

• Disadvantage: people can ignore the tv or radio – tune out or change the channel• Also, more expensive than newspapers

• The number and length of stories tv and radio can carry is much smaller than newspapers • Don’t’ want to bore the people!

• Politicians have to do something bold to gain tv or radio time• Or have lots of $ to buy it

• President is the only one who can get free time whenever he wants

• Until the 1990’s, the “big three” networks controlled 80% of viewership (ABC, NBC, CBS)

• Now there are competitors and evening news has changed a lot

• The average sound bite has dropped from 42 seconds in 1968 to 7.3 in 2000 for prez. candidates

• Now there is cable tv, early morning news, entertainment shows, “news-magazine” shows that give politicians the spotlight

• Politicians favor call-in formats, town meetings, human interest interviews and appearances on entertainment shows• Do not like “talking heads” news shows

• Clearly – most politicians love the spotlight• One easy way for politicians to get the spotlight is

criticize the president

Internet• Newest electronic source of

news• Summaries, newspapers,

magazines, gossip, chats• You can join rooms that have

similar political views• The ultimate free market in

political news• Hard to ban, control or

regulate

Structure of the Media• Relationship between

journalism and politics is two way street:• Politicians take advantage

of the media available to them

• The media uses politicians as a way to entertain and inform audiences

• However, the media can select, edit and serve the story they want

Degree of Competition• Number of daily newspapers had dropped

dramatically• Large papers have bought smaller ones• Many metropolitan areas have readership areas

that overlap• People now get most of their news from television

• Radio and TV are becoming more competitive• Over 1,000 local television stations• Over 11,000 cable stations• Almost 10,000 radio stations• Some broadcast nothing but news• Some have a specialized following

• The American press is made up of locally owned and managed businesses

• In other countries, the media are owned and operated with a national audience in mind

• US newspapers, tv and radio are oriented to local markets and local audiences

• Until mid 1990’s, no one could own and operate more than one newspaper, one AM, one FM or one tv station in a given market• According to the Federal

Communications Commission• Networks can’t force local

stations to accept a particular broadcast, but most do

National Media• Associated Press and United Press International

provide most of the national news• Three truly national newspapers: Wall Street

Journal, Christian Science Monitor, USA Today• However, New York Times and Washington Post have

gotten a national readership because so many politicians use them• Also, tv and local newspapers use their stories

• Existence of national press is important for two reasons:• 1. gov’t officials pay attention to what they say• 2. reporters for them are better educated and

generally have more liberal views – they write more “investigative” stories

• National press plays role of gatekeeper, scorekeeper and watchdog for the federal gov’t

• Gatekeeper:• Can influence which subjects become issues

and for how long

• Scorekeeper:• Keep track of and help

make political reputations – decide who is winning and losing

• After the scorekeepers decide a politician is important, they become the watchdog:• Every move is scrutinized

and reported on

Rules Governing the Media• Newspapers and

magazines do not need a license to publish

• Their freedom to publish can’t be restrained in advance

• They are liable only under certain highly restricted circumstances• 1st Amendment provides

much protection

• If something is published that is libelous, or obscene or incites someone to commit an illegal act, they can be sued

• Those terms have been defined so narrowly that it is hard for any court to convict the press

Confidentiality of Sources• Some states have passed laws that protect

sources• Federal government does not agree

• In most cases, the courts have to decide• In general the Supreme Court has said the gov’t

has the right to compel reporters to divulge info

Regulating Broadcasting• No one can operate a radio or television station

without a license from the FCC – renewable• There is a movement to deregulate broadcasting

• The argument is that there are so many stations on the air that competition should be allowed

• Citizens can choose what they want to hear or see

• Radio has been deregulated the most

• 1996 – Telecommunications Act allowed one company to own as many as 8 stations in large markets (5 in smaller ones) – as many as they wanted nationally• Result – many more news

radio shows

• Content of tv and radio is still regulated:• 1. equal time rule: if a station sells time to one

candidate, they must sell equal time to the opposing candidate.

• 2. right of reply rule: if a person is attacked, they must have the right to reply on that same station

• 3. political editorializing rule: if a broadcaster endorses a candidate, the opposing candidate must have a right to reply.

