CAMBRIDGE MODERN HISTORY
A D V I S O R Y C O M M I T T E E
G . N . C L A R K J . R . M . B U T L E R J . P . T . B U R Y
THE LATE E . A . B E N I A N S
V O L U M E VI
THE RISE OF GREAT BRITAIN
AND RUSSIA
 
 
 
AND RUSSIA
 
Bentley House, 200 Euston Road, London NWI 2DB
American Branch: 32 East 57th Street, New York, N.Y. 10022
© Cambridge University Press 1970
ISBN:
(Brooke Crutchley, University Printer)
 
PREFACE
For delays in the production of this volume, which has extended over
rather m ore than a decade, the editor takes full responsibility. Its prepa ra-
tion has required more than the straightforward commissioning and
writing of the contents, difficult as these tasks can be: a collective effort
of this kind rather resembles a conference in permanent session, except
that it never meets. Many of the contributors have been good enough to
peruse each other 's work, an d all have patiently pu t up with some revision.
They should be thanked in this place, as also should Mrs Wendy Block
and Mrs Pauline Kemp, formerly of the Arts Faculty office in the Uni-
versity of Southampton, who typed or retyped a large proportion of the
chapters. Other personal acknowledgements, as inadequate as these, are
made in the footnotes as they arise.
In accordance with the practice of the series, all dates are given in New
Style—ten days, from 1700 eleven days, later th an Old Style—unless
otherwise indicated by the letters O.S. In either case the year begins on
1 January. The styles peculiar to Sweden and Russia have been ignored.
The spelling of East European place-names has presented some diffi-
culty, since frontiers
changing rapidly at the time and m any territories
have since developed a national status of their own. No rigorous con-
sistency can be claimed for this volume. While we have usually chosen
the forms most familiar in English-speaking countries, it has sometimes
seemed courteous, as well as more realistic, to respect local spellings. To
retain 'Thorn' for the Polish 'Toruri', for example, must now appear
plainly unhistorical to anyone who has been there, not least if he is a
student of the Teutonic Knigh ts. In a work like this the opportunity must
surely be taken to accustom western readers to absorb a mod icum of E ast
European term s in general, even if we are no t yet ready to d o the same for
the whole wide world, of which this series was never intended to be the
history. Where any ambiguity might arise in such cases, two forms are
given on first mention.
Unless otherwise stated, places of publication are London and Paris
respectively for book titles in English and French cited in footnotes.
J.S.B.
 
 
University of Southampton
The Baltic and the Levant
2-3
3-4
6-7
Rivalries in Spain; the Bou rbon rule 8-9
Rivalries in I t a l y . . . . 9-10
The Mediterranean 10-11
War and peace in North America 12-14
The balance of trade; merchants and governments 14-15
World trading; the South Sea and Canton 15
Britain and the Peace of U trecht 16-17
William Ill's European aims 17-18
Strategy in western Europe
Mercenaries and conscripts 20-1
Care of soldiers 21
Upkeep of navies 21-2
Profiteers and projectors 23-4
Significance of the English Revolution of 1688 25-6
Louis XIV: the question of'd ec line ' . 26-8
Louis XIV: domestic legacy in European perspective
28-9
Town and country 31
Aristocratic and middle-class tastes
35-6
Vll
 
OF SC IE NTIF IC IDEA S, 1688-1751
By A. C. C R O M B I E , Senior Lecturer in the History of Science in the
University of Oxford
and M I C H A E L H O S K I N , Lecturer in the History of Science in the
University of Cambridge
The Royal Society and the Academie des Sciences 38
The Royal Society a t home and abroad 38-40
The
Societies in other countries 42
Teaching and research 42-3
Diffusion of scientific knowledge: journals and other publications . . . 45 -7
Emphasis on measure ment; Political Arithmetic 47-8
An aggregate of autonomous movements . . . . . . . 48
Advances in mechanics and related branches of mathematics . . . . 49
The Newtonian-Cartesian debate . . 49-50
Spread of Newtonian ideas 51-2
Astronomy; optics; sound 52-3
Chemistry: 'phlogisto n' 53-4
Biological sciences in search of theoretical principles 55-6
Collection and classification in botany and zoology 56-8
Ray and Tournefort 58
Geology: fossils and the Flood 60-1
Evolutionary ideas; Maupertuis, Buffon, and the microscope . . . . 62-4
Rival theories of reproduction and heredity 64-5
Physiological experiment an d its competing models: Reaumur, Hales, Boerhaave
and von Haller 65-7
The New Husbandry 68-9
Organization of manpower 69
CHAPTER III
I. TENDENCIES IN THOUGHT AND LITERATURE
By W. H. B A R B E R , Professor of French Literature in the University of London
Anglo-French co-dominance 72
 
