the messinian of the nijar basin (se spain): sedimentation...

The Messinian of the Nijar Basin (SE Spain): sedimentation,

depositional environments and paleogeographic evolution

A.R. Fortuina,*, W. Krijgsmanb

aFaculty of Earth and Life Sciences, Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081HV Amsterdam, The NetherlandsbPaleomagnetic Laboratory ‘‘Fort Hoofddijk’’, Utrecht University, Budapestlaan 17, 3584 CD Utrecht, The Netherlands

Received 29 May 2002; accepted 1 November 2002

Abstract

The reconstruction of the depositional events related to the Messinian Salinity Crisis (MSC) of the Mediterranean is

generally hampered by an incomplete stratal record in the circum-Mediterranean basins. The sediments of the northern part of

the Nijar Basin, however, provide an excellent and continuous record of Late Messinian sediments because features of severe

erosion are lacking. Especially, the successions of the deeper part of the basin had sufficient accommodation space to warrant

ongoing deposition and may thus serve as a testing ground for existing hypotheses regarding the MSC. Conformable contacts

with the overlying Pliocene and good correlation possibilities with the adjacent, astronomically dated, Messinian of the Sorbas

Basin provide the necessary age constraints.

The main body of evaporites in the Nijar Basin (Yesares Formation) has been affected by local dissolution and erosion prior

to deposition of the latest Messinian (Lago–Mare) facies. Pelitic float breccias show textures indicating flowage and/or mass

transport and include slumped and slided stratal packets due to foundering of the mixed evaporitic–clastic margin. Increased

runoff of meteoric waters probably played an important role as these packet slides are perfectly sealed by the hyposaline Lago–

Mare strata. Field observations show that marginal sediments, commonly classified as the Terminal Carbonate Complex (TCC),

are a lateral equivalent of the basinal Yesares evaporites.

The latest Messinian deposits (Feos Formation) are characterized by a sedimentary cyclicity, related to fluctuating base

levels, consisting of chalky–marly laminitic strata alternating with continental coarser clastic intervals. Despite considerable

W–E facies changes and indications for discrete tectonic events, a persistent sequential pattern of eight Lago–Mare cycles is

present, which are interpreted as precession-controlled variations in regional climate. Instead of one major desiccation event in

the latest Messinian, the repeatedly fluctuating water levels of the Lago–Mare episode may have been the cause of the

widespread vigorous erosion and canyon cutting in the ‘‘Lower Evaporites’’. Abrupt, non-erosional contacts with the normal

marine Pliocene take place above the continental interval of the last Lago–Mare cycle, indicating that flooding took place

during a period of lowered water levels.

The paleogeographic configuration of the Nijar, Sorbas and Vera basins has changed considerably during the Messinian.

Separation of the formerly interconnected basins is thought to have started in the late Yesares times by tectonic uplift of the

basement complexes. In the latest Messinian of the Nijar Basin, two different coarse clastic supply areas can be distinguished

which point to the partial emergence of the Sierra Cabrera and the Cabo de Gata block and activity of the Sierra Alhamilla and

0037-0738/02/$ - see front matter D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

doi:10.1016/S0037-0738(02)00377-9

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +31-20-444-7351; fax: +31-20-444-9941.

E-mail address: [email protected] (A.R. Fortuin).

www.elsevier.com/locate/sedgeo

Sedimentary Geology 160 (2003) 213–242

Carboneras faults. Concerning the overall regional tectonic activity, tectonics were probably also instrumental for the restoration

of the Atlantic gateway in the basal Pliocene.

D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Messinian; Mediterranean; Spain; Sedimentation; Paleogeography; Lago–Mare

1. Introduction

Since the discovery of the pan-Mediterranean

extension of Messinian evaporites and associated

facies types (Hsu et al., 1973; Ryan et al., 1973),

numerous papers and working hypotheses have con-

tributed to a better understanding of the complex and

enigmatic scenario of rapidly changing biotic and

depositional environments that governed this Messi-

nian salinity crisis (MSC being the period of evaporite

deposition and subsequent Lago–Mare facies, Hsu et

al., 1977; Cita, 1982; Cita and McKenzie, 1986;

Rouchy and Saint Martin, 1992; Krijgsman et al.,

1999). Sedimentation in the increasingly restricted

Mediterranean basins was controlled by a combina-

tion of tectonic, eustatic and climatic factors (Weijer-

mars, 1988; Clauzon et al., 1996; Krijgsman et al.,

1999). Astronomical dating of the post-evaporitic

Pliocene and the pre-evaporitic Messinian sediments

now provides an accurate time frame for the MSC,

which occurred between 5.96 and 5.33 Ma (Lourens

et al., 1996; Krijgsman et al., 1999; Krijgsman et al.,

2002).

Although most MSC interpretations converge to a

scenario of progressive isolation of the Mediterranean

basins in a two-step model, the precise course of

events is still a matter of debate (Clauzon et al.,

1996; Krijgsman et al., 1999). Certain is that con-

striction of the Mediterranean–Atlantic gateways

under relatively dry and warm climates (Suc and

Bessais, 1990) ultimately led to deposition of marine

evaporites all over the Mediterranean area. The

‘Lower Evaporites’ of Sicily, the Gessoso–Solfifera

Formation of the Northern Apennines and the Yesares

Formation of SE Spain are attributed to this first

phase. The presence of such evaporites in the deep

Mediterranean basins, however, has not been proven

because they have never been drilled to their base.

During the second phase, the Mediterranean seems to

have been almost completely isolated from the Atlan-

tic, then at least periodically forming predominantly

oligohaline water masses providing characteristic

biofacies, the Lago–Mare (Hsu et al., 1977; Cita et

al., 1978). The ‘‘Upper Evaporites’’ of Sicily, the

Colombacci Formation of the Northern Apennines

and the Zorreras and Feos formations of SE Spain

are but a few examples of this Mediterranean-wide

occurring terminal Messinian environment in both on-

and offshore basins.

The restriction of the Mediterranean–Atlantic gate-

way was suggested to have initially caused a major

draw-down of sea-level up to at least 2 km (Clauzon,

1973; Stampfli and Hocker, 1989). In many marginal

basins, a network of subaerial drainage channels and

canyons formed, as has been concluded from numer-

ous indications for local scouring of valley incisions,

or formation of ravinement surfaces above the marine

evaporites (Cita and Ryan, 1978; Cita, 1982; Rouchy,

1982; Stampfli and Hocker, 1989; Savoye and Piper,

1991; Alonso et al., 1991; Delrieu et al., 1993; Druck-

man et al., 1995). Periodically, waters may have risen

again to approximately pre-existing levels as indicated

by strontium isotope ratios of euryhaline ostracods

(DeDeckker et al., 1988; McCulloch and DeDeckker,

1989).

In many of the classic Messinian basins, such as

Sicily and the Northern Apennines, the second phase

sediments overly the first phase evaporites with an

erosional and often angular unconformity. The Sorbas

and Nijar basins of SE Spain, however, have been

protected from vigorous erosion—as will be discussed

here—because tectonic uplift of basement complexes

during the MSC created isolated to semi-enclosed

basins that remained favourable for sediment accu-

mulation despite changing water levels. Therefore,

these basins contain one of the most complete land-

based Messinian successions including a substantial

body of evaporites in the basin centres and reefal

carbonates along part of their margins (Dronkert,

1976, 1985; Ott d’Estevou, 1980; Rouchy, 1982). In

A.R. Fortuin, W. Krijgsman / Sedimentary Geology 160 (2003) 213–242214

contrast to the intensively studied sediments of the

Sorbas Basin, surprisingly little attention has been

paid to the Upper Messinian of the Nijar Basin apart

from detailed studies of the evaporite record (Rouchy,

1982; Dronkert, 1985; De la Chapelle, 1988; Van de

Poel, 1991, 1994; Lu et al., 2001). Therefore, the main

objective of this paper is to further elucidate the

physical stratigraphy of the Nijar deposits, their lateral

and vertical changes and their potential for increased

understanding of the late Messinian events. In addi-

tion, the diverging upper Messinian stratigraphy with

regard to the Sorbas Basin plus paleogeographic

aspects will be discussed.

2. Geological setting

The Neogene intramontane basins of SE Spain are

situated in the internal part of the Betic Cordilleras

(Fig. 1) and formed by motion along the NE–SW

Trans-Alboran shear zone due to continental collision

between the African and European plates (de Larou-

ziere et al., 1988). The resulting transpressional to

transtensional basins tend to be oriented parallel to the

main direction of master strike-slip faults and origi-

nated in the Late Miocene when convergent motions

in the Alboran domain became oblique. Fault kine-

matic studies indicate that the basin dynamics was

fundamentally influenced by rotation of the major

compressional axis during the Neogene (Montenat et

al., 1987a,b; De la Chapelle, 1988; Coppier et al.,

1990; Biermann, 1995; Stapel et al., 1996; Huibregtse

et al., 1998; Montenat and Ott d’Estevou, 1999; Jonk

and Biermann, 2002). These stress variations resulted

in the alternation of free-sliding and locking regimes

in relation to movements on master faults. In Torto-

nian times, a NW–SE orientation resulted especially

in dextral displacements along the W–E-oriented

Fig. 1. Map showing the outline of the SE Betic Neogene basins plus the distribution of the Messinian reef tract and the sinistral Palomares and

Carboneras strike-slip faults. The line through the Sorbas–Nijar basins indicates the position of the cross-section shown in Fig. 3.

A.R. Fortuin, W. Krijgsman / Sedimentary Geology 160 (2003) 213–242 215

Fig. 2. Geological map of the study area in the northern Nijar Basin (modified after Van de Poel, 1991) giving the locations of the stratigraphic columns shown in Fig. 9.

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boundary faults such as the faultzone bordering the

northern parts of Sierra Alhamilla—and continuing

into Sierra Cabrera towards the coastal area (Gafa-

rillos fault). During the Early Messinian, an abrupt

clockwise rotation to N–S compression ended this

activity and activated the NNE–SSW to NE–SW

trending sinistral faults (e.g. Palomares and Carbone-

ras faults, Fig. 1).