Campaigning• The “equal time rule” applies• TV stations and networks can sponsor debates

limited to the major candidates• Presidential candidates buy national time

• Others buy local time• Market – an area easily reached by a television

signal• 200 of them in US

Effects of the Media on POlitics• research suggests that what

appears in print or on air does effect how citizens think and what they think about

• TV and radio suffer from a process called “selective attention” (what teenagers have )

• Citizens see and hear only what they want

• If this is true, why is millions spent on advertising each year for consumer items?

• Because, if the ad persuades them to buy something, not much is at stake

• However, if the ad convinces them to vote for a candidate, they are stuck with them for 2 + years

• Effects of the media have less to do with how people vote -more to do with how politics is conducted - politicians are perceived – and how policies are formulated

• Media helps set the political agenda on issues that the citizens don’t have much personal experience with• But, the media has less influence over how people react to things that affect them directly.

Interpreting Political News• Americans worry that editors and reporters allow

their personal political beliefs to influence the stories

• Americans tend to accept what they hear or read as truth, especially if they have no prior knowledge.

• According to polls, journalists are much more liberal than the public

Are News Stories “Slanted?”• Several factors play into how stories

are written:• Need to meet a deadline• Desire to attract an audience• Obligation to be fair and tell the truth• Need to develop sources among

people of different views

• To understand circumstances under which a reporter’s opinion is likely to affect a story, you must know the three types of stories:• 1. routine stories – public events regularly covered –

simple, easy to describe• Ex: president takes a trip, bill passes Congress

• 2. feature stories: reporter takes the initiative to chose an event, write about it and persuade an editor to run it.• Ex: controversial ruling,

investigations, etc.

• 3. insider stories: someone with inside knowledge tells a reporter, possibly a “leak”, and the reporter engages in “investigative reporting”• How reliable is the source?

What is their motive?

• Routine stories are covered almost the same way by all reporters

• AP and Reuters supply stories almost as they happen to all media outlets

• Even routine stories can be incorrectly reported• Feature and insider stories must be selected

• The selection process includes what the reporter thinks is important

• Also may include stories that go along with his political beliefs

• Newspapers are using more feature stories to compete with magazines and tv

• The media puts their own “spin” on feature stories

Why Do We Have So Many “Leaks?”• America’s government is the “leakiest” in the world.• Members often leak stories to benefit them• Why do we have them? The Constitution

• We have separate branches that compete with each other for power (use the press to your advantage, make the other side look bad)

• Other democratic nations don’t have as many leaks.• Why?

• Because the Prime Minister is chosen from the majority party, so no need for competition to get upper hand

• Also, not against the law for press to receive or print government secrets

• Since Vietnam, Watergate and Iran-Contra, politicians have come to distrust one another

• So, reporters are less inclined to accept at face value what politicians say in “official statements”

• Rather find someone who will give them the “real story”

• We have an “adversarial press” – one that is suspicious of “official” things and rather break an embarrassing story to bring them kudos

• All this has led to an era of “attack journalism”• They cover any rumor, gaffes, etc. that involve

politicians• This used to be taboo

• The media’s growing cynicism about the government is the same that the public feels about the media

• Most people believe the media slants their coverage, has too much influence over events and abuse its constitutional privileges

• Most Americans dislike “biased” journalism

• None of this looks like it will change in the future

Sensationalism in the Media• In the “old days” the “sexcapades” of FDR, JFK and

MLK were all known about by reporters, but not reported on

• Today, famous figures can’t get away with that.• What changed?

• The economics of journalism and ideas of reporters

• Until the 1970’s, it was just the “big three” now there is a lot of competition and they are in the business to make money

• Have to rely on “sensational” news stories – sex, violence and intrigue

• Also, reporters are more likely to be easily manipulated by sources

• Now many break stories that only have one source

Government Constraints on Journalists• A reporter is only as good as their sources• Important to keep sources happy• 15,000-20,000 staffers for Congress members

means it is always possible to find a source• Number of press officers on gov’t payroll has

increased in recent decades• They can try to win journalistic friends by offering

“leaks” or background stories