the mosslands school - the de montfort school live files/homework...‘golden years’ of the weimar...
TRANSCRIPT
The Mosslands School
History Department
GCSE Revision Guide:
The Development of
Germany, 1919 - 1991
The
Dev
elo
pm
ent
of
Ger
man
y, 1
91
9 -
19
91
Weimar Germany, 1919 – 1929
The Impact of World War One
Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated his throne on November 9th 1918. Two days later, the
German government signed an armistice with Britain, France and the USA. WW1
had a huge impact on Germany:
• The Kaiser’s government had collapsed; Germany was now a republic
• Over 2 million Germans had died during the war
• Germany was close to bankruptcy
• There were serious food shortages
• There were serious political divisions between socialists and communists on
the one hand and other groups on the right wing
The new government decided to hold elections in January 1919. Because of chaos
and violence in Berlin, the Reichstag met in the city of Weimar, which gave its
name to the new German republic. The new constitution was written by August
1919, making Germany one of the most democratic countries in the world:
• All men and women over the age of 20 could vote
• The Reichstag was elected via proportional representation
• The President controlled the armed forces and appointed the Chancellor. The
President could also suspend the constitution in an emergency using Article
48
This new constitution proved to have a number of flaws. Proportional
representation meant that coalition governments were often weak and unstable.
Most Germans had no experience of democracy, and both left and right-wing
parties attempted to overthrow the Weimar government. The president could
also abuse Article 48, which was too vague.
The Treaty of Versailles
The peace treaty that concluded World War One was decided by the victors –
Britain, France and the USA. Germany was not allowed to take part in the
negotiations and was given a diktat – they could either sign or face the re-start of
WW1.
The main terms of the Treaty, signed in June 1919 were:
• War guilt – Article 231 of the
Treaty said that Germany accepted
complete responsibility for causing
WW1
• Reparations – Germany had to pay
for damage caused by the war,
totalling £6.6. billion
• Loss of land – Germany lost 10% of
its population and 13% of its
territory and the Rhineland was
demilitarised
• Armed forces – reduced to just
100,000 men, 6 battleships, no
submarines and no air force
Armistice
A ceasefire agreement
to end the fighting in a
war while a formal
peace treaty is
negotiated
Republic
A country ruled by an
elected president, rather
than a hereditary
monarch like the Kaiser
Reichstag
The German parliament
Constitution
The set of laws which
set out the government’s
structure and powers
Democratic
A country in which
citizens exercise power
by electing their
government
Proportional
Representation
System that allocated
seats in the Reichstag
based on the proportion
of votes gained by each
political party
government
Coalition
A government made up
of multiple parties
because no party has an
overall majority
The
Dev
elo
pm
ent
of
Ger
man
y, 1
91
9 -
19
91
The Treaty was a shock to most Germans, who had hoped for more lenient terms
since the Kaiser had abdicated. They felt humiliated and unfairly treated. The left-
wing coalition parties, including the Social Democrats, were never really able to
counter the ‘stab in the back’ propaganda of the right-wing parties. The army
claimed that it was the politicians’ fault – the ‘November Criminals’ of November
1918.
Opposition to the Government
The Weimar government faced threats from both left and right-wing groups
during its early years:
• Spartacist Revolt (January 1919) – The German Communist Party tried to
lead a communist revolution. This echoed the recent Bolshevik revolution in
Russia in 1917. President Ebert recruited army veterans known as the
Freikorps who brutally crushed the revolt
• Kapp Putsch (March 1920) – Freikorps members led by D Wolfgang Kapp
seized power in Berlin. The Weimar government fled and the army was
reluctant to crush the revolt but a general strike destroyed the revolt.
• Munich Putsch (November 1923) – The fledgling Nazi Party, led by Adolf
Hitler, tried to seize power by starting a revolution in Munich, a right-wing
city in Southern Germany. Hitler hoped that the Bavarian government would
join him. On November 9th Hitler and General Ludendorff led a march into
Munich, but it was crushed by police and the army and 16 Nazis were killed.
Economic Problems
Germany’s economy had suffered from
inflation and high reparations
payments since the end of WW1. In
1922, the Weimar government
announced that it could not pay its
reparations bill. This led to 1923
becoming a year of economic crisis.
French and Belgian soldiers occupied
the Ruhr in January 1923. This area
produced 80% of Germany’s coal, iron
and steel. In response, the Weimar
government ordered German workers
to carry out a campaign of passive
resistance.
To pay the striking workers in the Ruhr,
the government printed more and
more money. This led to hyperinflation:
Date Price of a loaf of bread
January 1918 0.6 marks
January 1923 250 marks
September 1923 1.5 million marks
November 1923 201 million marks
Ludendorff
One of Germany’s
leading generals during
WW1. Became a hero
during the ‘Ludendorff
Offensive’ of 1918
Inflation
An increase in prices
due to a lack of
confidence in a
currency’s stability
The Ruhr
Major industrial area in
North-West Germany,
close to the border with
France
Passive Resistance
Peaceful resistance by
refusing to cooperate. In
the Ruhr, this meant
workers going on strike
Hyperinflation
Rapid and out of control
inflation
Revision Task
How fair was it to
blame the Weimar
Government for
signing the Treaty of
Versailles in June
1919?
The
Dev
elo
pm
ent
of
Ger
man
y, 1
91
9 -
19
91
During the crisis, German savings became worthless and starvation and
malnutrition were common. People’s savings were destroyed. However, not
everyone was so badly affected. Landowners could pay off mortgages and farmers
benefited from rises in food prices.