Germany page 73-4
The Netherlands 74-5
International contacts 77-8
Orthodox literary canons 78
French literature: ancients and moderns 79
'Reason' 80-1
Effect of scientific thought 83-4
The growing prestige of science 84-5
The religious motive in popular science 85
Science and metaphysics 85-6
Fe elon . . . . 93
French drama 94-5
Narratives of travel 95 -6
Oriental studies 96 -7
Contacts with non-Christian religions 98-9
The Noble Savage 99-100
2.
MUSIC,
1661-1752
By FREDER I CK W STERNFELD , Fellow of Exeter College an d
Lecturer
in
Music
Later histories 102-3
Public concerts 104-5
Music printing and publishing 105
Opera at the court of France; L ully's tragedies lyriques 105-7
Handel in London; oratorio 107-8
Lully's influence 108- 9
The orchestra n o
Alessandro Scarlatti 112-13
 
Pufcell page 113-14
English attitudes to ope ra 114-15
Purely instrumental com positions: overtures and concertos . . . . 1 1 5 - 1 6
Joh ann Sebastian Bach 116-18
CHAPTER IV
R E L I G I O N A N D T H E R E L A T I O N S O F
C H U R C H A N D S T A T E
By THE REVEREND J. M C M A N N E R S , Professor of History in the
University of Leicester
Grow th of the spirit of toleration 120-1
Isolation of Geneva . . . . 121-2
'Reasonable'religion 124
The English bishops 126
Missionary enterprise: Protestant, Orthodo x, Catholic 128
Jesuit, Capuchin and Franciscan in the New W orld 128-9
The Far Eas t; the Jesuits at Peking and the Propaganda in Rom e . . . 129-30
Relations between the papacy and rulers ; papal elections I3° -I
Regalism in Spain and the Spanish Indies 131
Ga llican liberties 131-2
Unigenitus I3
Poli t ical Janseni sm 133-4
' Jan sen is t s ' ou ts ide Fra nce ; the Chu rch of Ut recht 134-6
Intel lectual tensions 136-7
A crisis with in Ch ristia nity 137-8
Re aso n and revela t ion: scepticism and f ideism 138-9
' N a t u r a l ' m o r a l i t y 1 3 9
Biblical criticism 140
Bo ssue t . . . 141
Predest inat ion 142-3
Religion and the arts 144-5
Ethica l s te reotypes ; the 'Chr is t ian he ro ' in England 145-6
T h e ' h o n n e t e h o m m e ' i n F r a nc e 1 46 -7
M a d a m e G u y o n a n d t he c on fe re nc e o f I ss y: t he Q u ie ti st c on tr ov er sy . . . 147
Bossuet and Fdnelo n 147-9
Quiet ism and Qu akerism 149-50
Fai t h and W or ks : Ge rm an Pie ti sm 150-1
Pie t ism and educat ion I5
1
Th e State and mo ral s tand ards in Eng land 151-2
C hristian p rin ciples in th e e co no mic w o rl d: B ax ter a nd Steele . . . . 152-3
Compromises 153
 
