The Metis Cultural Brokers and the WesternNumbered Treaties, 1869-1877

A Thesis Submitted to the College ofGraduate Studies and Research in

Partial Fulfillment of the Requirementsfor the Degree of Master of Arts in the

Department of History

University of SaskatchewanSaskatoon

By Allyson Stevenson

Copyright Allyson Stevenson, August 2004 .

1 rights reserved .

PERMISSION TO USE

In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements of a Graduatedegree from the University of Saskatchewan, I agree that the Libraries of this Universitymay make it freely available for inspection . I further agree that permission for copyingof this thesis in any manner, in whole or in part, for scholarly purposes may be grantedby the professor who supervised my thesis work, or, in his absence, by the Head of theDepartment or the Dean of the College in which my thesis work was done . It isunderstood that any copying, publication, or use of this thesis or parts thereof forfinancial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission . It is also understoodthat due recognition shall be given to me and to the University of Saskatchewan in anyscholarly use which may be made of any material in my thesis .

Requests for permission to copy or to make other use of material in this thesis inwhole or part should be addressed to :

Head of the Department of HistoryUniversity of SaskatchewanSaskatoon, SaskatchewanS7N 5A5

Abstract

Throughout the history of the North West, Metis i people frequently used their

knowledge of European, Indian, and Metis culture to mediate Aboriginal and non-

Aboriginal social, diplomatic, and economic encounters . Though acknowledged in

Metis historiography, this aspect of Metis identity has not been the focus of scholarly

analysis, which has primarily centred on Louis Riel, Metis resistance, and ethnogenesis .

By closely examining the primary documents, it is evident that the Metis interpreters

present at Treaties 1 through 7 were more than merely translators . Prior to negotiations

these Metis had interacted with First Nations in a variety of ways, whether in the fur

trade or in missionary endeavours . Metis people were well versed in Aboriginal

language and cultural traditions, skills they had employed successfully in Rupert's

Land prior to 1870 .

n drawing upon this amicable relationship between Metis and First Nations,

Canadian officials n the North West recognized the positive effect of personal

diplomacy on securing First Nations signatures to the treaty documents . In this thesis

many examples will demonstrate that the actions of Metis people were critical in

preventing violence between groups, thereby enabling the treaty process to begin . These

Metis individuals moved within a middle ground of context that developed in the era

' In this paper the term Metis includes both English- and French-speaking mixed-bloods . I have chosenthis term to represent the cultural, not political, similarity of the mixed-blood people .

prior to the 1870's, thus indicating a measure of continuity between the pre- and post

transition period in the Canadian West .

111

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to acknowledge the assistance I received from the teachers in theDepartment of History and Metis researchers who so kindly provided direction andsuggestions at every step along the way . In particular I would like to thank Dr . JimMiller for the unwavering support he has always been willing to provide . I am alsograteful for the help of Darren Prefontaine at the Gabriel Dumont Institute for answeringmy questions at the outset of this undertaking . In addition, the financial assistancesupplied by the Master of Arts Scholarship in Native-Newcomer History enabled me tocontinue my research, and for that I am thankful .

I must also thank the members of my family who gave me the strength, love, andsupport I needed to carry out my research . I dedicate this thesis to them .

iv

Chapter 3. A BIOGRAPHICAL ANALYSIS OF THEMETIS INTERPRETERS

34

Chapter 4. BROKERING A RELATIONSHIP : METIS

Bibliograpby

Table of Contents

DIPLOMATS IN THE 1870'S 65

Chapter 5. THE METIS AT THE NUMBERED104TREATIES

Co clusion 147

Abstract

Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION 1

Chapter 2. METIS ORIGINS IN THE WEST 21

List of Tables

Table 1 . William McKay's Mission

102

Table 2 . Metis Signatories and Interpreters of the NumberedTreaties

139

Figure 6. The `49`h Rangers,' Metis Scouts for the Boundary

vii

List of Illustrations

Figure 1 . The `Young McKay,' 1857 37

Figure 2. The Honourable James McKay, 1870 39

Figure 3. Deer Lodge, Home of the McKayFamily 41

Figure 4. Pascal Breland 50

Figure 5. William McKay 50

Commission 96

Figure 7. The Numbered Treaties 107

Figure 8 . Treaty 6 Negotiations at Fort Carlton 122

Figure 9 . Trea 1, The Stone Fort Treaty 133

Chapter 1. Introduction

They have been the ambassadors between the East and theWest; the interpreters of civilization and its exigencies tothe dwellers on the prairie as well as the exponents to thewhite men of the consideration justly due to thesusceptibilities, the sensitive self-respect, the prejudices,the innate craving for justice, of the Indian race .

The emergence of a distinct people in the West, the Metis, is hailed by

observers as a fascinating aspect of North American history and draws attention from

scholars and laymen especially in light of the constitutional amendment including the

Metis as one of Canada's Aboriginal peoples . 2 Though neglected for many years, there

is currently a great deal of interest in Metis history, principally in studies examining the

experiences of various Metis communities within Canada and the emergence of a unique

Metis identity . One area of Metis history that has received little attention is the

involvement of the Metis in the numbered treaties signed in the 1870's .

Though perhaps neglected, further investigation has revealed that there is

substantial evidence to suggest that the Metis were present large numbers at the

negotiations and indeed played a significant role . Even more striking is the evidence

de

s tes that the Metis frequently acted on behalf of the government

commissioners by using their knowledge of First Nations diplomacy to create a bridge

1 Alexander Morris, The Treaties of Canadathe Indians of Manitoba and the North-West Territories(Calgary: Fifth House, 1991) 294.2 The 1982 Constitutional amendment defined aboriginal peoples as "Indian, Inuit, and Metis," andguaranteed, "The existing Aboriginal and treaty rights ofthe Aboriginal people ofCanada are herebyrecognized and affirmed ." J .R.Miller. Skyscrapers Hide the Heavens: A History of Indian-White Relationsin Canada 3rd ed. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2000) 350 .

between the new officials and Indian people . This role was critical to the success of the

treaties and the establishment of Canadian hegemony in the North West .

Prior to 1870, First Nations and Metis people shared a common land, aspects of

a common heritage, and longstanding economic and social relations . As co-residents of

the Prairies, both Aboriginal groups had an interest in Canadian government policy

regarding Aboriginal title. Surprisingly, few studies manage to incorporate both Indian

and Metis history, perhaps because unlike the Indian people, the Metis did not sign

treaties and therefore did not have an official relationship with the Federal Government

until the 1982 amendment . Metis involvement as interpreters, diplomats, and witnesses

at the numbered treaties demonstrates the Metis played a crit cal role in forging a

relationship between the First Nations and Canadian government . As participants in the

process of treaty negotiation, they should be included in any underst anding of the treaty-

making process in the North West .

Through examining both primary and secondary sources, it is clear that Metis

involvement in the treaties was not limited to the translation of negotiations and

agreements. In addition, the Metis were government diplomats, providing presents to

bands of First Nations prior to treatymaking, establishing the good will of the Canadian

government, and engaging in discussions with the Indi leaders as to the nature of

Canadian intentions. To better understand the actions of these Metis, this thesis will

examine the nature of Metis identity, uncover the interpreters' relationship to parties

involved in treaty negotiation, and finally determine Nether these actors in treaty

negotiation in order to gain better terms for First Nations, the government, or

themselves and others belonging to the Metis community .

Alexander Morris, Lieutenant-Governor of Manitoba and the North-West

Territories from 1872-1876 negotiated treaties 3, 4, 5, and 6 and revised treaties I and

2. 3 In 1880 he published The Treaties of Canada with the Indians of Manitoba and the

North-West Territories, which includes previous colonial treaties and materials relating

to the numbered treaties . The book is one of the principal resources for any study of the

numbered treaties, but must be critically evaluated alongside additional sources . The

majority of the evidence of Metis involvement in the treaties comes from The Treaties of

Canada.

Morris, as Lieutenant-Governor of th