Economic and Political Reform under Stresemann
Germany started to recover from the crises of 1923 due to the policies of Gustav
Stresemann. His policies were so successful that 1923 – 1929 is known as the
‘golden years’ of the Weimar Republic. He acted promptly and decisively when he
became Chancellor in 1923:
• He called off passive resistance in the Ruhr
• He ended hyperinflation by replacing the old currency with a new one, the
Rentenmark
• He refused to print more money and instead cut government spending,
increased taxes and reduced salaries
Stresemann’s reforms ensured that:
• Germany was allowed to enter into deals with other countries to reduce
reparations and receive loans, like the Dawes Plan of 1924 with the USA
• Germany was allowed to join the League of Nations in 1926
• Germany enjoyed a period of relative political stability until 1929 in which
extreme political parties like the Nazis were less popular
However, Stresemann recognised that these reforms were fragile. In 1929, he
described Germany’s economic recovery as ‘dancing on a volcano’ because it
would collapse if America demanded repayment of loans.
Improved Foreign Relations
Stresemann mostly succeeded in restoring Germany’s position as a world power
by 1929:
• The Locarno Pact of 1925 ensured that France and Belgium would never
threaten Germany’s western borders. However, Stresemann made no
promises about Germany’s eastern border.
• Joining the League of Nations in 1926 showed that Germany was once again
respected as a major power. Stresemann received the Nobel Peace Prize.
• The 1928 Kellogg-Briand Pact, signed by most major powers including
Germany, renounced war as a means of settling disputes.
• The 1929 Young Plan reduced reparations by 2/3, extended the payment
period (to 1988!) and persuaded Britain and France to remove their troops
from the Rhineland
Gustav Stresemann
Leading Weimar
politician, served as
Chancellor in 1923 and
foreign minister until
1929
Revision Task
How far had
Stresemann solved
Germany’s problems
by his death in 1929?
Remember to
consider the Treaty
of Versailles and his
‘dancing on a
volcano’ remark
Revision Task
How far can the
problems of 1919 –
1920 be blamed on
the Treaty of
Versailles?
The
Dev
elo
pm
ent
of
Ger
man
y, 1
91
9 -
19
91
The Rise of the Nazi Party and its Consolidation of
Power, 1929 – 1934
Reasons for Nazi Support
After Hitler was released from prison in 1924 he decided that the Nazis must gain
power legally, rather than through a putsch. He significantly reorganised the
party:
• The Hitler Youth was set up in 1926
• The Nazis made huge efforts to improve their performance in elections
through propaganda and public speaking training
• The SS was created to provide protection for Hitler
However, in spite of this, the Nazis won only 19 seats in the 1924 Reichstag
elections and 17 seats in 1928. Ordinary Germans were happy with Stresemann
and the Social Democrats’ leadership. If Hitler was going to win power, something
drastic would have to change in Germany.
The Wall Street Crash of October 1929 plunged the world into a Great
Depression. Germany depended heavily on American loans and suffered when
these were recalled by US banks:
• Unemployment rose dramatically, from 900,000 in 1929 to nearly 6 million
in 1933
• Banks collapsed, causing many to lose their savings (again)
• Many people could not pay their mortgage and became homeless
• Losing faith in the Weimar Republic, many Germans turned to extreme
political parties like the Nazis and Communists – the Nazis won 230 seats in
the 1932 elections and the Communists won 79
Hitler becomes Chancellor
Hitler’s position was now very strong. He challenged Hindenburg in the 1932
Presidential election and came second, with 13.4 million to votes to Hindenburg’s
19.4 million. Some of the reasons for this Nazi success were:
• Hitler’s own political and public speaking ability. He played on German fears
of unemployment and Communism
• Nazi promises of work and bread ‘arbeit und brot’ were exactly what many
unemployed Germans wanted to hear
• Hitler promised to overthrow the unpopular Treaty of Versailles
• The SA’s violent campaigning did much to intimidate Hitler’s opponents
• The Social Democrats and the Communists outnumbered the Nazis in the
Reichstag, but refused to cooperate with each other
President Hindenburg was forced to make Hitler Chancellor of Germany on
January 31st 1933. Franz von Papen, a right-wing politician and a friend of
Hindenburg did a deal with Hitler. In return for being made vice-Chancellor, Papen
persuaded the President that Hitler could be controlled. Only 3 ministers in the
government of 12 were Nazis. However, Hitler soon proved that he could not be
controlled so easily.
Putsch
German word for a
revolution or takeover
Wall Street Crash
Crash in the American
stock market that led to
a worldwide depression.
Wall Street is the New
York home of the US
stock exchange
SA
The Nazis’
stormtroopers,
sometimes called
brownshirts. Led by
Ernst Rohm, they acted
as the Nazis’ private
army
Revision Task
Was Hitler’s deal
with Papen the most
important factor in
him becoming
Chancellor in January
1933? Why?
The
Dev
elo
pm
ent
of
Ger
man
y, 1
91
9 -
19
91
Steps to Dictatorship
Although Hitler was in a relatively weak position in January 1933, he had become
the Fuhrer (supreme leader) of Germany by August 1934. The Nazis took a
number of steps to consolidate (strengthen) their power:
• Step 1 - The Reichstag Fire
The Reichstag building caught fire and burned down on 27th February 1933. A
Dutch Communist, van der Lubbe was arrested. Hitler persuaded the President to
pass an Emergency Decree which suspended freedom of speech, gave control of
the police to the Nazis and restricted the activities of the Communists and Social
Democrats.
• Step 2 – The March elections
Having disrupted their opponents and undermined the rule of law, the Nazis won
their best ever election results on March 5:
Votes Seats in Reichstag
Communist Party 4.8 million 81
Social Democratic Party 7.2 million 120
Centre Party 5.5 million 92
National Party 3.1 million 52
Nazi Party 17.3 million 288
Others 1.4 million 14
Although the Nazis were largest party, they still did not have an outright majority.
However, Hitler now took two more steps:
• Banned the Communist party from taking their seats in the Reichstag
• Did a deal with the Centre Party and the National party to form a coalition
• Step 3 – The Enabling Act
Hitler used his majority and a combination of bribery and intimidation to force the
Reichstag to pass the Enabling Act, which gave him the power to make laws
without the approval of the Reichstag.
• Step 4 – The Night of the Long Knives
By 1934, Hitler had become worried about the ambition of Ernst Rohm, the leader
of the SA. Rohm was more left-wing than Hitler and wanted to merge the German
army with the SA. On the night of 30th June, Hitler ordered the SS to arrest and
murder Rohm and other potential rivals to Hitler. Heinrich Himmler’s SS now took
over the role of the SA.
• Step 5 – Death of Hindenburg
The President died in August 1934. Hitler now made himself Fuhrer, which
included the role of commander of Germany’s armed forces. On 19th August, all
German soldiers swore an oath of loyalty to Hitler. Germany was now a total
dictatorship.
Emergency Decree
Passed by Hindeburg
using Article 48
emergency powers on
28th Feb. Used as the
legal basis for
imprisoning enemies of
the Nazis and abolishing
many freedoms, e.g.
freedom of speech
Outright majority
A party receiving more
votes than all of the
other political parties
combined
SS
Began as Hitler’s
bodyguard, grew into
the Nazis’ elite political
and military force
Fuhrer
Hitler combined the
roles of Chancellor and
President into one,
calling himself ‘Fuhrer’
or supreme leader
Revision Task
Which of these steps
was most important
in Hitler’s
consolidation of
power? Explain your
answer.
The
Dev
elo
pm
ent
of
Ger
man
y, 1
91
9 -
19
91
Creation of the Police State
The Nazi dictatorship was based on
• Full power in the hands of Hitler, who ruled by decree
• Only one political party allowed (the Nazis)
• Lives of German people controlled by gleichschaltung, propaganda and a
police state
1. Gleichschaltung
The Nazis concentrated all power in their hands in Berlin by abolishing regional
governments, banning trade unions, forcing young people to join the Hitler Youth
and ordering professionals to join Nazi associations
2. Police State
Under Heinrich Himmler, The SS took control of Germany’s police forces and
courts. Himmler created the Gestapo under the control of Heydrich. This had the
power to arrest people without trial and put them in concentration camps. The
Gestapo became feared for their ruthlessness and secrecy.
3. Propaganda
The Nazi propaganda minister, Joseph Goebbels, ensured that most Germans had
very few opportunities to hear any opposition to the Nazis. Goebbels controlled
radio stations, newspapers, books and films, banning anything which disagreed
with Nazi ideas. The 1936 Berlin Olympics were used as propaganda, as were the
annual Nuremberg Rallies, which attracted over 100,000 people.
Over 17 million German men were conscripted into the German armed forces
during WW2 and fought with bravery and loyalty – giving some measure of the
success of Nazi leadership and propaganda.
Rule by decree
Hitler could pass laws
without consulting the
Reichstag thanks to the
Enabling Act and the
Emergency Decree
Gleichschaltung
German word meaning
the coordination or
centralisation of power
Gestapo
Nazi secret police led
by Reinhard Heydrich,
part of the SS
Concentration camps
Brutal camps set up to
punish political
prisoners. Later used to
house Jews and other
‘undesirables’ during
the Holocaust
Revision Task
Was terror or
propaganda a more
valuable tool for the
Nazis in controlling
Germany? Explain
your answer.
The
Dev
elo
pm
ent
of
Ger
man
y, 1
91
9 -
19
91
Life under the Nazis, 1933 – 1939
Economic Control
Hitler had three aims for the German economy after 1933:
1. Reduce unemployment
2. Expand and rearm Germany’s army, navy and air force
3. Make Germany self-sufficient (known as autarky) and not too dependent on
foreign trade
Hitler put Dr Hjalmar Schacht in charge of the German economy from 1934 to 36.
Schact had a number of successes:
• Reduced unemployment from 6 million in 1933 to 1 million in 1935. Schacht
achieved this by:
o Conscripting hundreds of thousands of young Germans into the armed
forces
o Manipulating the figures so that Jews and women were not counted as
unemployed
o Drafting hundreds of thousands of workers into factories to produce
war materials
o Spending money on public works like hospitals, schools and autobahns.
From 1935, it was compulsory for all men aged 18-25 to spend 6 months
in the National Labour Service (RAD)
In 1936, Hitler replaced Schacht with Hermann Goering. Goering created a Four
Year Plan to prepare Germany for war and focus on autarky. However, by 1939,
Germany was still importing 1/3 of her raw materials. Goering famously remarked
that, “In the decisive hour it would not be a question of how much butter
Germany has but how many guns”.
The reduction in unemployment was not accompanied by a rise in living standards.
Prices went up, as did the number of hours worked. This meant that workers had
less money to spend.
Index of Wages (1936 = 100)
Wholesale Prices (1919 = 100)
Wages as a percentage of national income
1928 125 140 62%
1933 88 93.3 63%
1936 100 104.1 59%
1938 106 105.8 57%
Nazi Control of German Workers
Trade unions were banned in 1933 and replaced by the German Labour Front
(DAF). All workers had to join the DAF, which:
• Set levels of pay and working hours for all workers
• Fined workers who did not follow its instructions
• Created Beauty of Labour (SDA) to improve working conditions such as
ventilation, provision of hot meals and health and safety.
• Created Strength through Joy (KDF) which organised leisure activities for
workers, such as cheap holidays, entertainment and sport. The idea was to
make longer working hours acceptable through improved conditions.