CHAPTER V
By
A N D R E W L O S S K Y , Professor of History in the University of California, Los Angeles
Tripart i te division of E u r o p e page 154-5
Bri tain in E u r o p e 155
The p r inc ip l e o f ' ba l ance of p o w e r ' a n d its origins 155-7
Appl ica t ions of the pr inc ip le ; the nor the rn ba l ance 157-8
South-eas te rn Europe 158-9
Equi l ib r ium in I t a l y : the place of Savoy in 1713 159
The p rob l em
of
159
F r a n c e and Spain 159-60
F r a n c e and the I tal ian States . . 160
France and the Nethe r l ands 160-1
Louis XIV and t he papacy 161-2
Will iam III and the Medi t e r r anean 162
The Aus t r i an Habsbu rgs in I taly 162-3
Diplomatic r ivalr ies at T u r i n and Lisbon 163-4
Humil ia t ions of the papacy 164
Consequences of I tal ian disequil ibrium 165
The wes te rn powers and the German p r ince s 165-6
The Emperor ' s in f luence
166
Effects on the s t ruc ture of th e E m pire . . . . . . . . . 167
' E u r o p e ' and ' C h r i s t e n d o m ' . 167-8
Influence
of
Legit imist sent iment and aid to rebels 169
The h ie rarchy of Sta tes ; d ip lom at ic e t ique t te 169-70
M e t h o d s of negot ia t ion 170-1
Difficulties of coa l i t ions and of media t i on 171-2
T h e art of d ip lomacy . 172—3
Interna t iona l law and d ip loma t i c p rocedu re 173
C o n t r a b a n d and neut ra l r igh ts 174-5
Conventions between bel l igerents 175
Wil l iam I l l ' s cont ro l of foreign pol icy; Heinsius and M a r l b o r o u g h . . . 176 -7
Vienna's delays 177
Lou i s XIV ' s me thods and the deve lopmen t of th e Affaires Etrangeres. . . 177-8
Communica t i ons , codes and c iphers 178-9
Am bassado r s , envoys and residents 179-80
The cos t of being an a m b a s s a d o r 180-2
Collect ing information: secret agents 182-3
'Grat if icat ions* and subsidies . . . 183-4
The efficacy of gifts and pens ions much exaggera ted 184-5
The pro tec t ion of na t i ona l s : consu ls 185-6
Increas ing impor tance of c o m m e r c e in d ip lomacy 186-7
Economic mot ives not decisive 187
Will iam III and commerc ia l in te res t s 187-8
Religious motives in internat ional affairs 188-9
Louis XIV as defender of the Catholic fai th 189
Louis XIV
and
views
of
190-1
Wil l i am and ' t he l i be r t y of a l l E u r o p e ' 192
xi
 
CHAPTER VI
T H E E N G L I S H R E V O L U T I O N
By E. S. D E BE ER , C.B.E., D.IJ TT., F.B.A.
Significance of English constitutional dispute in European politics . . page 193
Charles II and the House of Commons; the borough charters . . . . 193-4
Character of James II 194-5
Changes of ministers 195
The Parliament of 1685; situation of the English Catholics 196
Army commissions granted to Catholics 196
The standing army enlarged 197
James II and the Church of England 197-8
James II and William of Orange 198
Dijkvelt's embassy to England, 1687 198-9
The Declaration of Indulgence of April 1687 199
Preparations for a new parliament 199
William's predicament and decision to invade 200
The Seven Bishops acquitted . 201
The invitation to William, July 1688 201
Birth of an heir to the throne 201-2
William perfects his invasion plans; German princes, Dutch provinces . . 202
Louis XIV and the Cologne election 202-3
William's declaration of 10 October 203-4
James IPs attempts to reverse his policy 204
The landing at Torbay on 15 November 204
James leaves England 205-6
The Convention Parliament 206
The constitutional problems . 206-7
William and Mary as joint sovereigns 207
The Declaration of Rights: William UJ and English institu ions . . . . 208
William Il l' s character 208-9
The Nonjurors 209
The state of Scotland: William and Mary accepted 211-12
Church and State in Scotland; growth of Scottish separatism . . . . 2 1 2 - 1 3
The state of Ireland 213
The battle of Ireland; Treaty of Limerick (October 1691) 213-14
William III and the English parties 214-15
Discontent in England: the Whigs in power 215-16
The Revolution in political thought; theories of kingship 216-18
French absolutism attacked and defended: Jurieu 218
Locke's Two Treatises ofGovernment 219-20
A conservative revolution 220
XJl
 