The Nijar Basin is the southeasternmost basin bor-

dering the Alboran Sea (Fig. 1). The still active, NE–

SW oriented, sinistral Carboneras (or Serrata) strike-

slip zone separates the basin from the Sierra de Gata

volcanic high (De la Chapelle, 1988; Montenat and Ott

d’Estevou, 1999a,b). This high forms part of the

Alboran volcanic province and various volcanic suites

such as Serravallian–calcalkaline volcanic complexes

(Zeck, 2000) and Early Messinian ultrapotassic rocks

and alkali–basalts (Serrano, 1992) attest to a complex

history. The Messinian sediments that overlie this up to

1500 m thick volcanic sequence are, unfortunately,

strongly reduced in thickness (De la Chapelle, 1988).

The most extensive successions here are located

between Carboneras and Agua Amarga (Van de Poel

et al., 1984; Brachert et al., 1996) and connect the

northern part of the Nijar Basin with theMediterranean.

Our study focuses especially on the northern part

of the Nijar Basin because much of the low-lying

central parts (Campo de Nijar) are covered by Quater-

nary deposits. The study area (Figs. 1 and 2) is at

present separated from the adjacent Sorbas Basin by

the W–E oriented Sierra Cabrera (Fig. 3). The two

basins were, however, still connected during most of

the Messinian as the marginal Messinian reef tracts

fringing the Sierra Alhamilla continue uninterruptedly

from the southern margin of the Sorbas Basin to the

western margin of the Nijar Basin (Fig. 2).

3. Stratigraphic background

Late Miocene sedimentation in the Nijar Basin

started, like in the adjoining Sorbas and Vera basins,

with a latest Tortonian–Early Messinian transgressive

unit (Fig. 4). This mixed bio- and lithoclastic unit

(Azagador Member of Turre Formation, Volk and

Rondeel, 1964) onlaps over either the metamorphic

Fig. 3. N–S–SE cross-section through the Sorbas and Nijar basins. N.B. Vertical scale 9� exaggerated with regard to the horizontal scale.

Note the overall higher elevation of the Sorbas Basin. The Cerro Cantona high, which is the corridor connecting Sierra Cabrera with Sierra

Alhamilla, is bordered along its southern margin by a fault zone delimiting the northern Nijar Basin (modified after Van de Poel, 1994).


basement or the folded and eroded Early Tortonian

turbiditic basin fill (Chozas Formation). The Azagador

unit passes upward, and laterally towards the basin

center, into an over 100 m thick marly unit (Abad

Member of Turre Formation). These marls are charac-

terized by a cyclic pattern of alternating whitish marly

chalks and beige marls in the lower part which display a

sudden change towards sapropelitic laminites, marls

and chalks in the upper part. The ‘‘Lower Abad’’ marls

comprise well-preserved open marine, upper bathyal–

lower epibathyal foraminiferal assemblages (Baggley,

2000) while the ‘‘Upper Abad’’ marls show an upward

shoaling, plus change towards increased restriction of

marine conditions (Van de Poel, 1992; Baggley, 2000).

Various studies have shown that the sedimentary

cyclicity in the Abad marls is related to orbital forcing

with dominance of precession cycles (Sierro et al.,

1997, 1999, 2001; Krijgsman et al., 1999, 2001;

Vazquez et al., 2000). The marls become less thick

and sandier toward the western basin margin where

they interfinger with reefal debris forming the distal

parts of the clinoforms of the well-developed marginal

reefal complex (Cantera Member of Turre Formation).

The upward change of laminitic Abad marls into

dominantly gypsiferous strata (Yesares Member,

modified into Yesares Formation by Van de Poel,

1991) is rapid, but conformable. Van de Poel (1991)

distinguishes three members in his Yesares Formation:

Oolite Member, Gypsum Member and Manco Mem-

ber. The Oolite Member comprises the mixed clastic–

evaporitic strata, rich in oolites, which onlap eroded

Cantera clinoforms along the western basin margin.

The member as such is a local equivalent of the well

known Late Messinian Terminal Carbonate Complex

(TCC; Esteban, 1979; Esteban and Giner, 1980;

Dabrio et al., 1981; Riding et al., 1991a; Rouchy

and Saint Martin, 1992). The Gypsum Member is

characterized by massive gypsum beds alternating

with pelitic (laminitic) and/or sandier interbeds. Both

gypsum deposited from brines and reworked gypsum

occurs, showing an upward trend towards dominantly

detrital gypsum. Geochemical and sedimentary inves-

tigations suggest that the Yesares selenites were

formed in ‘deep’ marine brines (Rosell et al., 1998;

Lu et al., 2001; Cornee et al., 2002), although fossil

assemblages from muds intercalated in the gypsum of

Fig. 4. Lithostratigraphic overview of the Messinian–Pliocene successions in the northern Nijar Basin (Gafares area) and correlation with the

(partly equivalent) units in the Sorbas Basin.


the western part of the Sorbas Basin reflect deposition

around the transition from inner to outer shelf depth

(Saint Martin et al., 2000). The Manco Member

comprises the diagenetically affected levels that con-

sist of vuggy limestone and/or dolomite and associ-

ated marly and sandy strata. Van de Poel (1991)

considers fresh water alteration of gypsum to be the

essential mechanism for their genesis.

The uppermost Messinian is a relatively poorly

studied unit named Feos Formation (Van de Poel,

1991; modified after Feos Member, Van de Poel et al.,

1984). It more or less covers the ‘‘complexe post-

evaporitique’’ of French authors and corresponds to

the ‘‘Lago–Mare episode’’ in the Mediterranean fol-

lowing current usage of Late Messinian facies types

(Hsu et al., 1977; Cipollari et al., 1999; Orszag-

Sperber et al., 2000; Rouchy et al., 2001). This up

to 100 m thick unit comprises a rich variety of

lithologies witnessing strongly fluctuating environ-

mental conditions.

Pliocene sediments (Cuevas Formation, Volk and

Rondeel, 1964) overlie theMessinian strata and consist

of poorly stratified fossiliferous calcisiltites and calcar-

enites. They contain the earliest Pliocene Sphaeroidi-

nellopsis–Globorotalia margaritae association in their

basal part, while the benthic foraminiferal association

indicates deposition in an outer shelf environment (Van

de Poel, 1991 and own observations).

4. Sedimentation of the Late Messinian evaporites

(Yesares Formation)

Before discussing the facies distribution and

paleogeographical evolution of the Nijar Basin dur-

ing the evaporitic phase of the MSC (Section 6),

additional lithological data will be provided con-

cerning the rapid lateral syn- and post depositional

changes already indicated by Van de Poel (1991).

Extensive outcrop studies permit some deviating

interpretations concerning lateral changes, local

importance of slumping and sliding associated with

evaporite dissolution and collapse phenomena and

the prominent role of detrital gypsum towards the

top of the unit. The diagenetically affected Yesares

sediments were divided by Van de Poel (1991) in

the Lower and Upper Manco Limestone unit (LML

and UML). The LML, developed as several metres

of thick vuggy, dolomitic limestone breccia, is

found at the very base of the formation especially

in the neighbourhood of river Gafares and in the

Collado del Manco (Fig. 2). The UML comprises

the dissolved gypsum fragments of often graded,

calcareous gypsarenites (Figs. 5 and 6d) of the

upper half of the formation. In contrast to the

chaotic, totally altered dissolution facies of the

LML, the UML strata kept their bedding character-

istics.

Fig. 5. Lithostratigraphic overview of the Yesares Formation in the Gafares area plus the transition to the overlying Feos Formation indicated by

the presence of a black manganese level. The chaotic strata, exposed along Arroyo Gafares, are interpreted as a result of local evaporite

dissolution and collapse plus associated sliding, mainly consisting of packets of broken strata derived from the Upper Manco Member. The

chaotic mass is sealed by proximal sandy turbidites forming part of the uppermost UMM cycle, the top of which includes the first hyposaline

marly beds. For legend, see Fig. 4.


4.1. The regular basinal successions

The Yesares Formation (Fig. 6a,b) starts with

massive primary evaporites, but gradually, the depo-

sitional gypsum becomes replaced by detrital ele-

ments such as terrigenous clastics, oolitic grains and

reworked gypsum. Evaporitic, clastic and calcareous

pelitic interbeds regularly alternate which results in a

Fig. 6. Photographs of the Yesares Formation. (a) View on Gafares with the Loma de los Yesares ridge seen from the western valley margin of

Arroyo Gafares. The arrow in the middle part of the photo indicates the base of the Yesares Formation, whereas the arrow at right in the foreground

indicates the exposures of slidedUML strata in ArroyoGafares. An interrupted line indicates the contact between regular and slided strata. (b) View

on theYesares-type succession exposed in Loma de los Yesares. The left part exposes the Yesares evaporites and interbedded fines. The arrows 1–4

indicate the 4 coarsening-up cycles forming the UML unit. (c) Erosional contact betweenmassive Yesares gypsum (lower right) and conglomerates

rich in reworked gypsum. Contact indicated with an interrupted line. Hammer for scale. (d) Example of a vuggy sandy limestone of the UML unit.

The vugs are the voids of dissolved gypsum clearly showing upward grading. Such beds pass laterally in non-dissolved turbiditic gypsarenites.


distinct cyclic pattern (Rouchy, 1982). The type

section of the Yesares Formation in the Nijar Basin

located just E of Gafares (Fig. 5) includes approx-

imately nine gypsum–pelite cycles followed by four

calciclastic–gypsarenitic sequences (Fig. 6b). The top

of the formation is formed by a gypsarenitic brown–

black Mn-hydroxide-enriched level that forms the top

of the 4th clastic sequence. This ‘‘Mn bed’’ is a useful

markerbed as it can be traced laterally over several

kilometres.