Autarky
Hitler and Goering’s
policy of making
Germany as self-
sufficient as possible, to
avoid the possibility of
starvation during
wartime
Hjalmar Schacht
Former head of the
Reichsbank (Bank of
Germany), Schacht was
a well-respected
economist around the
world
Autobahns
German motorways
National Labour
Service
Compulsory labour
force that gave men
military-style training
German Labour Front
Nazi alternative to trade
unions; set up to let
them control German
workers
Revision Task
How successfully did
the Nazis solve
Germany’s economic
problems after 1933?
Explain your answer.
The
Dev
elo
pm
ent
of
Ger
man
y, 1
91
9 -
19
91
Nazi Policies towards German Women
The Nazi’s attitude to women can be summarised as ‘kinder, kuche, kirche’
(children, kitchen, church). Hitler said that the woman’s world was “her husband,
her family, her children and her home”. The Nazis put these beliefs into practice:
• The number of female university students had been halved by 1936
• Newly-married couples were given an interest-free loan of 1,000 marks
provided the women gave up her job. The loan was reduced by 1/4 for each
child that they had
• The Motherhood Cross was awarded for having 4, 6 and 8 children
respectively
• The birth rate (number of births per 1,000 women) rose from 58.9 in 1933 to
84.8 in 1939. However, this may also have been due to the end of the Great
Depression.
• Makeup, lipstick and smoking were discouraged. Hairstyles were meant to be
traditional – in plaits. However, Goebbels’ wife often smoked in public and
Hitler’s mistress, Eva Braun, smoked and wore makeup.
Despite the Nazis’ plans, the number of women in work had increased by 1938 as
Germany started preparing for war.
Nazi Policies towards German Young People
“The whole purpose of education is to create Nazis” – Nazi Minister of Education
in 1934
Nearly all teachers were members of the National Socialist Teachers’ League and
36% of teachers joined the Nazi Party. Jews and left-wing teachers were sacked.
Teachers were greeted with a Nazi salute at the start of lessons. Lessons and
textbooks were changed to reflect Nazi beliefs and values. History and biology
lessons gave the Nazi interpretation of the Treaty of Versailles, the evils of
communism and racial superiority. In addition, the amount of time given to PE
was substantially increased.
Boys and girls received a different education – more science and history for boys,
more domestic science for girls.
Schools for future Nazi leaders were also created:
Napolas For boys 10-18 who were entering the armed forces, especially the Waffen-SS
Adolf Hitler Schools Intended to train future members of the Nazi government
Order Castles A finishing school for young Nazis in their early 20s. Strict entrance requirements, including 6 years at an Adolf Hitler School.
However, standards of education and achievements at these non-standard
schools were disappointing to normal German grammar schools.
As well as schools, the Hitler Youth Movement, set up in 1925, gained 7 million
members by 1939. The Deutsches Jungvolk was set up for boys aged 10-14 and
the League of German Maidens was created for girls. The main aim of the Hitler
Youth was to indoctrinate young Germans and make them loyal Nazis. The
National Socialist
Teachers’ League
Although most teachers
joined, they may not
have shared the Nazis’
beliefs and values
Waffen-SS
The army wing of the
SS, seen as elite soldiers
Hitler Youth
Nazi replacement for
normal youth and sports
clubs
Indoctrinate
Brainwash through
education and
propaganda
Revision Task
Did the Nazis
completely transform
the lives of German
women? How would
different women
have felt about these
changes?
The
Dev
elo
pm
ent
of
Ger
man
y, 1
91
9 -
19
91
conduct of Waffen-SS divisions in WW2 suggests that the Hitler Youth had some
success in achieving these aims.
Nazi Treatment of Jews, 1933 – 1939
Hitler and the Nazis saw Jews as an inferior race, a major threat to Germany and
part of a world conspiracy to destroy Germany. Hitler blamed the Jews for defeat
in 1918, communism, the failure of the Weimar Republic and all political ideas
that he despised.
Anti-semitism started relatively cautiously under the Nazis. In 1933, there was a
one-day boycott of Jewish businesses and Jews were banned from civil service
and teaching jobs. However, by 1935, Hitler was in a stronger position. The
Nuremberg Laws were passed, which:
• Deprived Jews of German citizenship (the vote, healthcare, welfare, etc)
• Banned marriages between Jews and non-Jews
The SS now took over the boycotts of Jewish businesses and Jews were ordered to
add ‘Israel’ or ‘Sarah’ to their name.
Nazi anti-semitism came to a head in November 1938. A Jewish student shot dead
a German diplomat in Paris and the Nazi government used this as a reason to
launch a whole-scale attack on Germany’s Jews on Kristallnacht, November 9th
1938.
• 7,500 Jewish-owned shops were destroyed
• 191 synagogues were burned
• Hundreds of Jews were killed (historians disagree on the exact amount)
• 30,000 Jewish men were sent to concentration camps
In the aftermath of Kristallnacht, the Jewish community was fined 1 billion marks.
Jews were banned from cinemas, theatres and swimming pools and children were
excluded from schools. The final act of the 1930s was to remove Jews from
Germany’s economic life:
• Jewish property was taken over by the state
• Jews were not allowed to work and were sacked without compensation or
pensions
Overall, over 400,000 Jewish refugees had left Germany by 1939.
Anti-Semitism
Anti-Jewish persecution
Boycott
Refusing to use a
business or service
Kristallnacht
Literally ‘night of
broken glass’. Shocked
Germans with its
violence and ferocity
Synagogue
Jewish place of worship
Revision Task
Which group did the
Nazis have a bigger
impact on: workers,
women or young
people?
Revision Task
Why had 400,000
Jews left Germany by
1939? At what point
do you think they
might have decided
to leave? Why?
The
Dev
elo
pm
ent
of
Ger
man
y, 1
91
9 -
19
91
Life During the Second World War, 1939 - 1945
Changing Conditions on the Home Front
For most Germans on the home front, WW2 can be divided into three stages:
1. 1939 – 1941 – Early successes
2. 1942 – 1943 – Increasing difficulties
3. 1944 – 1945 – Total war and defeat
During the early years of the war, the Wehrmacht conquered huge swathes of
territory in France, Eastern Europe and Scandinavia. Germans called this territory
Lebensraum. Huge amounts of food and raw materials like iron and coal flooded
back to Germany and some German families started migrating to new lives in
Poland, Czechoslovakia and Hungary.
However, the failure to defeat Britain in 1940 and Hitler’s decision to invade the
USSR in 1941 meant that a long war was likely. Rationing was introduced in
August 1939, leading to a limited and bland diet.
An increasing number of Germans,
particularly women, were
encouraged to return to work. To
bolster the number of workers, the
Nazis sent slave labour back to
Germany from occupied territories
and prisoner of war camps. 7 million
non-Germans were working in
Germany by 1945.
From 1942, the RAF was able to
launch heavy bombing raids on German cities. Particularly heavy raids were
launched against the Ruhr region, Germany’s industrial heartland.
Particularly notable raids were:
• Hamburg, July 1943 – 45,000 civilians were killed, 10 square miles were
destroyed and 900,000 civilians fled the city in terror
• Dresden, February 1945 – 25,000 people were killed in one night of fire-
bombing
By the end of WW2, at least 500,000 Germans had been killed by bombing and
most German cities had been ruined.
Goering’s introduction of Total War led to more unhappiness for Germans, as
non-essential services were closed down, including hairdressers and sports clubs.
There was also the trauma caused by receipt of the news of the death of a loved
one or friend in the Wehrmacht.
Opposition to the Nazis
Over 14,000 Germans were sentenced to death for opposing the Nazis and
thousands more ended up in concentration camps. The three main sources of
opposition to the Nazis during WW2 were:
1. Christians
Home Front
Phrase showing that
civilians at home still
played a part in the war
Wehrmacht
German armed forces
Rationing
Restrictions on the
amount of food and
other essentials that can
be bought
Total War
Every civilian and
resource in a country is
directed towards
winning the war
Confessional Church
Alternative to the Nazi-
supported Protestant
Reich Church
Revision Task
Make a list of
changes that
ordinary Germans
experienced during
WW2 compared to
1933-1939. What
were the three
biggest changes?
The
Dev
elo
pm
ent
of
Ger
man
y, 1
91
9 -
19
91
Opposition from churches was from individuals, rather than large groups. Martin
Niemoller and Dietrich Bonhoeffer were leaders in the Confessional Church.
Niemoller spent 8 years in concentration camps and was lucky to survive the war.
Bonhoeffer was executed in 1945.
2. Youths
The White Rose Movement in Munich was mostly comprised of university
students. After the demonstration against Nazi policies in 1943, a number of
members, including Sophie Scholl, were arrested, tortured and executed.
The Edelweiss Pirates also attacked Hitler Youth groups and sheltered deserters
from the army. In 1944, some of its leaders were executed for their role in the
assassination of the leader of the Cologne Gestapo.
3. The Army
The most serious opposition came from the army. Although most officers took
their oath of loyalty very seriously, Operation Valkyrie, in July 1944, by Colonel
von Stauffenberg came close to succeeding. A bomb planted in Hitler’s bunker
injured, but failed to kill the Fuhrer and an attempted coup was crushed by the SS
in Berlin. 200 conspirators were brutally executed and other were persuaded to
commit suicide.
Overall, Hitler’s Nazi regime remained in power until the bitter end of the war and
many German soldiers fought to the death to protect their leaders. Internal
opposition to the Nazis was mostly a failure.
The Treatment of Jews, 1939 – 1945
The start of WW2 saw an horrific escalation in the Nazis’ anti-Semitic persecution,
which took place in stages:
1. The Einsatzgruppen spread out through newly-conquered territory in eastern
Europe and executed over 500,000 Jews wherever they found them
2. Jews in Poland, Czechoslovakia and elsewhere were herded into ghettos
where thousands more died from inadequate food, disease and freezing
temperatures
3. In January 1942, the Wannsee Conference decided to exterminate all Jews
within the borders of the Third Reich. This was known as the Final Solution.
4. Extermination camps were built in eastern Europe. By the spring of 1942,
camps like Auschwitz-Birkenau and Treblinka were gassing millions of Jews.
This horrific persecution became known as the Holocaust. It should be noted that
many other groups, including gypsies, homosexuals and prisoners of war were
also sent to concentration and extermination camps.
Oath of Loyalty
Sworn by all
Wehrmacht officers in
August 1934
Einsatzgruppen
‘Single purpose group’,
dedicated to the mass
murder of Jews
Ghettos
Walled-off sections of a
city where all Jews were
sent. None were
permitted to leave.
Wannsee Conference
Held on the outskirts of
Berlin in Jan 1942.
Attended by Eichmann
and Heydrich, among
others
Revision Task
Place youths,
Christians and the
army in order of how
serious a threat they
were to the Nazis.
Explain your answer.
The
Dev
elo
pm
ent
of
Ger
man
y, 1
91
9 -
19
91
The Impact of Defeat, 1945 – 1949
Hitler committed suicide on April 30th 1945. Germany surrendered on 8th May.
Many Germans faced forced expulsion from the territory they had emigrated to
during the war. 11 million Germans became refugees, forced to return to
occupied Germany with nowhere to live.
Life was harsh for the survivors. Millions lived in temporary, sub-standard
housing, starvation was common, inflation was rampant and there were
shortages of most essential goods.
Leading Nazis were found guilty of war crimes at Nuremberg. The Allies worked to
de-nazify Germany, removing all ex-Nazis from positions of power and re-
educating the German population. The Nazi party was made illegal and all traces
of propaganda were removed.
Initially, the Allies started to de-industrialise their occupied zones. However, with
Germany suffering from mass unemployment and starvation, Britain found itself
paying more to support Germans than it was receiving in reparations. Britain,
France and the USA therefore decided that their only realistic option for dealing
with their zones was to revive the German economy.
Third Reich
What the Nazis called
their German empire.
Hitler planned for it to
last 1,000 years.
De-industrialise
Destroying heavy
industry to remove the
threat of future
rearmament. Weapons,
chemical and electrical
factories were
destroyed.
Revision Task
Describe the impact
of Germany’s defeat
in 1945 on ordinary
citizens. Make a list
of the key changes.
The
Dev
elo
pm
ent
of
Ger
man
y, 1
91
9 -
19
91
West and East Germany between 1949 and 1991
The Division of Germany
The ‘Big 3’ met in Yalta in February 1945 and again after Germany’s surrender in
Potsdam in July ’45. They decided that Germany was to be divided into 4 occupied
zones controlled by Britain, the USA, the USSR and France. Although Berlin was
inside the USSR zone, it would also be divided into 4 zones. This caused problems
later on.
The Big 3 also agreed to put Nazi war criminals on trial at Nuremberg.
West Germany and East Germany officially came into existence in 1949, after the
conclusion of the Berlin Blockade crisis.
Official Name Currency Politics Leader
West Germany
Federal German Republic
Deutschmark Democratic &
capitalist Konrad
Adenauer
East Germany
German Democratic
Republic Ostmark
One-party dictatorship and
Communist Walter Ulbricht
Life in the ‘two Germanies’ quickly became very different under the influence of
Britain and the USA (W. Germany) and the USSR (E. Germany). Britain and the
USA wanted to rebuild the West as a barrier against the Communist Eastern Bloc.
Stalin wanted to extract reparations from the East and force its people into
Communist rule.
West Germany
Supported by the USA and Britain, West Germany became a wealthy country
under the leadership of Chancellor Konrad Adenauer (1949 – 1963). Adenauer’s
three aims for West Germany were:
1. Restore the West German economy and undo damage caused by WW2
2. Work for an independent Germany and end the Allied occupation
3. Restore democracy and ‘denazify’ West Germany
Adenauer was mostly successful in these aims. The West German ‘economic
miracle’ of the 1950s produced full employment, high productivity and very low
inflation. The economic miracle had a number of causes:
• $1.3 billion investment from the USA as part of Marshall Aid
• Demand from the Korean War (1950-53) for industrial equipment
• The ECSC created a surge in trade between European countries
• High levels of tax (50% for the wealthy) paid for welfare and new homes
• Investment and research led to growth of reliable and prestigious brands
like Mercedes, Volkswagen and Leica (cameras)
West Germany also became more democratic, with power distributed among the
states (Lander) and the chancellor elected by the Reichstag. However, complete
denazification proved impossible and some former Nazis were given jobs in the
civil service and courts.
By 1955, West Germany was a member of NATO, although some British and
American troops remained in occupation.
The Big 3
The leaders of Britain
(Winston Churchill),
USA (Franklin
Roosevelt) and the
USSR (Josef Stalin)
Nuremberg Trials
Leading Nazis,
including Hermann
Goering were put on
trial for war crimes.
Some were executed.
Eastern Bloc
Communist countries of
Eastern Europe,
controlled by the USSR
Economic Miracle
Rapid growth of the W.
German economy in the
1950s, leading to
unprecedented living
standards and rates of
growth
Marshall Aid
Money from the USA’s
Marshall Plan in 1948
to fix damage caused by
WW2 and restrict the
spread of Communism
in Europe
ECSC
European Coal and
Steel Community,
created by Treaty of
Rome in 1953
The
Dev
elo
pm
ent
of
Ger
man
y, 1
91
9 -
19
91
East Germany
East Germany faced problems from the very beginning. It had 1/3 of the West’s
population and only 20% of the West’s industrial output. At first, Stalin had little
interest in rebuilding the economy of his former enemy. Poor living and working
conditions encouraged East Germans to flee. Although the border with West
Germany was closed in 1952, thousands continued to escape through Berlin.
182,000 East Germans escaped in 1952 alone.
To control East Germany, Walter Ulbricht used the Stasi. Ulbricht was General
Secretary of the Unity (Communist) Party – in effect, the East German dictator.
The Stasi recruited informants to spy on their fellow Germans. By 1980, 25% of
East Germans were spying for the Stasi!
Ulbricht’s economic policies was disastrous for East Germany. The collectivisation
of farming led to food shortages and rationing. Industrialisation was also difficult
because Silesia, the East’s main industrial base, was given to Poland in 1945.
By 1961, so many East Germans were escaping to the West through Berlin that
Ulbricht persuaded Khrushchev to authorise construction of the Berlin Wall.
Thousands were shot or arrested while trying to escape over the wall.
Despite this, East German became the most prosperous country in the Eastern
Bloc. Ulbricht’s New Economic System of 1963 led to increased production and
his successor, Erich Honecker built more housing for workers and increased
religious toleration from 1971 onwards.
Divided Germany by the 1960s
By the 1960s, the West German ‘economic miracle’ was plain for all to see. West
Berlin in particular was a centre of consumerism – modern, well-stocked shops,
thriving cafes and restaurants, packed theatres and nightclubs.
In the East, although everyone was fed and housed by the state, and education
and healthcare were provided for all, it was a much lower standard of living.
Consumer goods like cars and washing machines were often unavailable unless
you joined a long waiting list. Buildings were still derelict after WW2 and life was
drab and unexciting.
Key Leaders of West and East Germany, 1949 - 1991
West East
Konrad Adenauer – 1949 - 1963 Walter Ulbricht – 1949 - 1971
Ludwig Erhard – 1963 – 1966 Erich Honecker – 1971 - 1989
Willy Brandt – 1969 – 1974
Helmut Kohl – 1982 - 1998
Stasi
East German secret
police. Spied on,
arrested and tortured
suspected ‘enemies of
the party’
Collectivisation
Government policy of
confiscating farmers’
land and giving it to
state-controlled farmers
‘collectives’
New Economic System
Ulbricht’s decision to
reduce state control of
workers and industrial
production in 1963
Consumerism
The belief that
happiness can be
improved by buying
goods and services in
ever increasing amounts
Revision Task
Draw a table with
two columns to
describe the
differences between
East and West
Germany after 1949.
Add an explanation
of why each
difference existed.
The
Dev
elo
pm
ent
of
Ger
man
y, 1
91
9 -
19
91
Cold War Relations, 1945 - 1991
Although they had been allies during WW2, tension grew between the USA and
the USSR after 1945. The USA and Britain believed that Stalin had broken his
promises from Potsdam and simply taken over most of Eastern Europe, installing
Communist governments. Churchill said that an “Iron Curtain” now divided
Europe.
US President Truman took n tough anti-communist line which was called the
Truman Doctrine. The Marshall Plan was part of Truman’s plan to halt the growth
of Communism. However, Stalin thought that giving $1.3 billion to West Germany
was a betrayal of the promises he had been made at Potsdam.
The Berlin Blockade
By 1948, Berlin was a ‘flashpoint’ in the ongoing ‘Cold War’ between East and
West. West Berlin was an island of capitalism and democracy in the heart of
Communist East Germany.
Stalin’s unhappiness about the Marshall Plan and the introduction of the
Deutschmark into West Berlin led him to blockade the city in June 1948, to try to
force Britain and America to surrender their half of the city:
• Road and rail links into W. Berlin were blocked, but the three air corridors
were left open
• Power was cut to W. Berlin from power plants in E. Germany
• Stalin offered food and fuel for anyone who would move to E. Berlin
Britain and America refused to hand over their zone of the city. Instead, they
organised an airlift to bring in essential supplies by plane. Although Stalin doubted
that it would work, the airlift was a success:
• Planes took off from W. German airfields every 30 seconds for 11 months
– 278,000 flights in total
• 2.3 million tons of supplies were brought in, costing more than $200
million
• A new airport was constructed by W. Berliners to reduce congestion at
the other two airports
• Only 2% of West Berliners were tempted into moving to the East
Stalin realised that his blockade had failed and called it off in April 1949. He did
not want to risk a full-scale war with the West, partly because the USA had the
atomic bomb.
The consequences of the blockade were significant for the two Germanies:
• Two separate German countries were now created
• Berlin became a symbol of resistance against the spread of Communism
• The USA was committed to supporting West Germany
• A ‘Cold War’ had now begun
NATO and the Warsaw Pact
In the aftermath of the Berlin Blockade, the USA and Britain created NATO (North
Atlantic Treaty Organisation), an alliance of 11 member nations who promised to defend
each other if any of them were attacked.
Truman Doctrine
American policy of
containing
Communism – not
allowing it to spread
further
Air corridors
Three air routes from
West Germany to West
Berlin, allowing
military and civil planes
to reach W. Berlin
Revision Task
Describe the causes
and consequences of
the Berlin Blockade
The
Dev
elo
pm
ent
of
Ger
man
y, 1
91
9 -
19
91
Although West Germany was on the front line, it did not join NATO until 1955. A
new W. Germany army, the Bundeswehr was also created in 1955. Despite
Konrad Adenauer’s policy of denazification, one of Hitler’s leading generals, von
Manstein, was released from prison to supervise the new army. By 1961, there
were 350,000 soldiers in the Bundeswehr.
In response to West Germany joining NATO, The USSR created the Warsaw Pact
in 1955. By now, the USSR also had atomic weapons and Europe was firmly
divided into two hostile alliances.
The Berlin Wall
East Germany was been concerned about its citizens fleeing to the West
throughout the 1950s. Although the border between East and West Germany was
heavily fortified, it was still easy for E. Germans to simply walk into West Berlin
and travel to the West.
Walter Ulbricht and Nikita Khrushchev were worried about West Berlin for a
number of reasons:
1. High living standards in the West made Communism look poor by
comparison
2. West Berlin was seen as a base for capitalist spies
3. West Berlin was the main escape route for the ‘brain drain’
4. Khrushchev had declared in 1961 that all Berlin belonged to E. Germany
As a result, the East German government started construction of the ‘anti-fascist
protective wall’ around West Berlin in August 1961. It was a 155 km stone wall,
topped with barbed wire and gun positions. There were specially constructed
crossing points into East Berlin, such as the famous ‘Checkpoint Charlie’.
The wall came to symbolise the tension between East and West Germany.
Thousands were killed trying to escape the East. US President Kennedy’s visit to
West Berlin boosted morale, but the USA was powerless to remove the wall.
Kennedy famously remarked that “a wall is a hell of a lot better than a war”.
The Berlin Wall had some benefits for East Germany:
• The ‘brain drain’ was slowed significantly, leading to higher standards of
living
• More people settled down and accepted their life in the East
• More attractive careers in technical professions became available
Willy Brandt & Ostpolitik
Until 1969, the official policy of West Germany was to refuse to have diplomatic
relations with any country that recognised East Germany. Because most countries
wanted to trade with the West, the GDR became very isolated.
In the 1960s, Willy Brandt tried to find ways of improving relations between East
and West. He called his policy Ostpolitik (‘eastern policy’). Some of Brandt’s actions
included:
• 1971 Berlin Accord with the USSR – both sides accepted the division of
Berlin as permanent
• Brandt knelt in sorrow at the Holocaust memorial in the Warsaw ghetto
Bundeswehr
West German armed
forces. By the 1970s, it
was the second largest
armed force in Europe,
with over 500,000 men.
Warsaw Pact
Military alliance
consisting of the
Communist countries of
the Eastern Bloc.
Brain Drain
Migration of skilled
workers from East
Germany to a better life
in the West
Willy Brandt
West German foreign
minister from 1966 and
Chancellor from 1969 -
1974
Ostpolitk
Brandt’s policy of
improving relations
between East and West
Germany
Revision Task
Describe the causes
and consequences of
the Berlin Wall crisis
The
Dev
elo
pm
ent
of
Ger
man
y, 1
91
9 -
19
91
• 1972 Basic Treaty between West and East Germany – both countries
agreed to exchange diplomatic missions, respect each other’s
independence and increase trade
Brandt received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1971 in recognition of his efforts.
Ostpolitik led to improved relations between West and East Germany, although
Brandt was also criticised for seemingly accepting the permanent division of the
two countries.
The most notable effects of Ostpolitik were:
• Both East and West joined the United Nations in 1973
• Travel and communications were easier and trade increased
• East Germany was able to participate in more international sporting events
Revision Task
Draw a chart to show
how the relationship
between East and
West Germany
worsened or
improved, 1945 –
1972. Explain why
these changes
occurred.
The
Dev
elo
pm
ent
of
Ger
man
y, 1
91
9 -
19
91
Co-operation and Reconciliation
Glasnost and Perestroika
By the 1980s, the USSR was struggling to maintain its superpower status for a
number of reasons:
• Its economy could not keep up with the USA
• Soviet technology was failing – the Chernobyl nuclear disaster was a very
public example of this
• A disastrous, lengthy war in Afghanistan was draining Soviet lives, money
and morale
Mikhail Gorbachev became Soviet Premier in 1985. To solve the USSR’s problems,
he introduced two new policies:
1. Glasnost – political freedom
2. Perestroika – economic freedom
Gorbachev also made it clear that he would no longer use the Red Army to prop up
Communist governments in eastern Europe. This was the end of the so-called
Brezhnev Doctrine.
These changes led to the collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe by 1989. In
particular, the new, non-Communist government in Hungary dismantled the Iron
Curtain in March 1989 and allowed any eastern European to travel to the West.
Although Erich Honecker wanted to preserve East Germany’s harsh Communist
regime, it seemed as though its days were numbered.
Fall of the Berlin Wall
Honecker claimed in January 1989 that the Berlin Wall would last for another 50
years. However, Gorbachev withdrew 200,000 Soviet troops from East Germany
to save money. This left Honecker’s Communist government without support.
Large protests broke out against Communism in October 1989, which the Stasi did
nothing to stop. On 18th October, Honecker resigned. When his replacement,
Krenz, asked for help from the USSR, he was told that he was on his own. The
following month was a turning point:
• On 4th November, 1 million people joined a protest on the streets of East
Berlin
• On 6th November, 500,000 people protested in Leipzig, demanding an end
to Communist rule, chanting “Germany – one fatherland”
• On 9th November, with no options left, the East German government
opened the borders with the West. Thousands of people marched to the
Berlin Wall and pulled it down.
• Hundreds of thousands of East Germans started to migrate to the West
Brezhnev Doctrine
The USSR’s policy of
crushing revolts against
communism using their
‘Red Army’
Revision Task
‘Germany would
have been reunified
regardless of the
events of November
1989’. Explain why
you might agree with
this view
Revision Task
Explain why
Gorbachev was
forced to make
reforms in the USSR
in 1985
The
Dev
elo
pm
ent
of
Ger
man
y, 1
91
9 -
19
91
The Role of Helmut Kohl
Helmut Kohl, the West German Chancellor (1982 – 1998) now took centre stage.
He was keen to reunite the two Germanies, as East Germany could not afford to
keep losing people, and West Germany could not afford to accommodate them.
However, Kohl faced some obstacles to reunification:
• East and West Germany were completely different societies – a capitalist
democracy with a strong economy and a communist dictatorship with a
weak economy
• Reunification could only happen if it was supported by the USA and the
USSR
• There was some opposition in West Germany because of worries about
the cost of reunification
Kohl took advantage of West Germany’s enormous wealth to overcome these
obstacles. He:
• Gave huge loans to bail out the bankrupt East German government
• Gave 133 billion Deutschmarks in loans to the USSR to persuade
Gorbachev to back reunification
• Allowed East Germans to exchange their almost worthless Ostmarks for
valuable Deutschmarks at a 1:1 exchange rate
These policies persuaded all parties to give their support to reunification.
The Reunification of Germany
The two German currencies were merged in March 1990. A treaty of unification
was signed in August 1990. The ‘Two Plus Four’ talks took place on October 2nd
and German reunification formally took place on October 3rd, which became an
annual holiday – German Unity Day.
Despite the success of reunification, some problems remained:
• The old East Germany continued to need massive subsidies to survive.
The cost was massive and highly unpopular in the West
• Huge migration from East to West took place after reunification. This
caused unemployment of up to 8% in some parts of the old West
Germany, which were not used to such social problems.
Two Plus Four Talks
Negotiations between
West and East Germany
(‘two’) and the USA,
USSR, France and
Britain (‘four’) which
agreed to German
reunification
Revision Task
Draw a table showing
the long-term and
short-term causes of
German
reunification. Plan an
essay which discusses
which side was more
significant in the
reunification of
Germany
Subsidies
Money given by a
government to keep
prices low