CHAPTER VII
T H E N I N E Y E A R S W A R , 1 6 8 8 - 1 6 9 7
By SIR GE OR GE CL AR K, D.LITT., F.B.A., Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford
A question of nomenclature page 223
Strategic advance and military growth o f France since treaties o f Nymegen. . 223-4
Importance o f Cologne and Liege: a disputed election 224 -5
The French invade the Rhineland
. 225
French diplomatic calculations: fall o f Belgrade; James II 225-6
William o f Orange in England 2 6
War declared against th e United Provinces: the alignment of forces in the Empire 226-7
Bearings o f
the Turkish war
Characteristics o f
Restraints o n operations; war casualties 2 3 0 - 1
Differences between the belligerents in discipline, training and equipment . . 23 1 -2
Operations in
The importance o f
the Spanish Netherlands; war declared o n Spain, April 1689 232-3
Devastation o f the Palatinate 233
The Emperor, the Turks and the Maritime Powers in
1689 233-4
Extension
British and Dutch attitudes t o conquests in America 235
The French
French naval initiative; William III and sea power
2 36
French reverses
Savoy: Victor Amadeus II between France and the Allies 238
The prospects for 1690; William III goes
t o
Tourville fails
t o
exploit victory
239-40
The Boyne, 11 July: King James returns t o France 24 0
Savoy joins the Allies: the battle at Staffarda, 18 August 2 4 0 - 1
The Turks recover Belgrade: effect o n
the German war
at sea 241
William II I
the Spanish Netherlands; fall o f Mons in April . . . . 242
Operations elsewhere; Catinat takes Ni ce 242 -3
The strain o n French resources; death o f Louvois 243
French plans t o invade England: La Hougue t o Barfleur, 29 May-3 June . . 243-4
French privateers 244
Luxembourg captures Nam ur in June; battle o f Steenkerk, 3 August . . . 244-5
1692:
French superiority o n
th e Rhine; abortive invasion o f France from Savoy. 245
Loosening
o f
245-6
1693: The Smyrna convoy; William defeated at Landen-Neerwinden, 29 July . 246-7
French successes in Catalonia and Piedmont 247
1694:
Failure o f Allied landing near Brest in June 248
xiii
 
C O N T E N T S
Naval operations in the Mediterranean: William orders Russell to winter there page 248-9
1695: Campaign in the Netherlands: William recaptures Namur in September . 249
Peace-feelers: Callieres at Maastricht 249-50
1696: abortive plans to invade England 250
The Treaty of Turin (29 August) and the neutralization of Italy in October; effects
in the Balkans and in Spain 250-1
Financial exhaustion of both sides 251
War in North America and the Caribbean, 1689-97 251
1697:
French advances in the Netherlands and capture of Barcelona, 10 August 252
The Peace of Ryswick, 20 September-30 October 252-3
Recognition of William III by Louis XIV 253
CHAPTER VIII
THE EM ERG ENC E OF GREAT BRITAIN AS A WORLD POWER
By the late D A V I D O O G ,
Fellow of New C ollege, Oxford
Trans fo rma t ion of Britain between 1660 and 1714 254
English and Frenc h war-m aking resources compared 254-5
The Jacobi te menace 255
I re land and Scotland 255-6
The F rench
Englan d ' s na tura l advantages 257-8
The human e lement : soc ia l change in the count rys ide 258
A wide range of craf t sk i l l s ; ' t he po or ' 259-60
The fiscal factor and economic policy 260-1
The ba lance of t r ade and the char te red companies 261-2
L o n d o n 262
T h e 'new rich' and new luxuries 262
The s ta tus of w o m e n 263
Predominance
of
The Revolu t ion surv ives . 263-4
A regime of tolerat ion: rel igion, t reason and blasphemy 264-5
The judges : Sir John Ho l t 265
Limi ta t ions on the prerogat ive 265-6
The cont ro l of foreign policy 266-7
The impor tance of th e Act of Sett lement 267
Towards cabine t government ; the Junto 267-8
Queen Anne ' s minis te rs : