the mollusks: a guide to their study, collection, and preservation

8/14/2019 The Mollusks: A Guide to Their Study, Collection, and Preservation

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The MollusksA Guide to Their Study,

Collection, and Preservation

Edited byCharles F. Sturm

Timothy A. Pearcengel Valds

A Publication of the American Malacological SocietyLos Angeles and Pittsburgh

Universal PublishersBoca Raton, Florida

USA 2006


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The Mollusks: A Guide to Their Study, Collection, and Preservation

Copyright 2006 American Malacological Society

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, ortransmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or other-

wise without the prior permission of the copyright owner.

Acknowledgment of permission to use copyrighted material:Carl Zeiss, Germany: Figure 7.1Eastman Kodak Company: Figure 7.4A. & C. Black, London: Figure 19.2Daniel Geiger: Figures 20.1 and 20.3Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History: Figures 27.1-27.9

Acknowledgment of permission to use non-copyrighted material:David Mulliner: Figure 3.1Illinois Natural History Survey: Figure 25.1The Festivus, San Diego Shell Club: Figure 24.4

This volume should be cited as follows:Sturm, C. F., T. A. Pearce, and A. Valds. 2006. The Mollusks: A Guide to Their Study, Collection, andPreservation. American Malacological Society, Pittsburgh, PA, U.S.A. Pp. xii + 445.

Chapters should be cited as based on the following example:Sturm, C. F., T. A. Pearce, and A. Valds. 2006. Chapter 1. The Mollusks: Introductory Comments.In:C. F. Sturm, T. A. Pearce, and A. Valds, eds., The Mollusks: A Guide to Their Study, Collection, andPreservation. American Malacological Society, Pittsburgh, PA., U.S.A. Pp. 1-7.

Universal PublishersBoca Raton, FloridaUSA 2006ISBN: 1-58112-930-0 (paperback)ISBN: 1-58112-931-9 (ebook)

Universal-Publishers.com

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

The mollusks : a guide to their study, collection, and preservation / edited by Charles F. Sturm, Timothy

A. Pearce, ngel Valds. p. cm. ISBN 1-58112-930-0 (pbk. : alk. paper) -- ISBN 1-58112-931-9 (ebook) 1. Mollusks--Collection and preservation. 2. Mollusks--Study and teaching. I. Sturm, Charles, F. 1953-II. Pearce, Timothy A., 1954- III. Valds, ngel. QL406.5.M65 2006 594.075--dc22 2006016238


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vii

Preface

This volume promotes the educational mission of the American Malacological Society. The editorsand contributors have brought together a broad range of topics within the field of malacology. It is ourexpectation that these topics will be of interest and use to amateur and professional malacologists.

The chapters in this publication have been peer-reviewed. Each chapter was reviewed by at least oneof the editors and by a minimum of two outside reviewers, including at least one amateur and oneprofessional malacologist. Chapters were then revised by authors and again reviewed by the editors,and occasionally, when warranted, by another outside reviewer. Then authors made a second round ofchanges and editors conducted a final review. While this review process has eliminated some errors andinconsistencies, some may remain.

If anyone does uncover any error or inconsistency in formatting, grammar, or style, the editors wouldappreciate it being brought to their attention. Constructive suggestions for improving this volume arewelcome. Comments can be sent to the editors at . Website addresses, cited inthis book, were active as of December 2005.

C. F. Sturm T. A. Pearce A. Valds


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Table of Contents

Frontispiece ............................................................................................................................................. iiPreface...................................................................................................................................................viiTable of Contents ................................................................................................................................... ix1 The Mollusks: Introductory Comments ............................................................................................ 1

2 Field and Laboratory Methods in Malacology .................................................................................. 93 Remote Bottom Collecting .............................................................................................................. 334 Snorkeling and SCUBA Diving ...................................................................................................... 415 Archival and Curatorial Methods .................................................................................................... 456 Digital Imaging: Flatbed Scanners and Digital Cameras ................................................................ 597 Applied Film Photography in Systematic Malacology ................................................................... 738 Computerizing Shell Collections .................................................................................................. 1019 The Molluscan Literature: Geographic and Taxonomic Works .................................................... 11110 Taxonomy and Taxonomic Writing: A Primer ............................................................................... 14711 Cladistics and Molecular Techniques: A Primer ........................................................................... 16112 Organizations, Meetings, and Malacology .................................................................................... 173

13 Museums and Malacology ............................................................................................................ 18114 Donating Amateur Collections to Museums ................................................................................. 18915 Fossil Mollusks ............................................................................................................................. 19716 Aplacophora .................................................................................................................................. 20717 Monoplacophora ............................................................................................................................ 21118 Polyplacophora .............................................................................................................................. 21719 Scaphopoda: The Tusk Shells........................................................................................................ 22920 Cephalopoda .................................................................................................................................. 23921 Freshwater Gastropoda .................................................................................................................. 25122 Terrestrial Gastropoda ................................................................................................................... 26123 Rearing Terrestrial Gastropoda ..................................................................................................... 287

24 Marine Gastropoda ........................................................................................................................ 29525 Unionoida: Freshwater Mussels .................................................................................................... 31326 Non-Unionoid Freshwater Bivalvia .............................................................................................. 32727 Marine Bivalvia ............................................................................................................................. 33928 The Marine Aquarium: A Research Tool ....................................................................................... 34929 An Introduction to Shell-forming Marine Organisms ................................................................... 35930 Conservation and Extinction of the Freshwater Molluscan Fauna of North America .................. 37331 Issues in Marine Conservation ...................................................................................................... 385Appendices .......................................................................................................................................... 417Appendix 1: Morphological Features of Gastropod and Bivalve (Pelecypod) Shells ........................ 418Appendix 2: Expanded Table of Contents .......................................................................................... 427

Glossary .............................................................................................................................................. 441


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Contributors

When two addresses are listed for contributors, the first is their current address while the second is theinstitution where they were when they submitted the first draft of their chapter.

Frank E. Anderson

Chapter 20Department of ZoologySouthern Illinois UniversityCarbondale, IL

Patrick BakerChapter 31Department of Fisheries and Aquatic SciencesUniversity of FloridaGainesville, FL

B. R. Bales (1876-1946)Chapter 2

Arthur E. BoganChapters 25, 30Curator of Aquatic InvertebratesNorth Carolina Museum of Natural SciencesRaleigh, NC

Thomas A. Burch, MDChapter 3

Bremerton, WA

David CampbellChapters 11, 15University of AlabamaTuscaloosa, AL

Department of GeologyUniversity of North CarolinaChapel Hill, NC

Eugene V. Coan

Chapter 27Santa Barbara Museum of Natural HistorySanta Barbara, CA

Bobbi CordyChapter 4Merritt Island, FL

Jim Cordy

Chapter 4Merritt Island, FL

Clement L. Counts, IIIChapter 17Department of Natural SciencesUniversity of Maryland Eastern ShorePrincess Anne, MD

Kevin S. CummingsChapters 9, 25

Curator of MollusksIllinois Natural History SurveyCenter for BiodiversityChampaign, IL

Robert T. Dillon, Jr.Chapter 21Department of BiologyCollege of CharlestonCharleston, SC

Daniel L. GeigerChapters 7, 10, 24Research AssociateSanta Barbara Museum of Natural HistorySanta Barbara, CA

Luca M. GutirrezChapter 29Biloga Marina y Cientfica del Medio AmbienteGuatemala City, Guatemala

Environmental Protection Commission of Hills-

borough CountyTampa, FL

Alexei V. Korniushin (1962-2004)Chapter 26Institute of Zoology and Zoological MuseumThe National Academy of Sciences of UkraineKiev, Ukraine


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Ross MayhewChapter 2Schooner Specimen ShellsHalifax, Nova Scotia, Canada

Fabio Moretzsohn

Chapter 6Center for Coastal StudiesTexas A&M University - Corpus ChristiCorpus Christi, TX

Department of ZoologyUniversity of HawaiiHonolulu, HI

Aydin rstanChapters 22, 23Research Associate - Section of Mollusks

Carnegie Museum of Natural HistoryPittsburgh, PA

Timothy A. PearceChapters 1, 9, 14, 22, GlossaryCurator - Section of MollusksCarnegie Museum of Natural HistoryPittsburgh, PA

Delaware Museum of Natural HistoryWilmington, DE

Richard PetitChapter 9North Myrtle Beach, SC

Gary RosenbergChapter 8Chairman - Department of MalacologyAcademy of Natural SciencesPhiladelphia, PA

Patrick D. ReynoldsChapter 19Biology DepartmentHamilton CollegeClinton, NY

Amlie H. ScheltemaChapter 16Woods Hole Oceanographic InstitutionWoods Hole, MA

Enrico Schwabe

Chapter 9, 18Department MolluscaZoologische Staatssammlung MuenchenMunich, Germany

Charles F. SturmChapters 1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 12, 13, 28, GlossaryResearch Associate - Section of MollusksCarnegie Museum of Natural HistoryPittsburgh, PA

ngel ValdsChapter 1Associate Curator of MalacologyNatural History Museum of Los Angeles CountyLos Angeles, CA

Paul Valentich-ScottChapter 27Curator of MollusksSanta Barbara Museum of Natural HistorySanta Barbara, CA

Andreas WanningerChapters 9, 18Department of ZoomorphologyUniversity of CopenhagenCopenhagen, Denmark

Beatrice WinnerChapter 28North Palm Beach, FL


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C. F. Sturm, T. A. Pearce, and A. Valds. (Eds.) 2006. The Mollusks: A Guide to Their Study, Collection, and Preservation.American Malacological Society.

CHAPTER 1

THE MOLLUSKS: INTRODUCTORY COMMENTSCHARLES F. STURM

TIMOTHY A. PEARCENGEL VALDS

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Mollusks have been important to humans since our

earliest days. Initially, when humans were primarilyinterested in what they could eat or use, molluskswere important as food, ornaments, and materialsfor tools. Over the centuries, as human knowledgebranched out and individuals started to study theworld around them, mollusks were important sub-jects for learning how things worked.

Initially, nobility and the wealthy (or scientistswith wealthy patrons) carried out such studies onthe natural world. Later, in the 19thand 20thCen-

turies, a professional class of scientists developed.Governments and industry also started supportingscientists. Although in some fields, as professional-ism developed, non-professionals took a back seat;in contrast, non-professionals studying molluskshave consistently made important contributions.

Just as bird watchers contribute important ob-servations that allow professionals to study birdmigration and changes in populations, so amateursplay important roles to professional malacologists.

Amateurs can study the mollusks of a given regionover time and see what changes occur in responseto interactions with humans and natural forces. Themolluscan fauna is inadequately studied in manyareas; amateurs can study such areas. You may havethe opportunity to describe a new species. Whileamateurs may not have the resources for undertak-ing molecular studies, they might collaborate withprofessionals by providing samples. In addition,many molluscan families and genera have not been

subjected to a good revision in many decades. Anadvanced amateur could review the world literatureand summarize it into a well-researched revision-

ary work. Though this can be a daunting task, itcould be the culmination of years of demandingand painstaking work. While such a project maytake years or decades, if done correctly, it will be avaluable contribution to practicing malacologists.

This book is intended for three groups of people.The first and foremost is the amateur community.Amateur malacologists are those who study mol-lusks out of an avocational desire, in contrast to theprofessional who is employed or was trained as a

malacologist or biologist. Some amateurs may beclassified as paraprofessionals meaning that theirdepth of knowledge on a particular subject may be ata professional level, however, they may not have thebreadth of malacological knowledge that a profes-sional has. We hope that this book will give amateursthe guidance and skills to deepen their interest inmalacology and do so in a professional manner.

Another group of people for whom this book is in-tended is professional biologists, those individuals

whose work, at least in part, relates to mollusks. Thisgroup would include, among others, malacologistsand ecologists. The techniques outlined in this bookwill be of use to them in their work. If you are a bi-ologist, and have a need for an up-to-date referenceon mollusks, this book is for you. It will be of use tobiologists studying both fossil and recent mollusks.

The final group of people is biology students begin-ning their studies of mollusks. As with the above


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2 Introductory comments

groups of people, this book will help open up the fieldof malacology to them. It will provide students witha sourcebook that they can use in their studies.

The terms conchology and malacology need clari-

fication. Conchology has traditionally been thoughtof as the study of molluscan shells. Malacology is abroader term that includes the study of the animalthat made the shell in addition to the molluscanshell. In this book, we use the term malacology tomean the study of mollusks and malacologist todescribe anyone interested in mollusks, whethertheir interest is only the shell or the molluscan faunain the broadest sense.

What is a mollusk? Among the animals, Mollusca

are in a group called Spiralia or Protostomia, whichalso includes Annelids, Arthropods, and other smallphyla. The Spiralia, which make up more than 90%of all living multicellular animals, share severaldevelopmental features including spiral cleavageof blastomeres, formation of the mouth from theblastopore, and predictable cell fates such as allmesoderm being formed from the single cell 4d.The circumpharyngeal nerve ring is present in manySpiralia. Within the Spiralia, the group Eutrochozoaincludes the Mollusca, Annelida, and other small

phyla, which all share a trochophore larva (topshaped larva with an equatorial ciliated band anda dorsal cilia tuft), schizocoely (formation of bodycavities from multiple bilaterally paired masses ofmesoderm), and paired excretory organs and ductsthat open externally. Regarding the Mollusca them-selves, despite the wide diversity of body forms,the groups of animals we classify as Mollusca sharethe following unique features (Eernisse et al.1992,Haszprunar 2000):

radula (absent in Bivalvia) mantle capable of secreting a calcium carbonate-based shell or spicules

mantle cavity ctenidia (specialized gills having countercurrent

oxygen exchange) osphradia (chemosensory epithelial organs)

(absent in Monoplacophora and Scaphopoda) pericardium around the heart (not around heart

in Scaphopoda)

mesodermal origin of pericardioducts rhogocytes (pore cells) associated with the ne-

phridia (kidneys) tetraneury (two pairs of main longitudinal nerve

bundles)

intercrossing dorsoventral muscles crystalline style and associated ciliated midgut

digestive organs esophageal pouches broad creeping sole or narrow hydrostatic foot large ventral pedal glands that secrete mucus

Mollusks will share some or all of these charac-teristics. You may be unfamiliar with some of theterms used; many are defined in the glossary foundat the end of this book.

Mollusks first appeared at the end of the Pre-Cambrian. Many lineages of mollusks have diedout before Recent times. The living molluskscomprise the following classes: Solenogastresand Caudofoveata (together the Aplacophora),Monoplacophora, Polyplacophora, Scaphopoda,Cephalopoda, Gastropoda, and Bivalvia. Molluskscan be found in terrestrial, freshwater, and marineenvironments.

As indicated in the title, this book focuses onstudying, collecting, and preserving mollusks. Thestudy of mollusks can take place in the field, in anaquarium, or in a collection in your home or at amuseum. Collection can refer to the collection offield observations or specimens. Preservation canrefer to the preservation of specimens in collec-tions, or to conserving living mollusks and theirhabitats.

It is also important to know what this volume

does not cover. It provides only basic informationon anatomy. It does not cover the biochemistry,physiology, or genetics of mollusks. Though raisingand maintaining mollusks in aquaria or terraria ismentioned in a few chapters, except for Chapter31, there is very little information on aquacultureof mollusks.

Now we give a brief overview of the remainder ofthis book. This overview should give you an idea


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Sturm, Pearce, and Valds 3

of the information to be found in each chapter andhelp you use this book effectively.

1.2 CHAPTER REVIEWS

The book is composed of 31 chapters. The first14 chapters cover basic topics in malacology. Thenext seventeen chapters cover malacological issuesrelated to specific groups of mollusks.

Chapter 2 presents many techniques for the collec-tion, cleaning, and preservation of mollusks. Thereare also sections about tagging and narcotizing mol-lusks. In this chapter, Sturm, Mayhew, and Baleshave tried to include not only the latest techniques,but also older and still useful methods. The Walker

Dipper, first described in 1904, is illustrated herefor the first time.

Chapter 3, primarily written by Burch, is on remotebottom sampling. It updates his paper presented atthe annual American Malacological Union meet-ing in 1941. Burch relates stories about a lifetimeof dredging and provides useful insights on thisactivity. In the second part of this chapter, Sturmdiscusses several other methods of sampling un-derwater sediments including grabs, box corers,

tangle nets, and the like.

Snorkeling and SCUBA diving are covered byCordy and Cordy in Chapter 4. This chapter willexpose you to new ways of coming face to face withmollusks. While this chapter will not teach you howto dive, the authors have covered the equipment thatis needed for snorkeling and SCUBA diving. Theinherent risks of these activities are also covered.

Chapter 5 moves us out of the field and into our col-

lections. If you want to learn how to help preserveyour collection for the next millennium, this chapterwill interest you. This chapter discusses curatorialpractices and methods for archival protection ofyour collection. The chapter starts with a discussionof the risks to stored collections. It continues with adiscussion of materials that are used in maintainingcollections, stressing archival materials and prac-tices. This chapter concludes with a list of sourcesfor archival materials.

Moretzsohn, in Chapter 6, discusses digital imag-ing with flatbed scanners and digital cameras. Hebegins with a basic discussion of the theory behinddigital imaging. He goes on to compare digital andfilm imaging technologies. Digital cameras and flat-

bed scanners are discussed. Finally, the printing andediting of digital images are reviewed. Moretzsohnalso provides an extensive list of Internet siteswhere one can go for further information.

Geiger completes the topic of imaging with a re-view of traditional film photography. In Chapter 7,he begins with a discussion of the nature of lightand basic photographic theory. He discusses cameraequipment and accessories. There is a discussionregarding film. Special topics include infrared and

ultraviolet photography, underwater photography,photography of mollusks in aquaria, and storageof images.

In Chapter 8, Rosenberg discusses the use ofcomputer databases in managing collections. Inhis discussion he includes choosing a softwarepackage, the suggested fields to be included, andconstructing the database. The discussion is generalenough that it will apply to many different operat-ing systems.

Chapter 9 by Sturm, Petit, Pearce, Cummings,Schwabe, and Wanniger provides an introductionto the malacological literature. The first part ofthe chapter discusses the various types of malaco-logical publications: monographs, iconographies,journals, and separates, just to name a few. Therest of the chapter categorizes over 700 works bybiogeographic zones and molluscan families. Thus,if you have an unknown shell from Ecuador, underthe Panamic Biogeographic Zone listing, you will

find a list of references to help in identifying it. Alsolisted are books of general interest and others forthose interested in taxonomic research.

How to write a taxonomic paper is an art that ishandled by Geiger in Chapter 10. Geiger showsthe components of scientific papers dealing withboth the new description of a genus or species andof a revisionary paper. Geiger also gives a briefoverview of the International Code of Zoological


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Nomenclature, a set of rules governing the namingof species. Familiarity with the code is essential foranyone describing a new genus or species; for thosejust interested in cataloging shells, it is useful know-ing how names are determined and why a familiar

name is sometimes replaced by a less familiar one.

If you are interested in finding out how researchersdetermine the tree of life, or how closely related dif-ferent species are, Chapter 11, on cladistic analysesand phylogenetic trees, will interest you. Campbellexplains cladistics and then covers some of themajor techniques used in a cladistic analysis. Hethen concludes with a discussion of molecularbiology and how it relates to modern phylogeneticanalyses.

If you have ever wondered whether or not to joina malacological organization or go to a meeting,Chapter 12 will be of use to you. Here Sturm dis-cusses the basic functions that both amateur andprofessional malacological associations provide.He describes the functions of such major organi-zations as the American Malacological Society,Conchologists of America, and others. He discussesthe benefits of meetings, both local and national.Six Internet-based discussion groups are listed with

directions on how to join them.

Museums are one of the places where we can go tosee fossil and Recent mollusks and to learn moreabout them. In Chapter 13 by Sturm, you willlearn about the basic roles of museums in keepingcollections and conducting research: they are notjust places that exhibit natural history artifacts! Inaddition, you will take a quick tour of 22 museumsin the United States and Canada. These museumsall have major malacological collections. So you

can learn more about these institutions and whatthey have to offer, the addresses for their Internetsites are included.

If you ever wondered about museum collections andwhat museums do with donated specimens, Chapter14 by Pearce will inform you. Pearce begins bydiscussing what makes a specimen valuable to amuseum. Most specimens will have some value ifthey have clear and accurate locality data associated

with them. Data can be intrinsic (for example color,size, and weight) or extrinsic (for example collectedwhere, when, and by whom). The importance of theextrinsic data is emphasized, as extrinsic data areoften what makes specimens of vital importance to

a museum. Also covered in this chapter are waysto preserve soft tissue from molluscan specimensand how these may be of importance to a museum.Finally, if you are contemplating donating yourcollection to a museum, Pearce discusses the wayto do this so that the collection will be of greatestuse to the museum and other researchers.

With Chapter 15, we will begin exploring differ-ent molluscan groups, as well as techniques forrearing mollusks. These chapters are followed by

a chapter on the marine biology of non-molluscanorganisms.

Chapter 15 by Campbell is a discussion of paleo-malacology. Here you will learn about some mol-lusks that exist only as fossils. Campbell providesa general overview of fossils and ways to collectfossil mollusks.

Chapter 16, by Scheltema, is a review of theAplacophora (worm mollusks). These organisms

comprise a fascinating group of mollusks that,while often under our feet, are rarely collectedby professionals or non-professionals. Scheltemadiscusses the basic biology of these mollusks andtheir ecologic context. She goes on to discuss waysof collecting aplacophorans and techniques forstudying them.

Chapter 17 deals with the smallest class of livingmollusks, the Monoplacophora. Counts discussesthis group, which was first known from the fos-

sil record; the first living monoplacophoran wasidentified only in 1957. These mollusks are foundin marine environments and at great depths. Countscovers the biology and zoogeography of theseorganisms. If you are fortunate enough to find amonoplacophoran, directions for their preservationare covered.

Schwabe and Wanniger write about the Polypla-cophora (chitons) in Chapter 18. These mollusks


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have a shell composed of 8 plates and attach tena-ciously to the rocks on which they live. Schwabeand Wanniger discuss the external and internalanatomy of these organisms as well as their modeof reproduction and where they live. They include

techniques for collecting and preserving the softtissues and shells of chitons.

The Scaphopoda (tusk shells) are addressed inChapter 19. Here Reynolds begins with a discus-sion of the biology of the tusk shells and goes on toreview them in an ecological context. He discussesways to collect, preserve, and maintain collectionsof tusk shells.

If you ever wanted to know how to preserve a giant

squid, this next chapter is for you. In Chapter 20,Anderson discusses the Cephalopoda (i.e., squidsand octopuses). He begins with a review of thebiology and behavior of these mobile organisms.This review is followed by a taxonomic review ofthe class. He then goes on to discuss collecting tech-niques and protocols for preserving cephalopods,including Architeuthis, the giant squid. Althoughyou will need hundreds of liters of preservative, anenormous vat, and weeks to months, this chapterwill prepare you for the undertaking. Anderson

concludes the chapter with information on identify-ing cephalopods and a section on the difficulties ofmaintaining cephalopods in an aquarium.

Chapter 21 reviews the freshwater Gastropoda.While some of these gastropods are vectors ofdisease, others are common aquarium inhabitants.Dillon starts off with a discussion of the biologyand ecology of the freshwater gastropods. He alsotouches on some conservation issues relating tothis fauna. He describes techniques for collect-

ing, preparing, and storing freshwater gastropods.Dillon concludes with techniques for maintainingfreshwater gastropods in an aquarium.

Pearce and rstan discuss the terrestrial Gastropodain Chapter 22. They begin by discussing the biologyof this group. There is an extensive discussion of thehabitats of the land snails and how to locate them.They continue with a discussion of field methodsused in collecting land snails; you will even learn

how to collect snails with a leaf blower! They con-clude with an exhaustive description of processingand storing land snails as well as a discussion ofrecord keeping.

The discussion of land snails is continued in Chap-ter 23. rstan begins with a review of the literatureon maintaining land snails in a terrarium. He goeson to discuss short-term maintenance of a terrariumand rearing some North American woodland snails.He concludes with a discussion of factors that canaffect the health of land snails. Hans (see the fron-tispiece) has been raised in captivity for the past 4years following the advice in this chapter.

The treatment of the Gastropoda concludes in

Chapter 24. Here Geiger presents information onthe marine Gastropoda. He begins with an extensivediscussion of the shell and soft tissue anatomy ofthe marine gastropods. He continues with a discus-sion of the major groups of marine gastropods. Hethen discusses the various habitats where marinemollusks can be found and the ecological aspectsof the marine gastropods. He concludes with adiscussion of techniques for collecting and preserv-ing marine gastropods, including the preparationof radulae.

The next three chapters cover the Bivalvia. Chapter25 by Cummings and Bogan reviews the Unionoidaor freshwater mussels. The larvae of these mollusksspend part of their lives as parasites of vertebrates.Cummings and Bogan begin with a description ofthe biology and ecology of the freshwater mussels.This section is followed by a taxonomic treatmentof this group. They briefly touch on issues relatingto conservation, a topic more fully developed inChapter 30. They then provide an extensive descrip-

tion of field collecting equipment and techniques,information on identifying freshwater mussels,and methods of curating wet and dry collectionsof these organisms.

Korniushin, in Chapter 26, provides a similar treat-ment for the non-unionoid freshwater bivalves.He begins with a treatment of the Sphaeriidae,commonly known as the fingernail, pea, or pillclams because of their small size. This includes


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the biology and ecology of and methods for col-lecting and preserving these organisms. He thenbriefly discusses the Corbiculidae (Asian clams)and Dreissenidae (zebra mussels).

The marine Bivalvia are discussed in Chapter 27.Coan and Scott begin with a discussion of the biol-ogy of these organisms. They then give an overviewof the five groups (orders) of marine bivalves. Theythen discuss techniques for the collection, preserva-tion, and study of these animals.

Chapter 28 deals with establishing and maintaininga marine aquarium. Winner begins the chapter witha discussion of the uses of and observations that canbe made in an aquarium. The physical components

of the aquarium are then discussed: water, plants,rocks, and food. She then describes fourteen marineorganisms that she maintained in her aquaria andthe observations that she made.

In Chapter 29, Gutierrez gives a brief overview ofmarine biology. The aim of her chapter is to intro-duce marine organisms that are sometimes mistakenfor mollusks. Some examples are calcareous algae,annelids, brachiopods, and echinoderms.

The last two chapters cover issues of conservation.One covers freshwater mollusks while the othercovers marine mollusks.

In Chapter 30, Bogan reviews the sad conservationhistory of freshwater Gastropoda and Bivalvia inNorth American streams, rivers, and lakes. Heexplores the patterns of extinction that have oc-curred and the reasons behind them. On an upbeatnote, he does discuss some reversals in thesetrends. Bogan includes tables listing the threatened,

endangered, and extinct freshwater mollusks ofNorth America.

In the final chapter of this book, Chapter 31, Bakerdiscusses marine molluscan fisheries. He exploresthe attitudes towards marine mollusks and marineconservation in the 20thand 21stCenturies. He goeson to examine specific examples involving mol-lusks. He extensively reviews the oyster fisheries onboth coasts of the United States. Less extensively,

he also discusses the fisheries for abalones, QueenConchs, scallops, clams, mussels, and cephalopods.He includes tables listing gastropods and bivalvesthat are covered by state or federal regulations,common edible or commercial mollusks that are

not covered by specific regulations, and informationfor states with marine fishery agencies.

Following Chapter 31 are two appendices and aglossary. Appendix 1 consists of four plates il-lustrating morphological and anatomic featuresof gastropods and bivalves. Appendix 2 is anexpanded table of contents. It will give you a de-tailed overview of each chapter and help locatinginformation in the book. In the Glossary, you willfind definitions for many of the technical terms used

throughout this volume.

This book is meant to be sampled piecemeal andnot necessarily read from cover to cover, thoughone could do this. The book is meant to be sampledin portions relating to ones interests. If you areinterested in bivalves, you will concentrate onChapters 25-27. If you wish to delve into freshwatermalacology, Chapters 21, 25, and 26 would be onyour reading list. If you are interested in field tech-niques, read Chapters 2-4, 6-7, and the chapters for

the organisms in which you have an interest.

We hope that you will find the information and dis-cussions in this book helpful. As with all books ofthis type, compromises had to be made. The authorsand editors sought to present a balanced handbookof techniques and background information. Inpreparing each chapter, the authors attempted to becomprehensive in approach while presenting onlywhat they felt would be useful. If there are areasor topics that you feel were slighted or overlooked,

let us know.

1.3 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The senior editor (CFS) owes a debt of gratitudeto many individuals for their involvement with thisbook. The book is partially an outgrowth of a work-shop at the 1999 American Malacological Society(AMS) meeting held in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.Opinions as to what topics should be addressed in


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the workshop were offered by Paul Drez (1947-2004), William Frank, Ross Mayhew, TimothyPearce, Michael Penziner, Richard Petit, RobertPrezant, Gary Rosenberg, and Evangelos Tzimas.Presenters at that workshop included Kevin Cum-

mings, Jos Leal, Timothy Pearce, Richard Petit,and Gary Rosenberg. Robert Prezant deserves spe-cial thanks, for presenting CFS with the opportunityto organize this workshop.

We would like to extend our thanks to all the con-tributors to this book: Frank E. Anderson, PatrickBaker, B. R. Bales (1876-1946), Arthur E. Bogan,Thomas A. Burch, David Campbell, Eugene V.Coan, Bobbi Cordy, Jim Cordy, Clement L. Counts,III, Kevin S. Cummings, Robert T. Dillon, Jr.,

Daniel L. Geiger, Lucia M. Gutierrez, Alexei V.Korniushin (1962-2004), Ross Mayhew, FabioMoretzsohn, Aydin rstan, Richard Petit, Patrick D.Reynolds, Gary Rosenberg, Amlie H. Scheltema,Enrico Schwabe, Paul Valentich-Scott, AndreasWanninger, and Beatrice Winner.

We are thankful for all those individuals who agreedto review submissions. They are: James Albarano,Amir Amiri, Kurt Auffenberg, Glenn Burghardt,Laura Burghardt, Henry Chaney, Eugene Coan,

Louise Corpora, Robert Dillon, Douglas Eernisse,James Fetzner, Daniel Geiger, Jose Juves, Al-bert Koller, Harry Lee, James Lee (1922-2005),Richard Lee, James McLean, Paula Mikkelsen,Paul Monfils, Mohan Paranjpe, Kristin Petersen,Robert Prezant, John Rawlins, Lutfried von Salvini-Plawen, Gerhard Steiner, Patricia Sturm, MichaelVecchione, Janice Voltzow, and Amy Wethington.In addition to individuals already mentioned, wewould also like to thank James T. Carlton, HarryA. ten Hove, and Peter J. Wagner for helping to

resolve specific questions that arose during theediting process.

The American Malacological Society sponsoredthis project and provided financial support. Twochairs of the AMS Publications Committee havehelped us with this book. The project was startedunder the guidance of Ronald Toll and came to

completion under Janice Voltzows tenure. PaulCallomon offered valued insight into the intricaciesof publishing books.

The quality of this book has been greatly enhancedby the assistance of three librarians who helped trackdown cited literature and provided help in obtaininginterlibrary loans. This work has benefited greatly fromthe assistance of Bernadette Callery, Sun Xianghu, andMarie Corrado of the Carnegie Museum of NaturalHistory Library.

We would like to thank Emily C. Ullo and AmandaE. Zimmerman for commissioned artwork request-ed by CFS. Ms. Ullo painted the cover and drew theillustrations in Chapter 21. Ms. Zimmerman drewillustrations in Chapters 2, 3, 9, 11, and 29.

CFS is extremely appreciative of the help given bythe two associate editors, Timothy Pearce and ngelValds. They joined the project in an editorial capac-ity in 2004. Their assistance in copy-editing and

layout helped bring this project to its conclusion.

Lastly, CFS thanks his wife Pat for her patiencewith and encouragement for this project.

1.4 LITERATURE CITED

Eernisse, D. J., J. S. Albert, and F. E. Anderson. 1992.Annelida and Arthropoda are not sister taxa: a phy-logenetic analysis of spiralian metazoan morphol-ogy. Systematic Biology41: 305-330.

Haszprunar, G. 2000. Is the Aplacophora monophyletic?A cladistic point of view.American Malacological

Bulletin15: 115-130.


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C. F. Sturm, T. A. Pearce, and A. Valds. (Eds.) 2006. The Mollusks: A Guide to Their Study, Collection, and Preservation.American Malacological Society.

CHAPTER 2

FIELD AND LABORATORY METHODS IN MALACOLOGYCHARLES F. STURM

ROSS MAYHEWB. R. BALES (1876-1946)

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Your first exposure to the world of mollusks may

have been picking up a seashell on a beach whileyou were on vacation. It may have been findinga snail or slug in your garden. It may have takenmany years before you decided to pursue a morein-depth interest in these organisms. This chapterwill introduce you to ways to collect, clean andprepare mollusks.

Part of this chapter was a paper written by B. R.Bales and presented for him by R. Tucker Abbottat the Eleventh Annual Meeting of the American

Malacological Union in 1941 (Bales 1942). Thispaper with minor alterations was reprinted in Ab-bottet al.(1955, 1966) and Jacobson (1974). Whilemuch of what Bales had to say is still relevant,some of his suggestions have not stood the test oftime and are no longer considered appropriate inthe context of current curatorial practices. In thischapter we (CFS and RM) copy and paraphrasefrom Bales paper. In addition, we have addedinformation that updates his views and we addinformation that was not in his original work.

Due to our use of Bales original paper, we haveincluded him as an author; to do otherwise wouldbe tantamount to plagiarism.

In addition to the recommendations in this chapter,you will find additional information in Chapters 3to 5, and 15 to 27. Bergeron (1971), Lipe and Lipe(1993), and Weil (1998) are other works in whichyou can find advice and opinions on how to collect,clean, and maintain a molluscan collection.

2.2 COLLECTING BASICS

Other than being given a collection, there are three

basic ways to build a collection. You can buy speci-mens, trade for them, or collect them yourself.

2.2.1 Purchasing. If you chose to purchase shells,you first have to find a dealer. They can be foundadvertising in publications such asAmerican Con-chologist,La Conchliglia,and Of Sea and Shore.A comprehensive worldwide listing of dealers canbe found in Tom RicesA Shellers Directory ofClubs, Books, Periodicals and Dealerscompiled byTom Rice (2003) and at several good Internet sites

such as and .

There are several advantages to purchasing shellsfrom a dealer. First, they are already cleaned. Second,they are identified. Most important, you can obtainmaterial from places that you may never be able tocollect from yourself, and from fishing boats andother sources inaccessible to the average collector.

The drawbacks to purchasing shells are two-fold.

First, having good locality data is usually impor-tant, and the locality data of purchased shells maybe sparse or suspect. Knowing that you are buyingfrom a reliable dealer helps to minimize this risk.Second, you lose the ability to study the organismsin their natural habitat.

Dealers use a grading system to indicate the quality oftheir material. The international standard dictates thatGem specimens are absolutely perfect to the naked


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10 Field and laboratory methods in Malacology

eye, F++ or Gem-, which some dealers call F+++specimens, are so close to perfect that any flaws haveto be searched for, F+ indicates a specimen withminor flaws that do not detract much from its aestheticappeal, F (stands for Fine) specimens have sig-nificant flaws, Good specimens are not good at all, andFair and Poor are recognizable as that species, but justbarely. That said, grading is subjective, and there is anunderstandable temptation to over-grade. If you seea dealers list with mostly gem designations, beware.Caveat emptoris a useful watch-phrase. When plac-

ing an order from a dealer you are unfamiliar with, itis best to start small. Make a few modest purchases,and if you agree with the dealers grading of the shellsand the quality of the associated data, you can makelarger purchases with confidence. Often dealers willlearn your interests and notify you of material inwhich you might be interested.

2.2.2 Trading. Trading has several rewards. One cantrade shells and/or publications for other shells and/or

publications. The benefits (and hazards) are the sameas with purchasing from dealers. In addition, if youare not trading for a specific shell, you will have theexcitement that comes with receiving a shipment ofunknown material. As with purchasing from dealers,

when you trade with someone, make your first tradesmodest ones of material that you can afford to lose.If all goes well, mutual trust will develop and largertrades will ensue with confidence. Often, but notalways, the material you trade for has been self-col-lected and therefore the collection data may be morecomplete and reliable than with purchased material.

2.2.3 Self-collecting. In spite of building a collec-tion by purchasing or trading shells, eventually youmay desire to start field collecting yourself. You

may decide to collect shells in which the animalshave died (dead collecting) or living material (livecollecting). Section 2.4 deals with some techniquesthat you can use to collect mollusks.

The simplest way to self-collect is to look for deadmaterial. You can walk along the beach pickingup seashells, an activity known as beachcombing.A particularly good time to try beachcombing isafter a storm. Sometimes you will find materialfrom deeper water thrown up on the beach. Also,

pelagic material may be blown onto the beach bythe storms winds.

You might walk along the shores of a lake, pond, orriver and search for freshwater material. Sometimesyou may be lucky and find a shell midden. This isa pile of shells left behind by an animal such as araccoon or muskrat after it has eaten a meal of mus-sels. Section 2.4 describes some of the techniquesof field collecting.

You might also be interested in collecting terrestrialgastropods. These can be found under rocks or leaflitter. Techniques for collecting these mollusks arecovered below and in Chapter 22, Sections 22.4and 22.6.

2.3 COLLECTING EQUIPMENT

Many different tools or implements may comein handy from time to time,and, while you may

Figure 2.1 Collecting devices and aids.A. Allison Scoop, B. Ferriss Hoe, C. Davis Rake Drag,D. Walker Dipper, E. van Eeden Scoop, F. Clam tubeor clam gun, G. Bales Hook.


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Sturm, Mayhew, and Bales 11

achieve a measure of success with very little equip-ment (such as a spade, a kitchen strainer, some vialsand collecting jars, rubber boots, snorkeling equip-ment, sharp eyes, and plenty of patience), you willeventually find that some specialized tools will be

necessary as you progress in the study of malacol-ogy (i.e., the study of mollusks as living animals),or conchology (i.e., the study of the calcareousexoskeletons of mollusks, otherwise known asshells). What follows now are descriptions ofsome such tools.

2.3.1 Allison scoop.Allison (1942) described ascoop for collecting Campeloma (a freshwatergastropod) from stream bottoms. The scoop wastriangular in shape, had a wire basket with a rein-

forced leading edge and it was attached to a pole(Figure 2.1A). By varying the size of the scoopand the mesh size of the basket, this scoop can bemodified to collect a wide variety of mollusks.

2.3.2 Ferriss hoe. Walker (1904) described animplement called the Ferriss hoe. This is a gardenhoe with its blade trimmed to 75 mm (3 in) at thetop and tapering to a sharp point. The handle istrimmed to the length of a walking cane (Figure2.1B). This device is a good tool for turning over

logs and rocks, breaking up rotting logs, and dig-ging through rotting leaves and around stumps. It isalso long enough to pull down tree branches.

2.3.3 Davis rake drag. Davis (1964) described atype of dredge to be used from the shoreline. Hetook a garden rake and to the crossbar of the rakehe attached a 6-8 mm (1/

4in) wire mesh that looped

around and was attached to the ends of the tines. Hethen attached a pipe, filled with sand, to the crossbarto give the device added weight (Figure 2.1C). A rope

was attached to the handle of the rake. The devicewas then thrown out into the water and pulled backso that the wire basket and tines would bite into thesubstratum. The rope was pulled drawing the deviceback to shore. The device was then tilted, emptied,and the contents examined for specimens.

2.3.4 Screens, dippers, and nets. To collect thesmaller specimens from shallow water, a screencomes in handy. Once you progress beyond kitchen

strainers, these may be constructed or purchased inmany sizes and forms. The size of the screen andheight of the sides depend upon the individual user.It should not be so large that it taxes the strength,for it should be remembered that to be successful in

screening, the collector must be persistent and manyhours are usually spent in this manner. It is a fascinat-ing form of collecting and the time flies all too soon.Seldom will the collector stop sifting without tryingjust one more screenful of material.

Some collectors prefer several graduated sizes ofscreen (brass, aluminum, stainless steel, or zinc-coated mesh are best, since they are corrosion-re-sistant), but most prefer just two; the inside screento be 6-8 mm mesh (1/4inch) and the outer one of

3-4 mm mesh (1/8 inch). If you are interested inmicroshells at all, a third one, of 1 mm or smallermesh (0.04 in or less) will be necessary. This onewill catch most of the smallest shells. The innerscreen with the larger mesh should fit snugly intothe outer one with the smaller mesh, but not toosnugly. Allowances should be made for the naturalswelling of the frames, although much swelling willbe avoided by painting the frames. Some collectorsnail a small cleat to the ends of the outer screento obtain a firmer grasp. The same results may be

obtained by sawing a narrow horizontal slit in theend of the frame. The size of frame and mesh beingof individual preference, it is sometimes advisableto try out several before the ideal one is found, andeven then, many collectors change from time totime as the occasion demands. You might also findsoil sieves useful. These are nested sieves about20 cm (8 inches) in diameter. They are generallymade of brass. They can be purchased from generalscientific and forestry supply companies (see the ap-pendix in Chapter 5 for a list of such companies).

One form of screen that is sometimes used has noupright frame on one side and is held in place on thebottom of a body of water by the collectors foot.The sand, mud, marl, or other material is raked ordrawn into the screen by the use of a hoe, rake, orother utensil. This type of screen avoids having tolift the material and to deposit it in the screen forthose who like to adhere to a less energetic regimenwhile collecting.


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A handy device often used consists of a small roundsieve that has been attached to a long handle. It iseasily made from a 12-15 cm (5 or 6 inches) gravystrainer to be had at most hardware or discountstores. They have two bent prongs in front that must

be bent backward so as not to interfere with the use ofthe net. No device equals this when working in waistor chest deep water. You might also want to makeand use a Walker Dipper (see Figure 2.1D, Chapter21, Freshwater Gastropoda, and Walker 1904).

When collecting the specimens on various typesof aquatic grasses (eel, turtle, etc.), a net made ofmosquito or other fine netting sewn around a but-terfly net hoop is extremely useful, especially ifyou wish to be as ecologically sensitive as possible,

leaving the grasses in place instead of collectingthem and washing the mollusks into fine (the 24-mesh) screens using fresh water.

2.3.5 van Eeden scoop. Another variation of scoopwas described in van Eeden (1960) (Figure 2.1E).The scoop was designed for collecting freshwatergastropods. It is a square frame made from a 5 mmiron rod. The square is 25 cm on a side. The frameis angled upwards about 30 degrees two thirds ofthe way back from the leading edge. The leading

edge is reinforced with iron or tin sheeting. A wirescreen of appropriate mesh size is attached to theframe. The frame in turn is attached to a handle ofappropriate length (2-3 m).

2.3.6 Shovels.Some collectors use a shovel to digup clams. Commonly, these shovels have a blade75-100 mm wide (3-4 inches). The blade is longerthan it is wide, and it is slightly curved. Theseshovels are sometimes called clam guns. Insertthe shovel so that it curves away from where you

believe the clam to be and start digging. Dig andscoop the sediment away from the clam burrow;keeping the shovel blade parallel to the clam bur-row. When you see part of the clam reach downand grab it. It is important not to dig towards theclam; doing so may damage it.

2.3.7 Clam tube. There is another device alsocalled a clam gun or sometimes a clam tube. Thisis a metal or plastic tube, 75-150 mm in diameter

(3-6 inches) and 1 to 1.5 meters long (3-4 feet). It isclosed on one end with a cap that has a handle andsmall vent hole (Figure 2.1F). When you locate aclam burrow, place the tube over the burrow. Rockthe tube back and forth and twist it so that it drills

into the sediment. When you believe that the shellis within the tube, cover the vent hole. Doing socreates a suction effect when you withdraw thetube from the ground. You will pull up a plug ofsediment that should include the clam. Empty thecontents onto a screen, wash them, and removethe shell. This device works best in muddy andsandy substrates; it does not work well in bottomscomposed of gravel and rock.

2.3.8 Hammer. A geologists or bricklayers ham-

mer with a chisel end can be quite useful in severalrespects. You can scrape through leaf litter, dig intothe upper layers of soil, turn over rocks (which ofcourse should always be replaced as they were,before leaving the scene), use it in the pursuit ofpaleomalacology (fossil collecting), chip awaythe soft rocks in which burrowing species suchas many of the family Pholadidae (e.g., BarneaandZirfaeaspp.) live, and the chisel end comes inhandy when taking apart pieces of sunken woodthat may harbor ship worms (Families Teredidae

and Xylophagidae). It is useful to paint part ofthese tools a bright yellow or orange. Otherwise,you will learn the hard way how easily such toolscan be overlooked when put down in the field andsearched for at a later time.

2.3.9 Bales hook.According to Bales, one of themost important tools is a device made from a 15mm (5/

8inch) metal rod. One end is looped to make

a handle and the other is formed into a point. About75 or 100 mm (3 or 4 inches) above the point, a

curved hook is welded onto the rod giving a formsimilar to an elephant hook (Figure 2.1G). Withsuch a device, you have an implement that can beusedas a walking stick, to turn over rocks, to pullthings closer to you, and topull down brancheswhen looking for arboreal snails. Estwing makesa similar tool called the Gem Scoop. Instead of ahook, it has a small basket. Of course, many collec-tors make their own tools as best as they can, giventheir budget and circumstances, so the implements


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described in this chapter can be taken as a startingpoint - an assemblage of ideas and advice, for youto adopt or adapt as you see fit.

2.3.10 Water pumps. When the ocean floor is of

rock that is more or less honeycombed with smallpotholes, it is surprising what fine specimens of thesmaller varieties may be obtained by the use of acommon bilge pump, which is standard equipmenton small boats. The end of the pump is placed ina sand-filled pocket in the rock. The sand as wellas the mollusks that have taken refuge in the holeare pumped with the water onto a screen; the sandand water flow through, leaving the specimens allready for the collector.

2.3.11 Bags and collecting containers.Very impor-tant to the collectors outfit is your collecting bag,and this may consist of almost anything from an oldtin can, a burlap or nylon sack, a pocket handkerchiefor some such makeshift affair, to a real game bag orcollecting bag. They are usually made from light-weight canvas and carried in some cases by a strapover the shoulder. Such bags are useful when extraheavy specimens are anticipated. A bag that maybe tied or secured about the waist is much handierand has the advantage of always being in place and

does not drop in front of the collector when he orshe stoops to secure a specimen. Many collectorsfavor a bag containing partitions: one compartmentfor tools, vials and other equipment apart from theshells that are collected, and others for samples ofvarious sorts. You might even find that a carpentersapron makes a useful collecting bag.

When collecting small mollusks, a good supply ofglass or plastic vials of various sizes, will provemost useful. These should be cylindrical and of

the screw top sort without a narrow neck. Nylonmesh bags are often useful when collecting largershells such as bivalves. You should be careful tokeep shells from different habitats separate, label-ing the vials and containers in the field using penciland strong paper, and/or a grease pencil appliedto the container. Basic information will includedate, locality, collector, and as a good and brief adescription of the habitat as possible. In the heat ofcollecting, especially when racing the tide, it is easy

to mix things up and difficult to take detailed notes,but care nevertheless should be taken to keep factsand specimens straight. Any details that you noteregarding the habitat can be jotted down afterwardswhile they are fresh in the memory.

Freshly taken specimens should never be placed,even temporarily, in a rusty metal container or incontact with rusty chains or other rusty objects forit is remarkable how soon they will become ruststained. It is almost impossible to remove thesestains without damaging the shell in the process.Sturdy plastic buckets serve the same purpose ata very reasonable cost, and are easier on fragilespecies than metal ones.

2.3.12 Glass-bottomed bucket.A usefuladjunctto shallow water collecting is the glass-bottomedbucket (first used by sponge collectors), or anequivalent device - sometimes called a water glass orwater bucket. Collectors often use one that is squareor oblong. An easy way to construct one is to makethe frame or box of not too heavy wood and fastenthe glass or plexiglas to the open bottom by meansof quarter rounds available at any lumberyard. Abead of silicone caulking is placed around the open-ing between the wood and plexiglas. This ensures

a watertight seal. Visualization will be improved ifthe inside is painted dull black. You can also take aplastic or metal bucket and cut out the bottom leavinga 10 mm (1/

2inch) rim. To this rim, a circular piece

of Plexiglas can be attached with silicone caulking.When in use, frequent wetting of the inside of theglass makes vision clearerand eliminates fogging.

2.3.13 Lights for night collecting. If you havenever collected at night, hunting by the aid of ar-tificial light is a revelation. Many mollusks (such

as Conus) hide wherever they can in the daytimeand mainly venture out to feed at night. This is alsotrue ofMarginella, Cypraea,Hydatina,and the like.While specimens may be taken by the combineduse of water glass (see above) and flashlight, youmight also try snorkeling or SCUBA (see belowand Chapter 4, Snorkeling and SCUBA Diving).Use a bright waterproof flashlight and make cer-tain that you have spare batteries. Extremely goodunderwater lights can be purchased for less than


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$200, and inexpensive models will cost much less.A headlamp with a halogen or LED bulb will givea good cone of light and leave your hands free forcollecting. Surprisingly, these can be purchasedfor less than $100 at most dive shops. Remember,

if snorkeling or diving, have a buddy with you,especially if you are collecting at night.

2.3.14 Forceps/tweezers.While collecting smallspecies, a pair of spring forceps comes in handyforsmall shells like Caecum,Rissoina,Cerithiopsis,Sphaeriidae, etc. Being small, forceps frequentlyare lost and prudent collectors (especially if theyhave lost a pair or two) never fail to use a string, tiedto both the instrument, and to a wrist or to clothing.However, be sure to make the string long enough

so your reach is not restricted.

2.3.15 Loupes. Another device that may prove use-ful in the field is a smallloupe, sometimes calleda magnifier or a magnifying glass. These range inmagnifying strength from 2X to 20X. Though youmight think higher magnification is better, youmay be mistaken. For most fieldwork and labora-tory work, 5-10X is perfect. This gives sufficientmagnification without distortion at the edges ofthe field, and enough working distance between

the specimen and the loupe to allow for adequatelighting (although some loupes can be obtainedwith a built-in light). With loupes of 15-20X, youwill get higher magnification but a very small fieldof view. If this degree of magnification is necessary,you should consider using a stereoscopic dissectingmicroscope.

Loupes can be found at craft and jewelry supplyshops, at geologist specialty stores, and sometimeseven at hardware stores. Two loupes that seem to

be good for malacological work are a 7X HastingsTriplet (Bausch and Lomb) and Master Opticians5X Magnifier (Edmund Optics, Inc., ). The former can be at-tached to a lanyard and worn around your neckwhile the latter is useful at a workbench. Theseparticular loupes will cost from $30-50 but will lasta lifetime. Quite satisfactory 5-10X instruments canbe found in the $15-20 range.

Another interesting device that may interest you isthe Emoscop SME. This device has been describedas an optical Swiss army device. It comprises 3sets of lenses and depending on how you put themtogether, you can make several devices. The lenses

can be arranged to make a 3X monocular, a 3Xtelescopic magnifier, a 5, 10, or 15X loupe, or a 30and 35X microscope. The optical elements compactto 20 mm by 40 mm, and the lenses and microscopebase fit in a carrying case that is 30 mm x 65 mm.The device can be purchased from the manufacturerat and costs $58.

2.3.16 Thread. One of the most useful (and inex-pensive) things to have in the collectors kit is acompact roll of rather loosely spun cotton thread or

ribbon for holding bivalves together, for tying smallchitons to drying boards and other uses that maypop up in the field. Use white thread or ribbon sothat you do not have to worry about dyes leachingand staining your specimens.

2.3.17 Tide tables. To attempt intertidal or subtidal(shallow water) collecting without first consultingthe tide table would be the height of inefficiency,for all collecting of this type is dependent upon tideconditions. Where there is excellent collecting at

a given place at low tide, it would be simply outof the question to do any worthwhile collecting athigh tide. Local or regional tide tables may be ob-tained from the government in most countries (or afishermans supply outlet). One can also obtain tideinformation from the Old Farmers Almanacor onthe Internet - just look up tide tables in any goodsearch engine such as www.google.com or www.dogpile.com. Using the tables is more essentialthe further north one goes, since ice scouring andsub-freezing air temperatures restrict the number

of species able to live in the intertidal and shal-low subtidal zone. In many boreal regions such asEastern Canada, there is decent collecting only ata few new and full moon periods each year, youmiss one, and it is months before the next arrives.Further south, conditions are much more congenialto inter- and sub-tidal collecting.

2.3.18 Miscellaneous items.One should not forgetitems such as maps, a compass, a global position-


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ing system device (GPS), notebooks, field-guides,clothing appropriate for weather conditions, and ofcourse towels and spare clothing for when you stopcollecting and wish to get a bit drier and warmer.Also, consider insect repellent, sunscreen and a first

aid kit. Additional equipment, such as syringes anddissecting needles, are often used when cleaningspecimens. These items are described in the sectionon cleaning mollusks (Section 2.7).

2.4 FIELD COLLECTING TECHNIQUES

2.4.1 Land snails. Collecting land snails is a fineart and can be infinitely rewarding. The mainproblem land snail collectors encounter is that ofidentification. Since many species are endemic to

a particular region or even small localities such asisolated valleys or particular portions of mountainranges, there are few general identification guides,and obtaining regional or national identificationliterature can be difficult and time-consuming.Nevertheless, the huge variety of forms, shapes,colors, and sculpture (fine-scale superficial detail)make land snail collecting quite worthwhile. SeeChapters 9 and 22 for the titles of books that willhelp you identify land snails.

The first thing to remember when collecting terres-trial mollusks is that mollusks need moisture. Thus,you must look where and when moisture is to befound. After rain and early in the morning when thedew is still present, are the best times to collect fromgardens, grasses, bushes, trees, stone walls, and onlimestone outcroppings that provide a rich source ofcalcium for shell formation. Many species will befound in the leaf litter on the forest floor, in localitieswhere the soil is alkaline enough not to dissolve theshells. You will find an assortment of living and dead

material this way - some of the dead being very fresh(which saves you the trouble of cleaning them whilestill providing decent specimens). Bags of leaf littlerfrom damp localities can be collected in the fieldand many happy hours can be spent at home siftingthrough it with screens and careful observation es-pecially with the aid of a microscope. Yet another setof species can be found under rocks and old logs. Aswith marine collecting, the more habitats you check,the more species you come across.

Many terrestrial gastropods enjoy warm, moistareas. Find a site that you believe will contain amolluscan fauna. Take a cotton or burlap sack. Foldit several times and soak it with water. Place it onthe ground. On top of the sack place a pile of stones

that will somewhat protect the sack from dryingout. Check under the sack after several days or aweek. You may find a number of slugs and/or snails.Be observant, there will likely be other organismssuch as insects, snakes, lizards, and amphibians. Inplace of the sack, you can also use several layersof corrugated cardboard.

Cleaning and preserving land snails is more difficultthan for marine species, since the periostracum, thelayer of material that protects the shell from erosion

and acidic conditions, must not be removed: it con-tains the colors and other external characteristicsthat are vital for identification and appreciation.Chlorine bleach cannot be used as it will removeor damage the periostracum. The best way to gois boiling and picking out the animal with smallhooks or pins, followed by vigorous shaking, butleaving them spread out where ants, flies, and otherinsects can get at them is a very effective methodwhen possible. Small species can be preserved with80% ethanol.

See Section 2.6 for further cleaning tips for terres-trial mollusks and Chapters 22 and 23 for additionalinformation on land snails.

2.4.2Freshwater mollusks. Freshwater mollusksinclude both gastropods and bivalves. May of themcan be found by walking along the shallow edges ofponds and lakes, or in shallow streams and rivers. Inslightly deeper water one can use an Allison scoopor a van Eeden scoop (see Section 2.3 above) or

a Walker dipper (see Chapter 21.4). In yet deeperwater, you will need to consider using devices suchas dredges, grabs, or bails. More on specific aspectsof collecting freshwater mollusks will be found inChapters 21, 25, and 26.

2.4.3 Marine mollusks. Live material can be col-lected as well as dead, although most collectorsprefer the live material. Live material tends to bepreferred as the colors in the shells are more intense


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(the shells have not been bleached by exposure tothe sun) and live shells tend to have less physicaldamage than ones that are dead and exposed to theaction of the surf. Others prefer collecting deadshells since no animal has to be killed and the prepa-

ration of the shell requires less work; that is, theydo not need to have the dead animal cleaned out ofthem. Some species can most commonly be founddead - such as deeper water and pelagic speciesfound on the shore after storms or in dredge spoil.Some taxa require special methods of collecting,and these will be mentioned later. When collectingin water, you will be limited by how far you canfree dive or reach with your arm or a device like aWalker Dipper (see Chapter 21.4). As a result, manycollectors progress to SCUBA diving or dredging

to obtain material.

2.4.4 SCUBA diving. The advent of SCUBA divinghas opened up a completely new world for collec-tors, as divers with moderate experience can reachdepths up to 30-35 m (around 100 feet) for shortperiods without special gas mixtures. Beginnerswould be ill advised to venture beyond 20 m (60-65feet) until they are able to handle emergencies withfluency and calmness. With this type of collecting,safety is of paramount importance: we do not rec-

ommend diving alone or in places where currentsor turbulence pose significant hazards. At depthsbelow 15 m (45-50 feet), things can go wrong veryquickly, and the results can be dangerous in theextreme. Good, well-maintained equipment andthe training to use it properly and with confidenceare necessary. Wise divers never push their luckby going deeper than they trained for, or habituallystaying down to the last minute of air. Always giveyourself a good safety margin: not to do so maycost you your health or even your life!

Much could be written about SCUBA collecting,but the experience of the authors and the scopeof this chapter allow only the presentation of afew general principles. In addition to the abovecautions, wearing a wet-suit is usually a goodidea, especially in cooler waters (hypothermia isinsidious and can sneak up on one) or around cor-als, which can often sting exposed flesh with onlya light touch. Sharks are much more benign than

generally thought, but they and other carnivorouswildlife should be treated with due caution andrespect. You should never tease or relate to themwith casual familiarity or carelessness. Jellyfishcan be particularly nasty, as can eels and other

inhabitants of holes and crevices in rocks or reefs.Use the utmost caution in tropical and sub-tropicalwaters when trying to find out what is in places onecannot directly see. A special caution is in order forcone snail collectors. Many species, not just thevery venomous ones (Conus geographicusLin-naeus, 1758, C. striatusLinnaeus, 1758, C. textileLinnaeus, 1758) can sting you, sometimes withpainful results. Living cone snails should alwaysbe handled with care.

With shore-based collecting, the more habitatsinvestigated, the more species one is likely to find.Unless you are looking for a particular species orgroup that you know to be found only in specifichabitats, the more inquisitive you are, the more youwill find. Sandy bottoms are generally of limitedinterest. When investigating a reef, it is wise toexplore associated rubble fields and dead as wellas living coral heads. In places where sponges areabundant, interesting species (triphorids, cerithop-sids, etc.) can often be found via the judicious

harvest of a few sponges for through dissection onland. For a more extensive treatment of SCUBAdiving and snorkeling, see Chapter 4

2.4.5Ex piscecollecting.Sometimes mollusks canbe found in the digestive tracts (stomach and intes-tines) of bottom dwelling fish. The first challenge inex pisce(Latin: from fish) collecting is to obtain thefish or the digestive tracts. The easiest method is toobtain them from the crew of a commercial fishingboat. You can either accompany the crew and get

the digestive tracts of the bottom feeding fish theycatch or you can supply them with covered bucketsin which they can save the digestive tracts for you.They might be more willing to save material foryou if you offer to pay for the captain and crewsassistance. When they give you the entrails ask forlocality data such as longitude and latitude of thecatch, bottom depth, and bottom type if known. Es-pecially provident in the Atlantic Ocean are toadfishand batfish - the latter more often taken by trawling


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than by angling (H. Lee, pers. comm.). The doversole can be used in the Pacific Ocean.

Start from the stomach and work your way downthe length of the intestine. When you encounter a

solid feeling object cut open the organ where youfeel it. Wash the object and see if it is a shell. Recordwhere it was found. Shells in the upper portion ofthe digestive tract are likely to be from the localitywhere the fish was caught while shells further downmay be from a site some distance from where thefish was collected (Clapp 1912).

Take the semi-solid intestinal contents and placethem in a strainer or sieve with a fine mesh. Washthe material until the water that drains from the

mesh is clear. Allow this material to dry (it willbe fairly odorless if washed sufficiently), and thenexamine it with a loupe or microscope. You mayfind many micro-shells this way.

While large shells are not found this way, this methodhas advantages. It can be used for depths where youwould not be able to collect by snorkeling or SCUBAdiving. Also, it may be productive in areas with rockybottoms where a dredge would not work. Lastly, thecost of equipment is negligible; definitely less than

the cost of dredging equipment and a boat.

2.4.6 Sea stars (starfish). Sea star (formerly knownas starfish) stomachs may also be a source for somemollusks. Sea stars can often be obtained as a by-product of commercial fishing. Sea stars have twomodes of feeding. Those with long, thin arms [e.g.Asterias forbesii (Desor, 1851)] bring the mollusksto their mouth; they then evert their stomachs andeat and digest the mollusks. These types of sea starsdo not contain mollusks. Sea stars with short or stiff

arms [e.g.Astropecten articulatus (Say, 1842) andLuidia clathrata (Say, 1825)] swallow molluskswhole and their stomachs may contain shells.

To extract the mollusks, one needs to dissect thedigestive tract out of the sea star. The plates fromthe ventral surface of the sea star are removed fromthe central disc to a point approximately one third ofthe way out the arms. The digestive tract is removedand placed in full strength household bleach (5%

sodium hypochlorite) for several minutes. When thetissue starts breaking up, it is washed with water ina funnel lined with coarse filter paper. The resultantresidue is allowed to dry and then examined witha loupe or dissecting microscope. The shells are

picked out with fine forceps.

While this may seem to be a labor-intensive tech-nique, for the collector interested in micro-shellsit may be quite productive. Porter (1972, 1974 andreferences therein) should be consulted for furtherdetails regarding this technique.

2.4.7 Tidal pools. You can search tide pools formollusks. These are generally found in rocky areas.Be forewarned, in many areas tide pool collecting is

regulated or illegal. Know what is allowed in yourarea before you proceed.

2.4.8 Traps. In recent years, mollusk traps havebeen used to take many of the carnivorous mollusksand shells of non-carnivorous mollusks inhabitedby hermit crabs, and reports from those who haveused traps have been very encouraging. Somecollectors reported success collecting these typesof mollusks by simply placing a piece of meat ora dead fish between two sheets of wire mesh and

weighting it down with stones overnight. Othershave weighed down canvas packets of dried animaldung. For those with limited resources, this remainsa very practical collecting method. For more on thistechnique see Allison (1942). If you can obtain thecooperation of lobster or other trap-based fisher-men, all the better! You can even develop your ownspecialized traps, if the fishermen will agree periodi-cally to collect and re-distribute them for you.

2.4.9 Navigational buoys.Navigational buoys can

be searched for evidence of sessile mollusks. If onecan gain access to buoys when they are brought infor cleaning, many attached specimens may be re-covered. You may be able to obtain the records thatindicate when the buoy was placed and recovered.This will allow you to study the colonization of thebuoy over a defined time period.

Other avenues of research that occur when study-ing the fauna attached to buoys include variation

the mollusks: a guide to their study, collection, and preservation

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