The basal Yesares Member is widely exposed in

the area NE of Los Feos (Fig. 2). Here, around 50 m is

exploited. The gypsum is developed as metres thick

beds alternating with only decimeters thick clayey to

sandy interbeds (seven cycles exposed). This massive-

looking succession is comparable to the Yesares

cycles such as quarried 5 km to the north in the

Sorbas Basin, although individual gypsum beds may

be thicker there. A pronounced erosional unconform-

ity (Barranco Gordo, Fig. 6c) separates the upper

gypsum beds, here developed as very thick beds

(2–4-m range) alternating with 1–5 dm thick calcar-

enitic interbeds from four crudely stratified conglom-

erate sheets. These sheets consist of abundant

reworked gypsum (clast size up to 30 cm) and poorly

rounded lithoclasts (basement dolomites and quartz-

ites, Porites blocks and Manco limestones) and form

the local transition to the overlying Feos Formation.

Eastward, this erosional unconformity decreases in

significance. The gypsum conglomerates pass into

mixed sandy to conglomeratic and gypsiferous strata

forming the four sandy–calcarenitic sequences of the

upper part of the type section.

The UML calciclastics of the type area tend to be

graded and laminated ranging in composition from a

very high content of detrital gypsum to extremely

sandy varieties. Some beds clearly show Bouma Ta–c

turbidite sequences (paleocurrent directions to SSE).

Selenitic gypsum interbeds are uncommon. The

proportion of fine-grained and laminated detrital

gypsum beds increases upward and eastward versus

a decreasing amount of lithoclastic input and overall

thinning. West of Gafares, the four UML sequences

attain their sandiest aspect in the northernmost part

of Section D (Fig. 5). Crudely graded and amalga-

mated sandstones suggest transport to SE directions.

Selenitic gypsum interbeds are more common here.

The lateral changes and cyclic aspect suggest that the

UML clastics were deposited in small (proximal)

submarine fan lobes.

The dark Mn-enrichment layer at the top of the

Yesares Formation has strongly affected 2 m of

graded, amalgamated and slumped gypsarenites near

the village of Gafares. Just below this level, saprope-

litic marls occur which contain the remains of a

monospecific fish fauna characterized by Aphanius

crassicaudus (De la Chapelle and Gaudant, 1987).

Samples from the top of this bed yielded, besides

numerous fish remains, also some Chara oogonia.

Further east, in the Collado del Manco area, turbidite

a–c intervals from this level indicate transport to

N200jS, while slumpfold orientations also indicate

a SSW downslope movement.

4.2. Dissolution-affected successions

Chaotically arranged stratal packets are exposed

along Arroyo Gafares and in the Collado del Manco

where they are sandwiched between the roughly 10 m

thick top part of the formation and the basal LML

(Fig. 5). These chaotic intervals are characterized by

the combination of dissolution phenomena, affecting

the intercalated evaporites, plus features indicating

slumping and sliding of packets of strata. At Gafares,

these deposits pass eastward rapidly into undisturbed

and undissolved Yesares sediments via a partially

exposed slide scar (oriented N110jE; Figs. 5 and

6a). The stratigraphic thickness of the chaotic mass

exposed along the riverbed equals that of the unde-

formed Yesares–Upper Manco successions laterally.

The slide mass is hardly exposed W of the riverbed

where it has a maximum lateral extent of 400 m

judging from the reappearing evaporites. The Gafares

slide mass starts closely above a thin veneer of

sheared marls forming contact with Uppper Abad

sediments and limestone-pack breccia (1.5 m; Fig.

7a). Then, the lithology changes abruptly into an

upward fining, blocky float breccia (7 m thick; Fig.

7a) with rounded fragments of metamorphic basement

rocks and Cantera reefal debris. The pack breccias are

representative for dissolution and collapse of evapor-

ites, as exemplified by Van de Poel (1991), but the

mud-rich floatstone with extralithoclasts clearly

reflects mass transport. Higher up, interrupted by

non-exposed intervals, follow packets of partially

broken and crumpled sandy limestones of the UML


Fig. 7. The Gafares slide mass as exposed in Arroyo Gafares. (a) Sketch of the basal contact as exposed in the valley wall below the house standing in the foreground of Fig. 6a (N.B.

this part of the succession is presently poorly exposed). (b and c) Examples of local brittle deformation within stratal packets of UML lithology suggesting some degree of (early)

diagenesis before deformation. Hammer for scale. (d) Slide sealing erosional contact between dominantly deformed pelitic strata of the slided UML unit and graded thick-bedded

gypsiferous sandstones belonging to the 4th UML cycle. Hammer at contact.

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Geology160(2003)213–242

222

unit (Fig. 7b,c), suggesting that some degree of

lithification had already taken place before the entire

mass was erosively covered by the coarse sandy

turbidites of the uppermost detrital UML cycle (Fig.

7d).

Eastward, in the Collado del Manco (Fig. 2),

collapse pack float breccias also replace Yesares

evaporites. The highly chaotic association is followed

by up to 50 m of slumped and slided UML strata

consisting of deformed packets of brownish clays,

grey marls and calcisiltites. The top is again formed

by highly crumpled pelites and is sealed by 10 m of

sandy, laminated calcisiltitic and calcarenitic turbi-

dites and associated fines.

The rapid lateral transition from chaotic, dissolu-

tion related, stratal packets to undisturbed and unal-

tered Yesares successions is interpreted as slumping

and sliding of an already semi-indurated overburden

towards newly created space after local dissolution of

Lower Yesares evaporites. This process must have

taken place before the topmost UML sequence was

deposited, as indicated by the sharp sealing contact of

the chaotic strata by gravelly and sandy gypsum

turbidites forming the base of the highest UML fan

lobe (Fig. 7d). Dissolution-related massflow deposits,

carrying basement metamorphics and Cantera lime-

stone, are common along the NW basin margin. Their

basinward occurrence suggests that tongues of mass

transported debris from the basin margin could reach

the dissolution-bound depressions.

The dolomitic limestone breccias are suggested to

be the product of freshwater alteration (Van de Poel,

1991). Although we do not have direct geochemical

evidence for freshwater influences, indirect evidence

comes from finding Chara in marls just above the

slumped and slided strata. Moreover, vuggy lime-

stones investigated from the top of the formation

suggest karst and vadose diagenesis (C. Taberner,

2001; personal communication). Consequently, we

conclude that the Nijar Basin must have been tempo-

rarily flushed with brackish to fresh waters after

deposition of the main body of evaporites.

4.3. The NW basin margin deposits

The evaporitic succession of the Yesares Formation

progressively wedges out towards the basin margin

where it also becomes increasingly chaotic. Between

motorway A 340 and Polopos (Fig. 2), the combina-

tion of post-depositional evaporite dissolution, plus

collapse and sliding of Upper Yesares sediments,

gives this unit a chaotic, olistostrome-like aspect.

Gypsum still occurs as broken, decameter sized, rafts

embedded in pelitic float breccias. These gypsum rafts

tend to be arranged in an imbricated, SE dipping

position with regard to the overall stratal dip suggest-

ing basinward (SE) displacement. The associated,

highly inhomogeneous float breccia consists of many

irregular tails of muddy intervals indicating viscous

flowage. Rounded blocks of Porites limestones,

derived from the Cantera Member, become a domi-

nant element in the marly float breccias towards the

reefal tract where primary gypsum is entirely absent.

Dissolution and collapse did locally continue after the

Messinian because the Pliocene cover has in some

places been incorporated in the chaos. The general

pattern, however, is that this chaotic mass is covered

by the Oolite Member towards the reefal flanks

(which is also partly incorporated in it) or the Feos

Formation more distally.

The stratigraphic relation between evaporites and

reefal facies is not exposed in the Nijar Basin because

unaltered evaporites do not occur in the marginal

areas. Nevertheless, the replacing dissolution facies

can be traced laterally until the reefal flanks of the

Cantera Member (Cerro de la Lancha–Barranco del

Pino area, Fig. 2) where approximately 15 m of

chaotic float breccia overlies the Abad marls. This

float breccia also overlaps the distal parts of the

Cantera clinoforms and is topped by sandy oolites

and associated skeletal and lithoclastic packstones of

the Oolite Member. Clinoform upward, the float

breccia rapidly pinches out, making place for oolithic

deposits. This situation shows much affinity with the

stratigraphic position of collapse breccias in the

Algerian Murdjadjo reef near Oran (Saint Martin,

1990) and indicates that evaporitic strata were depos-

ited on the distal flanks of the clinoforms.

The facies architecture of the Oolite Member

occurring along the NW basin margin is complex

due to rapid lateral changes with the local intercala-

tion of a prograding, coarse clastic fan-shaped unit.

Where oolithic strata onlap over the youngest Hal-

imeda-rich clinoform bed of the Cantera Member, the

contact is erosional because various cliff-like paleo-

escarpments of several metres height have been cut


into Cantera carbonates. In front of these, and also

more distally, up to 30 m3 large blocks of displaced

Porites is often found associated with coarse clastics

and overgrown by stromatolite beds, suggesting that

they formed mini reliefs in a quiet coastal area and

situated in front of a partially emerged reefal front

(Fig. 8a). The associated clastics (blocks up to 50 cm

in diameter) mainly consist of angular dark schists and


white quartz embedded in a sandy matrix, although

flat pebble beds (suggesting a beach environment),

thrombolites and gypsum pseudomorphs in oolithic

grainstones can also be observed. Distally from the

youngest Halimeda bed, the basal oolites have been

incorporated in float breccias (Fig. 8b).

Just distal from the reef front near Barranco del

Pino (Fig. 2), marly float breccias on top of sandy

Abad strata are followed by up to some 15 m of

whitish coated to entirely oolithic sandstones, strongly

reminiscent of the Sorbas Member in the Sorbas

Basin. Near the basal contact with the marly float

breccia, the sandy strata are still deformed and include

thin pelitic interbeds with gypsum ghosts (Fig. 8c,e).

Thrombolites occurring at the top point to similarity

with TCC successions in the Nijar area (Riding et al.,

1991a). To the N of Barranco del Pino up to 25 m

thick and SE prograding, coarse clastics overly both

the youngest reefal Halimeda bed and laterally also

marly float breccias. These clastic deposits consist of

low angle (f 15j) SE prograding alternations of very

coarse and angular basement debris embedded in a

sandy matrix and sandier intervals. Stromatolites and

occasionally fossiliferous flat pebble beds occur at the

base. The composition of the clastics reflects the

lithology of the nearby Sierra Alhamilla and its reefal

fringe. Large Porites blocks occur at various levels.

Evidently, it concerns a small prograding clastic

wedge, which partly filled-up an erosional depression

in between the reefs and flowed out in front of the

reefs in a coastal area.

Summarizing and concluding, it appears that evap-

orites were deposited on the deepest parts of the reefal

clinoforms and distally above sandy Abad marls.

Simultaneously, oolithic grainstones were deposited

in a somewhat shallower position. These grainstones

were partly reworked and can now be retrieved more

to the basin centre in the younger part of the for-

mation. The preserved beds of the Oolite Member

have been deposited in a topographic position still

under the highest parts of the Cantera reef. Above the

gypsum, sandstones have been deposited which show

a high similarity with the Sorbas Member. The

approximately coeval coarse clastic prograding fan

points to a relatively short-lived, regressive event

capable to scour a valley in between the reefal tract,

filling it up with clastics. We correlate this event with

the erosional event affecting the Upper Yesares further

eastward which is also related to dissolution, collapse

plus basinward sliding.

5. Sedimentation of the latest Messinian

Lago–Mare facies (Feos Formation)

The latest episode of the MSC is very well repre-

sented in the Nijar Basin and provides one of the most

complete onshore records of the western Mediterra-

nean. The corresponding sediments belong to the Feos

Formation that comprises the strata deposited above

the Mn-enrichment level and below the Pliocene (Van

de Poel, 1991). The most complete stratigraphic

record of the Feos Formation is present in sections

near Gafares (Sections E and D; Figs. 2, 9 and 10f),

where the formation is conformably overlain by

fossiliferous Pliocene sandy marls (Cuevas Forma-

tion, Fig. 10a). Towards the basin margin in the west

and the Carboneras fault zone in the east, the Feos

Formation becomes incomplete due to onlapping and

thinning or erosion prior to deposition of the over-

lying Pliocene (Fig. 11).

5.1. The regular basinal successions

In the central parts of the Nijar Basin, the Feos

Formation shows a distinct cyclic alternation of vari-

coloured (reddish to greyish) continental clastics and

whitish Lago–Mare deposits (Fig. 10f,j). The latter

intervals are characterized by an oligohaline micro-

fauna occurring in marly to chalky sediment but

including varying amounts of usually thin bedded

and well-sorted sands and silts (laminites). A total

Fig. 8. Photographs illustrating the Oolite Member (TCC equivalent) at the NW basin margin. (a) Displaced Porites blocks overgrown by

stromatolites (hammer for scale). (b) Barranco del Pino, eastern part (hammer for scale). Oolitic grainstone block with gypsum pseudomorphs

reworked into a mass flow deposit forming the local transition between chaotic dissolution and collapse float breccia to sandstones shown in (d)

forming the base of the Feos Formation (hammer for scale). (c and e) Barranco del Pino, western outcrops (pen for scale). Close-ups of

deformed sandy strata, here forming the transition between chaotic dissolution and collapse float breccia to oolithic sandstones of the Oolite

Member (coin of 1.5 cm diameter for scale). The basal mudstone bed includes gypsum pseudomorphs.


number of eight Lago–Mare intervals have been

distinguished (Fig. 9). These intervals alternate in the

lower part of the formation with intervals dominated

by graded and laminated gypsum-rich sandstones and/

or balatino gypsum and higher up with continental

clastics (varying from clays to conglomerates). Terres-

trial environments can be concluded from the common

presence of red and grey calcrete-rich paleosols and/or

root burrowing. Coarse clastic intervals are common

(Fig. 10c). The formation shows an upward change to

decreasing influence of saline waters within the overall

cyclic pattern caused by wet Lago–Mare and dry

evaporitic to continental intervals.

The cyclic arrangement of continental clastics and

Lago–Mare laminites indicates that the basin under-

went alternating periods of drying-up and reflooding.

The lowermost cycles, however, only give evidence

for drying up in the marginal areas where erosion of

Messinian and older strata has been significant. The

continental episodes lasted long enough to enable the

development of calcretic soils that were often inter-

rupted by episodic supply of coarse-grained debris

flows. The conformable transition to the Pliocene is

characterized (Sections D and G, Figs. 9 and 10a) by

an abrupt change in lithology, from non-fossiliferous,

greyish, silty sands showing mottling by plant roots to

strongly burrowed bioclastic sandy marls containing

an open marine microfauna (Van de Poel, 1992).

Burrows penetrated up to 50 cm deep into the under-

lying Feos Formation. Since these marine Pliocene

strata overlie the relatively thin continental interval (of

cycle 8), it is concluded that the Pliocene flooding

followed abruptly after a period of lowered water

levels.

The vertical transition from Lago–Mare facies to

continental clastics is generally rather abrupt (Fig. 10j)

and can even be erosional in case the overlying clastic

unit consists of conglomerates displaying scour-and-

fill structures. When the transition is gradational, the

amount of sand increases rapidly upward resulting in

both thickening and coarsening-up patterns, indicating

shoaling (hummocky cross-bedding may be devel-

oped) and rapid transition to terrestrial conditions with

all the features of deposition on braid plains, develop-

ment of soils (calcretic) and episodic overwash.

The transitions from continental intervals to Lago–

Mare beds are abrupt as well, but generally not ero-

sional. The Lago–Mare intervals of the upper cycles

start with a conspicuous 1–2 cm grey, clayey drape,

extremely rich in the ostracod Cyprideis agrigentina.

This sudden ‘transgression’ points to relatively rapid

and quiet flooding without (or with only very poorly

developed) ravinement surfaces and shoreface deposits.

Micropaleontological investigations of the various

Lago–Mare intervals reveal that the ostracod assemb-

lages are dominated by Cyprideis pannonica, although

Loxoconcha and Tyrrhenocythere (Roep and Van

Harten, 1979; Van de Poel, 1991, 1992) are also

present. Some Cyprideis-rich samples also contain a

dwarfed planktonic foraminiferal association with or

without an oligotypic small-sized association of

Ammonia spp. and Bolivina spp., which is similar to

the Lago–Mare associations from elsewhere in Med-

iterranean basins (cf. Iaccarino et al., 1999). SEM

investigations of these samples show that micrite from

disintegrated and probably reworked calcareous nan-

nofossils forms a relevant part of the sediment (Fig.

10h). In addition, washed residues from Lago–Mare

fines include frequently celestite crystals (Fig. 10g), of

which the corroded nature also suggests reworking. A

few samples from the uppermost part of the formation

yield a more marine, plankton-rich association, but also

in these cases, faunal reworking cannot be ruled out

(W.J. Zachariasse, personal communication).

A gradual change in both the composition of the

lithoclasts and paleocurrent orientation can be noted

from west to east. In the western outcrops, the overall

paleocurrent trend is to SE; southern transport direc-

tions prevail in the intermediate sections, whereas

SSW to W-directed transport is indicated in the

Collado del Manco area close to the Carboneras fault

zone. The most common lithoclasts consist of

reworked gypsum, oolites, Cantera limestones, other

types of Messinian limestones and metamorphics

Fig. 9. Simplified and correlated lithological logs of the cyclic facies association in the Feos Formation expressed by repetitions of coarser and

finer, often laminitic, intervals. The sections (A–F) are located between the ruined houses of Los Feos and the Collado del Manco (see Fig. 2 for

location). The base of the Pliocene has been used as a datum surface for correlation. The formation attained its largest thickness in Section G

(Cerro de los Ranchos; 110 m, upper part shown in Fig. 10f). Further eastward from there, the Pliocene starts to overly the formation with an

(low angle) erosional unconformity related to activity of the Carboneras fault zone.


(dark phyllites and dolomites, angular white quart-

sites). In the Collado del Manco area, however, frag-

ments derived from red sandstones belonging to the

Malaga–Betic nappe and volcanites appear in the

lower part of the formation, indicating supply from

a different sediment source probably located east of

the Carboneras fault zone.

5.2. Basal gypsum-bearing successions

The three lower cycles of the Feos Formation are

still characterized by the abundance of (often

reworked) gypsum (Fig. 10e). NE of Los Feos (Sec-

tions B and C, Fig. 9), the relationship between the

Yesares and Feos gypsum is complicated by the

presence of an erosional unconformity (Fig. 6c). The

overlying gypsum conglomerates are correlated with

the uppermost gypsarenites of the Yesares UML fur-

ther east. The Mn-enrichment level marking the Yes-

ares–Feos boundary is positioned just southward from

these strata. Towards the basin margin, contacts with

collapsed and olistostrome-like Yesares point to a

gradual transition from highly chaotic Yesares float

breccias via crudely stratified massflow deposits to

whitish Feos sandstone and conglomerates. Here, the

Lago–Mare intervals include a higher amount of

interbedded graded sandstones than further east (Sec-

tions G and H, Fig. 9), where laminated gyparenites

and balatino gypsum form the lateral equivalents of

westward coarsening units also rich in detrital gypsum.

Selenitic gypsum is locally developed as circular,

up to 1 m elevated, mounds (‘teepees’) measuring up

Fig. 11. Interpreted W–E stratigraphic cross-section through the northern Nijar Basin with the base of the Pliocene as datum level. Lithological

symbols as used in Fig. 9.

Fig. 10. Photographs illustrating the Feos Formation. (a) Details of contact with the Pliocene, Section D. The contact (arrow) is marked by the

sudden transition from greyish, root mottled and vaguely bedded continental strata to yellowish, strongly burrowed bioclastic calcarenites.

Pocket knife for scale. (b) Proximity of Section C: gypsum mound (‘teepee’) developed on top of a graded gypsrudite forming the transition to

laminitic Lago–Mare deposits of cycle 4 (Fig. 9) that can be seen to onlap over this mini relief. Hammer for scale. (c) Section B, southeastward

slumped sandstones intercalated in laminitic strata of cycle 4 (Fig. 9). The outcrop clearly shows that laminites onlapped over the slumped sands

and were subsequently erosively overlain by conglomeratic mass-flow deposits forming the transition to the next continental interval. (d and j)

Proximity of Section C: Lago–Mare interval 4 (7.5 m thick) developed on top of an undulating gypsrudite (bottom photo, j) and showing a

gradual upward increase of laminitic sandy interbeds. At the top where the number of graded sands increases rapidly, over 1 m long subvertical

fissures are present that appear to be filled-in from above from places where sand became fluidized (photo d, upper right) and interpreted as

giving evidence for a seismic origin. (e) Section B, interval above the basal gypsum conglomerates showing laminated and contorted fine-

grained gypsarenites. (f) Section C, as seen from the east, showing the alternation of Lago–Mare cycles with coarser grained, mostly

continental, sandy–conglomeratic intervals. The picture starts, at right, at the level of the manganese-enriched boundary bed where it is

followed by fine-grained and laminated ‘balatino’ gypsum. (g) SEM backscatter image of a celestite crystal (� 250) common in Lago–Mare

fines. The corroded surface suggests reworking. (h) SEM micrograph of Lago–Mare mud (� 8000) showing the relative importance of

reworked and fragmented nannofossils. (k) Proximity of Section C, thinly bedded and laminated grey to pink pelitic to sandy strata including

irregular gypsiferous beds showing small teepee-like structures and interpreted as deposited in a sabkha-like environment.


to 3 m in diameter (Fig. 10b). They are common in the

western barranco’s (top of cycle 3, Sections B, C and

D, Fig. 9), following above up to 50 cm thick,

laminated gypsarenite, including outsize clasts of

reworked gypsum or Cantera coral boundstone. In

the neighbourhood of Section D just below the top of

cycle 3, a sabkha-like gypsum variety is developed,

overlying muds and sands with large root burrows.

The gypsum is banded, forming irregular, small tee-

pee-like elevations (Fig. 10k). Intercalated clastic beds

vary laterally in texture and structure and include

wave-ripple cross-lamination. The selenitic gypsum

mounds at the top are directly followed by the first

Lago–Mare laminites of cycle 4. This facies pinches

out eastwards and graded gypsarenites or balatino

gypsum is found east of Gafares.

Concluding, an upward change is evident from

partly evaporitic cycles to partly continental cycles.

Because the Lago–Mare intervals do not show marked

upward changes, this vertical trend suggests increased

evaporative drawdown during the younger cycles,

when continental environments prevailed during rela-

tively dry intervals. Geochemical investigations (Lu et

al., 2001) confirm the more continental character of the

Feos evaporites compared to Yesares evaporites, in

which more isolated environments provided more

concentrated brines. The environments in the Feos

area were on average shallower than E of Gafares,

where the relative amount of coarse clastics is lower

versus increased amounts of balatino gypsum and

gypsarenites. Features such as observed in the mixed

clastic–evaporitic facies near Section D, cycle 3 sug-

gest that sabkha-like environments associated with

salty mudflats and mangrove vegetation existed

locally, indicating rapidly vertically and horizontally

changing facies patterns. Abundance of outsize clasts

in the mass transported sandy evaporites points to

considerable erosion of marginal gypsum. In view of

the evidence for periodic drawdown of the water level

leading to accumulation of continental deposits above

otherwise offshore facies, fluctuations of Lago–Mare

water levels were considerable.

5.3. Fissure fillings

Coarse sand-filled fissures, pointing downward

towards the top of the laminites, are a remarkable

feature of the upward coarsening–shallowing se-

quence of cycle 4. The fissures are up to 50 cm in

length in Section A, but can be up to 1 m in Section C.

In the latter locality (Fig. 10j), cracks can be seen to

pass at their top into the first graded sands, which

were locally subjected to liquefaction (Fig. 10d). This

indicates that the fissures were filled from above by

fluidized sand. The fissures, on average f 1 cm wide,

vary in shape from a slightly jagged to almost straight

course, and both vertical and oblique orientations are

common. The sand, filling the fissures at Los Feos,

however, is hardly present anymore as it was scoured

by an overlying graded bed. Here groove and flute

casts indicate transport to 170jS (13 measurements),

while Tc intervals of very thin distal turbidites indicate

S to SSE transport directions. In other outcrops of the

same cycle 4, slumping and small-scale syndeposi-

tional faulting is common (Figs. 9 and 10c).

The fissures are not interpreted as large shrinkage

cracks due to the drying up of a Lago–Mare succes-

sion, but as seismites, because fluidization of sand

with associated ‘draw-in’ infilling of fissures in

unconsolidated sediment indicates sediment stretching

by seismic shocks. Their association with slumps and

small-scale syndepositional faults also indicates tec-

tonic instability.

6. Paleogeographic evolution

6.1. Paleogeography during pre-evaporitic sedimen-

tation

The Late Tortonian was a period of intense basin

structuration during which the basin fill was folded

and faulted (Fig. 3). Along the southern margin of the

Sorbas Basin, dextral slip along the Gafarillos fault

came to an end and the Messinian depot centre shifted

northwards (Ott d’Estevou, 1980). The contours of the

Nijar Basin must have been influenced considerably

by the gradual NE movement of the Sierra de Gata

massif. Approximately 30 km of horizontal slip is

inferred to have taken place along the Carboneras

fault since the Tortonian, with an estimated 7.5 km of

Pliocene–Quaternary displacement (Coppier et al.,

1990; Boorsma, 1993). The more southern position

of the Cabo de Gata volcanics probably enabled a

joint eastward outlet to the offshore for the combined

Nijar, Sorbas and Vera basins (Fig. 12.1). In Early


Messinian times, at least the Nijar and the Sorbas

basins were still connected to the deep Mediterranean,

as proven by fossil fish fauna’s (Gaudant, 1989). Even

the younger diatom assemblages from ‘‘Upper Abad’’

marls in the Sorbas Basin indicate a marine connec-

tion (Saint Martin et al., 2001). The northern shoreline

of the Nijar Basin probably coincided with the north-

ern margin of the Sorbas Basin. This is evidenced by

local accumulations of swash rounded megaboulders

(up to 1 m in diameter) at the base of the Azagador

transgression in various places along the northern

margin of the Sorbas Basin. Such boulders indicate

a high-energy swash, tormenting a rocky coast, which

is unlikely to have existed in a narrow basin that was

protected from the open sea to the south by the Sierra

Cabrera. Moreover, the stratigraphic trend of the

Azagador Member as exposed along the southeastern

margin of the Sorbas Basin is one of eastward

thickening and fining, suggesting also an open con-

nection to the present Vera Basin. Intercalated litho-

clasts in these sections reflect a northern, Sierra de los

Filabres origin, which also indicates that Sierra Cab-

rera was not yet emergent (Braga et al., 2001).

The western margin of the Nijar Basin was formed

by the Sierra Alhamilla topographic high which shed a

mixture of coarse clastics and bioclastics into the basin

well before it became covered by the Cantera reef trend

(Ott d’Estevou, 1980). The position of the northwestern

basin margin during deposition of the Early–Middle

Messinian Abad marls is clearly indicated by the reefal

tract of Cantera carbonates fringing Sierra Alhamilla

(Figs. 1 and 2). The almost uninterrupted reef trend

from Sierra Alhamilla, via Sierra de los Filabres to

Sierra Bedar (Fig. 12.1), implies that the Nijar, Sorbas

and Vera basins were still interconnected. Moreover,

the absence of Cantera reefs along Sierra Cabrera

strongly suggests that massif was still submerged, an

interpretation which deviates from earlier paleogeo-

graphic and fault kinematic maps (De la Chapelle,

1988; Coppier et al., 1990). In addition, the open

marine Abad successions N and S of the present

Cabrera massif are strikingly similar in microfaunal

and lithological aspect. This indicates similar upper

bathyal environments (Troelstra et al., 1980; Van de

Poel, 1992), suggesting as well that much of the present

Sierra Cabrera was still a basinal part of the intercon-

nected Vera, Sorbas and Nijar basins. Recent paleoba-

thymetric estimates based on extensive study of the

benthic foraminifera (Baggley, 2000) indicate that the

deepest parts of the Sorbas Basin may have attained

f 1000 m after the initial phase of rapid subsidence.

The regular, and laterally persistent, depositional

pattern of the ‘‘Lower Abad’’ marls points to an

episode of tectonic quiescence. This suggests that

during the Azagador–‘‘Lower Abad’’ episode, trans-

pressional stresses were strongly reduced, thus induc-

ing subsidence in zones of former compression.

During deposition of the ‘‘Upper Abad’’, turbidites

and slumps in the Nijar, Sorbas and Vera basins

periodically disturbed the regular depositional pattern

pointing to increased tectonic instability. This could

well be related with the initiation of the new N–S

oriented principal stress regime that first affected the

Palomares fault. Activity along this fault is indicated

by the occurrence of small volcanic eruption centres in

the Vera Basin, intercalated in the so-called Santiago

turbidites of the ‘‘Upper Abad’’ (Volk, 1967; Fortuin et

al., 1995). These Santiago turbidites accumulated in

bathyal parts of the basin, as proved by abundant

Palaeodictyon tracks being derived from northeastern

sources (Volk, 1967), suggesting that the south(west)-

ern parts of the Vera Basin were the deepest. This is

another indication that there was not yet a trace of an

extensive Cabrera landmass such as present nowadays.

Paleocurrent directions are rather scarce in the

‘‘Upper Abad’’ of the study area. Nevertheless, vari-

ous slumpfolds and a cross-bedded turbidite (Tc)

interval indicate eastward sediment dispersal, suggest-

ing transport towards the eastern offshore.

6.2. Paleogeography during evaporite deposition

The basal Yesares evaporites of the Nijar and

Sorbas basins probably still formed an integral basinal

succession like before in mid-Messinian times (Fig.

12.2). Initially, the connection to the Vera Basin was

probably still open. In that basin, evaporites probably

were deposited as well, but little has remained because

of post-depositional erosion (Fortuin et al., 1995).

Separation of the Sorbas and Vera basins was prob-

ably caused by a NE–SW trending, fault bounded

uplift zone. This is the area presently exposing the

older Neogene successions along the NW Cabrera

margin. The thickest (f 75 m) and most massive

appearance of Yesares evaporites in the Sorbas Basin

is located in the eastern segment of the basin, border-


ing the western spurs of Sierra Cabrera. The thickest

gypsum deposits in the Nijar Basin are observed in the

quarry directly to the south of this present structural

high. Splitting up of the formerly united Sorbas–

Nijar–Vera basins is thought to have started in Late

Yesares times, when the stratigraphies of the basins

started to diverge. Overall Yesares shoaling, inferred

from geochemical studies (Rosell et al., 1998), is

witnessed by the overlying coastal sequences around

Sorbas and southeastward proliferation of UML gyp-

sarenites in the study area. Consequently, this uplift

also started to constrict the Sorbas–Nijar connections.

In the study area, shoaling is proved by local erosion

of the main gypsum body in the Los Feos area and the

eastward transition to mixed calciclastic–gypsarenitic

turbidite lobes. In addition, coarse clastics could also

enter the basin from the western Alhamilla margin.

The most logical explanation for the supply of

reworked gypsum into the study area is uplift with

southward tilting along the northern boundary of the

Cabrera–Alhamilla sierras. In other words, reactiva-

tion of the Gafarillos fault zone now under N–S

compression seems likely.

In the study area, the overall upward increase of

detrital gypsum, plus local erosion towards the top of

the Yesares Fm, is undoubtedly related to the same

overall shallowing tendency recognized in the Sorbas

Basin. Whereas the basal Yesares gypsum formed in

deep marine brines (Rosell et al., 1998; Lu et al.,

2001), upward shallowing in the Sorbas Basin with

strong salinity fluctuations resulted in deposition of

the coastal sequences of the Sorbas Member on top of

the evaporites (Roep et al., 1998). This member shows

a prograding sandy coastal succession consisting of

3–4 upward shoaling sequences around the village of

Sorbas (Roep et al., 1998; Krijgsman et al., 2001).

Further east and south, these coastal sands pass

rapidly into laminitic offshore muds and sands in

which shoaling ultimately also led to the formation

of wave-rippled near-coastal strata. In the generally

deeper Nijar Basin, an overall regressive trend is also

reflected by the Upper Yesares beds with the appear-

ance of calciclastic strata and gypsarenites, here

developed as prograding fan lobes in four UML

sequences. The fact that both the UML and the Sorbas

members are the first sand-rich intervals suggests a

lateral relationship. Moreover, calcite coated sand-

stones are a common lithology in the Sorbas Member,

and they also occur in the UML sequences and in the

marginal sandstones directly overlying the marginal

dissolution facies. We thus conclude a lateral equiv-

alence of the Sorbas and UML members (Fig. 4),

which implies that episodes of increasing salinity had

more impact in the somewhat deeper Nijar Basin than

in Sorbas.

The dominantly marly, laminitic intervals at the top

of the UML reflect brackish conditions as unambig-

uously proven by microfauna (Van de Poel, 1994) and

presence of Chara spp. plus A. crassicaudus (De la

Chapelle and Gaudant, 1987). The latter fish is also

reported from the basinal Sorbas laminites (Gaudant

and Ott d’Estevou, 1985) and typically thrives in

euryhaline, near coastal waters. The lack of other

marine fish species, however, indicates that the basins

were separated from open marine environments (Gau-

dant, 1989). This exemplifies the increased restriction

of the Nijar and Sorbas basins from the Mediterra-

nean, which ultimately resulted in the first hypohaline

Lago–Mare conditions.

6.3. Paleogeography during Lago–Mare deposition

Paleogeographic reconstructions based on the

study of continental facies in the Sorbas Basin and

Fig. 12. Paleogeographic cartoons depicting the rapid overall changing configuration of the Neogene basins in SE Spain between 6.4 and 5.2

Ma. Fault patterns and fault kinematically restored position of fault blocks after Coppier et al. (1990). Map 1 shows the approximate basin

contours at the onset of late Abad time when the Cantera reefs started to fringe the basin margin. In Yesares time (map 2), evaporites

accumulated in the deeper parts and in the course of this episode faulting along the northern margin of Sierra Alhamilla and continuing eastward

caused initial uplift in the present Sierra Cabrera area. As a result, erosion and reworking of evaporites into the now separately evolving Nijar

Basin took place. Map 3 shows the maximum distribution of hyposaline Lago–Mare distribution for the Sorbas Basin based on Mather (2001).

Indicated are transport directions and areas where evaporite dissolution, collapse and subsequent lateral transport took place. Map 4 depicts the

basin configuration shortly after the early Pliocene flooding. Open marine strata were deposited in the central parts of the Nijar, Vera and Agua

Amarga basins. Increased activity took place along the Carbonera fault zone together with regional uplift responsible for considerable shoaling

in the course of the Pliocene. Sierra Cabrera only then gradually obtained its modern topography and the seaway between the Agua Amarga and

Nijar basins was closed.


the Sorbas–Nijar corridor in the Polopos area (Ma-

ther, 1993a,b, 2001) indicate that the NW Nijar Basin

was still connected to the Sorbas Basin during the

latest Messinian–Early Pliocene, despite tectonic

activity occurring along the Sierra Alhamilla–Sierra

Cabrera faults (Fig. 3). The post-evaporitic continental

unit of the Sorbas Basin (Zorreras Member) contains

only two brackish Lago–Mare incursions (Ott d’Es-

tevou, 1980) on a total of eight sedimentary cycles of

alternating reddish silts and yellowish sands (Krijgs-

man et al., 2001). This suggests that only the highest

Lago–Mare water levels were able to penetrate into

the Sorbas Basin, leaving the latter basin dominantly

continental. Such a scenario also fits well with the

decreasing significance of the Lago–Mare facies to

the northwestern margin of the Nijar Basin. Hence,

the number of cycles in the Zorreras Member corre-

lates very well with the eight sedimentary cycles of

the Feos Formation. This strongly suggests that the

Zorreas Member (excluded its Pliocene top bed) and

the Feos Formation are lateral equivalents. Details of

syn-Zorreras facies distribution are given by Mather

(2001), who explains the Zorreras lacustrine incur-

sions in the Sorbas Basin as a result of variations in

the overall vertical uplift. Climatologically con-

strained shifts in the position of the coastline, how-

ever, seem more likely, especially regarding the

Lago–Mare lake-level fluctuations. The large a-

mounts of reworked Alpujarrid basement schists,

quartsites and older basinal deposits can be explained

as a result of periodically falling base level. The

indications for seismic shocks or the changes in the

overall direction of sediment transport from SE to S–

SSW orientations suggest that next to periodic evap-

orative drawdown also tectonic uplift of Sierra Cab-

rera must have played a role. In general, differential

uplift of the two basins is the most logical explanation

for the more continental character of the Zorreras

deposits of the Sorbas Basin.

At the onset of the Early Pliocene transgression,

the Nijar Basin became again an open marine basin in

which thick marine successions were widely depos-

ited (Fig. 12.4). The marine Pliocene in the Sorbas

Basin, however, is restricted to a 1 m thin veneer of

shallow marine sands (Ott d’Estevou, 1980) followed

by exclusively fluvial strata. Comparison of the topo-

graphic position of the basal Pliocene in both basins N

and S of Sierra Cabrera also suggests ongoing differ-

ential uplift. The oldest shallow marine Pliocene of

the Sorbas Basin (as observed at Cortijo El Cerro

Colorado) is presently elevated 450 m and with a

paleobathymetry not exceeding 20 m, this indicates a

minimum average rate of Plio–Quaternary uplift of

f 90 mm/ka. In contrast, the basal Pliocene of the

Nijar Basin (around Gafares) was deposited at 100–

150-m depth (outer shelf depths, Van de Poel, 1992)

and with a present elevation of f 250 m, the average

rate of Plio–Quaternary uplift has been in the order of

70 mm/ka.

The gradual emergence of both Nijar and Sorbas

basins was caused by regional uplift, which probably

also controlled the lateral variations in depositional

environment of the latest Messinian. An important

W–E change can be noted in the composition of the

lithoclasts of the Feos Formation, which indicates

supply from different sediment sources. This is fur-

thermore supported by paleocurrent measurements

indicating SE transport directions near the western

basin margin, S directions in the intermediate sections

and W to SW directed transport in the east. The Feos

Formation is not (or only poorly) developed east of

the Carboneras Fault. There, the basal Pliocene

directly overlies float breccias of collapsed and trans-

ported evaporitic Yesares strata. The entry of volcani-

clastics in the Feos Formation at the easternmost part

of the study area strongly suggests supply from the

‘incoming’ and uprising Cabo de Gata block, thus for

the first time demonstrating uplift along the Carbone-

ras fault.

Faulting and anticlinal warping in the Sierra Cab-

rera area had gradually cutoff the mutual passages

between the Nijar and Sorbas basins during the

Pliocene–Quaternary. Nowadays, the Rambla de

Lucainena, Rio Alias and Arroyo Gafares drainage

systems are transverse systems crossing this topo-

graphic high, initiated in Early Pliocene time after

definitive withdrawal of the sea from the Sorbas Basin

(Mather, 1993b). With regard to the Late Messinan

episodes of considerably shifting coastlines, however,

we suggest that the initial drainage pattern already

developed in Late Messinian time prior to the main

uplift of Sierra Cabrera. Tectonic uplift of Sierra

Cabrera is interpreted to have also played a role in

the formation of the angular unconformity separating

the Yesares and Feos Formations in the western part

of the study area. Ongoing tectonic activity is fur-


thermore required to explain the position of the Early

Pliocene deposits which not only overlie the Feos

formation unconformably towards the western basin

margin but also towards the Serrata strike-slip fault

zone. The study area therefore can be reconstructed

using the base of the Pliocene as a datum level (Fig.

11). Compared to the WSW and ENE margins, the

central parts underwent net subsidence which resulted

in ongoing sedimentation and deposition of a fairly, if

not most complete, record of Late Messinian deposi-

tional environments with a high potential for compar-

ison with other Late Messinian successions.

7. Discussion

The Nijar Basin contains one of the most complete

land-based Messinian successions of the Mediterra-

nean mainly because tectonic uplift of the surrounding

basement complexes during the MSC has protected its

sediments from vigorous erosion. Consequently, the

Nijar Basin became a semi-enclosed basin during the

latest Messinian in which a substantial body of

evaporites and post-evaporitic deposits has accumu-

lated despite drastic changes in environment and

water level. The Nijar Basin has occupied a less

restricted position than the neighbouring and well-

studied Sorbas Basin, and as such, these sediments are

very suitable to increase our understanding of Late

Messinian paleoceanographic changes.

7.1. Chronology

Late Miocene sedimentation in the Nijar Basin

started with deposition of the Azagador Member, a

transgressive unit of mixed bio-siliciclastics. Biostrati-

graphic data indicate that the Azagador Member is

entirely of Late Tortonian age, but more accurate age

constraints are not available. The Azagador/Abad

transition straddles the Tortonian/Messinian boundary

as the first regular occurrence of the G. miotumida

group is observed in the basal part of the Abad marls

(Sierro et al., 2001). Time control for the Abad

Member has recently been considerably improved

by magnetostratigraphic, biostratigraphic and espe-

cially cyclostratigraphic dating (Gautier et al., 1994;

Krijgsman et al., 1999; Sierro et al., 2001). A high-

resolution integrated stratigraphy has been developed

for the Abad marls, based on numerous sections in

both the Nijar and Sorbas basins (Sierro et al., 2001).

Astronomical tuning of the sedimentary cyclicity of

the Abad marls to the insulation curve has provided

very accurate and reliable ages for all sedimentary

cycles and allows an unambiguous bed-to-bed corre-

lation to other astronomically dated sections in the

Mediterranean. The resulting astrochronological age

for the base of the Abad Member is 7.24 Ma, while

the transition from ‘‘Lower Abad’’ to ‘‘Upper Abad’’

arrived at 6.70 Ma (Krijgsman et al., 1999; Sierro et

al., 2001).

Astrochronology furthermore revealed that the

onset of evaporite precipitation in the Nijar Basin

took place at an age of 5.96 Ma, approximately four

cycles above paleomagnetic reversal C3An.1n, syn-

chronous with the Sorbas Basin and other astronom-

ically dated sections of both west and east

Mediterranean basins (Krijgsman et al., 1999, 2001,

2002). Biostratigraphic and magnetostratigraphic

techniques are, however, not very useful for dating

the latest Messinian sequences of the Messinian

Salinity Crisis because these are confined to a single

magnetic chron and lack age diagnostic planktonic

foraminifera. As a consequence, we will have to rely

on cyclostratigraphic (and radiometric) data to derive

age constraints for the top of the Yesares and the end

of marine sedimentation in the Nijar Basin. Cyclo-

stratigraphic studies of the Yesares Formation in the

Nijar Basin are, however, complicated by the consid-

erable lateral changes, the erosional unconformities,

the common dissolution and collapse phenomena and

the various diagenetic alterations. Sections W and E of

Gafares are probably the best candidates to establish a

complete cyclostratigraphic framework for the Yes-

ares Formation in the future, but they will require an

additional very detailed geochemical or sediment

petrological study. Field evidence from both the

Sorbas and Nijar basins indicates that the marl–

sapropel cycles of the ‘‘Upper Abad’’ are at their

top replaced by gypsum–sapropel cycles of the Yes-

ares, indicating that the evaporite cyclicity is related to

astronomical (precession) controlled oscillations in

(circum) Mediterranean climate as well. Unfortu-

nately, the tuning of the Yesares cycles to the astro-

nomical curves was less straightforward because

characteristic cycle patterns could not be resolved.

Upward calibration of the gypsum cycles resulted in


an age of 5.67 Ma for the top of the Yesares (Krijgs-

man et al., 2001). The recognition of sedimentary

cycles in the Sorbas Member is even more compli-

cated as deposition took place in a highly dynamic

near-coastal environment, although 3–4 distinct

shoaling-up sequences are present (Roep et al.,

1998). Nevertheless, a best estimate for the end of

marine sedimentation in the Sorbas Basin was derived

at an age between 5.60 and 5.54 Ma (Krijgsman et al.,

2001). Based on our paleogeographic reconstructions,

which show a similar evolution of the Sorbas and

Nijar basins during the latest Messinian, we can

confidently assume that these age constraints are also

valid for the Nijar Basin.

The latest Messinian Feos Member includes eight

sedimentary cycles (including the first LM interval

just below this unit) which are interpreted as ‘‘wet–

dry’’ alternations. This number agrees well with the

eight sedimentary cycles that are present in the Zor-

reras Formation of the Sorbas Basin, in the ‘‘Upper

Evaporites’’ of the Caltanissetta Basin in Sicily and in

the Colombacci Formation of the Northern Apennines

(Decima and Wezel, 1973; Colalongo et al., 1976;

Rouchy, 1976; Krijgsman et al., 2001). It suggests that

these units, which all contain the characteristic Lago–

Mare facies, are deposited in the same time interval

bounded by Mediterranean-wide events. The upper

boundary is clearly related to the reestablishment of

marine conditions in the Mediterranean during the

Pliocene flooding, which is astronomically dated to

have occurred at an age of 5.33 Ma (Lourens et al.,

1996). The age estimate of 5.60–5.54 Ma for the base

of the Feos is in good agreement with Ar/Ar ages of

5.40F 0.06 and 5.51F 0.05 Ma for the volcanic ash

layer at the base of post-evaporitic unit in the North-

ern Apennines (Odin et al., 1997). Hence, it can be

concluded that the sedimentary cyclicity in the Feos

Member is dominantly related to circum-Mediterra-

nean climate changes driven by changes in the Earth’s

precession. This results in a total duration of approx-

imately 175 ky for the post-evaporitic unit in the Nijar

Basin.

7.2. Yesares formation in a Mediterranean context

Messinian astrochronology suggests that the onset

of evaporite precipitation during the MSC was per-

fectly synchronous over the entire Mediterranean

basin and therefore independent of the paleogeo-

graphic and geodynamic setting of the individual

basins (Krijgsman et al., 1999). During Late Messi-

nian times, the Nijar Basin was still connected to the

Mediterranean in the east and to the Sorbas Basin

through on open marine gateway over the present

Sierra Cabrera Massif. Consequently, the onset of the

massive primary evaporites of the basal Yesares For-

mation in Nijar is synchronous with the Mediterra-

nean-wide onset of the MSC as also shown by

astronomical tuning of the underlying Abad marls

(Sierro et al., 2001). The evaporitic succession of

the Yesares Formation progressively wedges out

towards the basin margin where it merges into a

chaotic mass where collapse and sliding took place,

including deposits of the Oolite Member. The pres-

ence of stromatolites, thrombolites and Porites blocks

points to similarity of TCC successions in the Nijar

area and Sorbas Basin (Riding et al., 1991b). In the

Sorbas Basin, not only a lateral relationship has been

shown to exist between oolites and part of the gypsum

(Conesa et al., 1999) but also with the Sorbas Member

(Dabrio and Polo, 1995; Roep et al., 1998). This

suggests that the TCC unit is indeed the lateral,

marginal, equivalent of the Yesares evaporites and

the Mediterranean ‘‘Lower Evaporites’’ and not as

originally defined on Mallorca as the lateral equiva-

lent of the ‘‘Upper Evaporites’’ (Esteban et al., 1977;

Esteban, 1979; Dronkert, 1985). Magnetostratigraphic

and radiometric dating of other TCC units in the

Alboran domain also agree with this older age. In

the Cabo de Gata region of southeast Spain (Franseen

et al., 1998; Montgomery et al., 2001) and in the

Melilla Basin of northeast Morocco (Cunningham et

al., 1994), the base of the TCC was magnetostrati-

graphically determined to occur slightly above the top

of the normal chron C3An.1n which corresponds to an

age slightly younger than 6 Ma (recalibrated to the

latest time scale). In addition, radiometric datings on a

volcanic ash layer slightly below the base of the TCC

in Melilla give Ar/Ar ages of 5.95F 0.10 Ma (Cun-

ningham et al., 1996) and recalculated as 6.01F 0.10

Ma by Munch et al. (2001).

Dissolution-affected successions are a very charac-

teristic feature of the Yesares Formation of the Nijar

Basin. Dissolution is mainly restricted to the basin

margin and to some local occurrences in the basin

centre; an archetype of these is the exposure along


Arroyo Gafares (Fig. 6). Because the latter occurren-

ces are directly overlain by intervals with first evi-

dence for at least temporary presence of brackish

water mass in the basin, this dissolution event can

be linked to fundamental changes in the hydrologic

budget. Such changes are in agreement with dolomi-

tization studies in the Nijar marginal reef deposits

showing that most dolomitization occurred during and

possibly after TCC deposition but before the Pliocene

during multiple sealevel changes (Meyers et al., 1997;

Lu and Meyers, 1998). Circulation of Mg through the

platform rocks was primarily driven by buoyant

circulation of the mixing zone beneath freshwater

lenses. Field observations show that evaporite disso-

lution is a less common feature in the Sorbas Basin,

where it is only locally concentrated at the southern

margin. A solution for this striking difference could be

the more restricted Late Messinian character of this

basin, with only partial flooding by hypohaline Lago–

Mare waters.

In general, the MSC shows an overall effect of

increasing isolation of the Mediterranean culminating

with deposition of the Lago–Mare facies. Therefore,

it is most logical to expect maximum draw down

during intervals of total isolation, which is during

Lago–Mare time. The exact age for the end of open

marine sedimentation in the Nijar Basin and hence in

the Mediterranean is, however, still uncertain. Astro-

nomical tuning of the upper part of the marine

sequences is hampered both in the Nijar and Sorbas

basins by the presence of less suitable sediments.

Moreover, we cannot neglect the influence of obliq-

uity forcing for this specific time interval, which

corresponds to a minimum in the f 400 ky eccen-

tricity cycle (Krijgsman et al., 2001). Nevertheless,

our best estimates for the end of marine sedimentation

arrive between 5.60 and 5.54 Ma. This is in agreement

with recent Ar/Ar ages from the Melilla Basin which

indicate that no major sea-level fall took place before

5.77 Ma (Cornee et al., 2002).

7.3. Feos regressive–transgressive cyclicity

In earlier studies, Mediterranean-wide evidence has

been gathered indicating a Late Messinian episode

with strongly lowered base-level and associated scour-

ing of deep channels and other erosion phenomena,

causing a prolonged disturbance of the natural equi-

librium between erosion and deposition (Delrieu et al.,

1993; Clauzon et al., 1996; Cita et al., 1999). Our

sedimentary observations on the Feos record, how-

ever, suggest that the overwhelming erosional effects

in places of much sediment bypass must have been

caused by repetitions of large, but relatively short,

base level fluctuations. Together with strongly re-

stricted oceanic connections, precession-controlled

periods of alternating relatively dry (negative water-

balance) and relatively wet (positive water balance)

conditions dominantly determine the Upper Messinian

sedimentary patterns. Due to differential uplift from

the end of the Yesares evaporitic episode onwards, the

Nijar Basin became in a less restricted position with

regard to open connections to the Mediterranean than

the neighbouring Sorbas Basin. Consequently, the

Nijar successions have a more pronounced Lago–

Mare facies and therefore provide an even better

Upper Messinian record.

One of the most interesting aspects of the Feos

Formation is the cyclic arrangement of offshore

Lago–Mare laminites and continental strata. This

pattern is similar to some lacustrine series in which

fluctuating lake levels are controlled by climatic

oscillations causing rapid transgressive–regressive

sequences. The lack of coastal barrier development

and the evidence for sudden drowning of the con-

tinental environment also fits in this analogy. Initially,

brackish waters and hypersaline intervals alternated,

whereas the basin floor fell dry later. These changes

suggest an increase in the fluctuation of water level

draw down. This is also indicated by reconstructed

relative sea level fluctuations just before the onset of

the Lago–Mare episode. During deposition of the

Sorbas Member (Roep et al., 1998), respectively the

TCC of the Cabo de Gata massif (Franseen et al.,

1998), sea level fluctuations were estimated to have

been in the order of up to 30 m. In the Nijar Basin, the

Lago–Mare water levels must have fluctuated over at

least 100 m/cycle when compared to the conformably

overlying Early Pliocene strata, which reflect deposi-

tion in open marine waters of at least 100-m depth.

The Feos water level fluctuations may have been

much smaller in case the average Lago–Mare water

levels were far under normal sealevel. Field data,

however, suggest that this was not necessarily true.

The presence of Lago–Mare facies along the NW

basin margin (at equal altitude and on top of TCC


oolites) indicates that Lago–Mare water levels at least

temporarily could equal previous sea levels. This is

especially interesting because data from the eastern

Mediterranean suggest the presence of lakes below the

world sea level (Orszag-Sperber et al., 2000). If true,

the Lago–Mare time might have been an episode of

enormously shifting coastlines caused by the waxing

and waning water supply. In addition, the strontium

isotope composition of Upper Messinian sequences in

central Sicily (Keogh and Butler, 1999) and west

Mediterranean basins (Tyrrenian Sea, Muller et al.,

1990; Vera Basin, Fortuin et al., 1995) is indistin-

guishable regardless of salinity, but different from

coeval oceanic water masses. This implies that the

local basins must have been linked to a main Medi-

terranean water mass that was isolated from the out-

side world. In theory, the oceanic gateways could be

temporarily flooded during periods of maximum sea

level and maximum continental runoff, automatically

reestablishing short-living connections. Such connec-

tions might also explain the sparse indications for

open marine microfaunas at the top of the Feos unit in

the Nijar Basin and elsewhere in the Mediterranean

(Spezzaferri, 1998; Iaccarino and Bossio, 1999).

However, reworking of the unstable Upper Messinan

sediments remains a factor not to be neglected.

7.4. Comparison with east Mediterranean basins

With more and more evidence indicating that not

only the beginning but also the end of the MSC were

pan-Mediterranean synchronous events (Di Stefano et

al., 1999; Iaccarino et al., 1999; Krijgsman et al.,

1999; Sierro et al., 2001; Krijgsman et al., 2002), it is

interesting to note that indeed striking similarities

exist between comparable east and west Mediterra-

nean successions. Especially, the Pissouri Basin of

Cyprus (Rouchy et al., 2001) is well comparable as it

too was moderately deep due to its position close to a

gradually rising hinterland and at the same time

connected to the offshore Mediterranean. Both the

Nijar and Pissouri successions show (1) an upward

transition from precipitated evaporites to reworked

evaporites. (2) Erosion and dissolution (including

the local formation of olistostrome like megabreccias)

affected the evaporites, which in both basins can be

attributed to the transition to oligohaline intervals. (3)

The basal Lago–Mare intervals still alternate with

hypersaline periods before these were replaced by

continental intervals. (4) Where conformable Mes-

sinan–Pliocene transitions can be found, it appears

that the Pliocene flooding occurred above a continen-

tal episode.

7.5. Pliocene transgression

Many new and unambiguous data indicate that the

flooding plus re-colonisation of the Mediterranean

basin floors by normal marine benthic organisms at

the base of the Pliocene was an abrupt and synchro-

nous pan-Mediterranean event (Di Stefano et al.,

1999; Iaccarino et al., 1999). Because the conform-

able Messinian–Pliocene transitions in the study area

are razor sharp, following above a continental inter-

val, we conclude that (a) flooding occurred almost

instantaneously, as also concluded by Pierre et al.

(1998) and Iaccarino et al. (1999) for other basins and

(b) that flooding terminated a relatively thin continen-

tal interval, which means that it concluded a relatively

dry period with lowered water levels.

8. Conclusions

During the Messinian, the existing open marine

connections between the Sorbas, Vera and Nijar

basins became progressively blocked (Fig. 12). All

three basins provide a gradually deviating, but well-

known record of the Messinian Salinity Crisis. The

Yesares and especially the Feos Formation of the Nijar

Basin provides important information concerning sig-

nificant, precession-controlled, base-level fluctua-

tions. The first oligohaline conditions, characteristic

of the Lago–Mare facies, occurred prior to the last

occurrence of evaporitic strata. Reworking of evapor-

ites in these intervals points both to strongly fluctuat-

ing base level and tectonic changes, related to uplift of

Sierra Cabrera, a massif nowadays separating the

Sorbas, Vera and Nijar basins. The Yesares succes-

sions of the Nijar Basin indicate that the turnover to

brackish environments initiated in various places,

especially near the basin margin, evaporite dissolu-

tion. Dissolution and collapse were able to trigger

localized sliding and slumping of stratal packets and

created olistostrome-like mass movement along tec-

tonically active faultzones in the NW of the basin.


Sedimentological and cyclostratigraphical studies

on the Feos Formation indicate the presence of eight

precession cycles including hypohaline Lago–Mare

deposits, while the uppermost four include continental

deposits. These cycles can directly be correlated with

the Zorreras Member in the adjoining Sorbas Basin

and have been dated astrochronologically as deposited

between 5.52 and 5.33 Ma. During episodes of

strongly positive water budget, the Lago–Mare level

could reach the same position as the Yesares sea level

before, but water levels may have been considerably

lower during the continental phases. Correlation with

coeval strata in the Sorbas Basin, at that time, a more

elevated basin where only two Lago–Mare intervals

are developed, indicates that only the highest water

levels could still invade this basin. The sudden return

to open marine conditions at the onset of the Pliocene

closed such a continental episode of lowered water

level. Concerning the overall regional tectonic activ-

ity, tectonics were probably instrumental in the resto-

ration of an Atlantic gateway.

Strong similarities with other circum-Mediterra-

nean onshore basins substantiate the indications that

the transition to the Lago–Mare facies marks a pan-

Mediterranean event governed by precession-induced

changes in the subtle balance between dominantly

precipitation or evaporation in a largely isolated

Mediterranean. Finally, we conclude that instead of

one major downdrop event, it might have been the

repeatedly fluctuating water level during this latest

Messinian period which caused the widely reported

effects of locally vigorous erosion above the ‘‘Lower

Evaporites’’.

Acknowledgements

This paper is dedicated to the late Th. B. Roep,

with whom the senior author started the field

investigations. Especially former MSc. students

Frans-Bart Cornelisse, Arjan van Doorn, Eelco Felser

and Karin van der Zel are thanked for their

contribution to unravel parts of local Messinian

mysteries. Discussions in the field with colleagues

T. Geel, C. Dabrio, C. Taberner and W.J. Zachariasse

and constructive remarks by the reviewers J.M.

Rouchy and J.P. Saint Martin were greatly appreci-

ated. Technical and artistic assistance was provided by

S. Kars (SEM), M. Konert (sediment lab), H.A. Sion

and N. Schaefers (drafting). This work was conducted

under the programme of the Netherlands School of

Geosciences (NSG; paper nr 20021001) and the

Vening Meinesz Research School of Geodynamics

(VMSG). WK acknowledges financial support from

the Dutch research center for Integrated Solid Earth

Sciences (ISES).

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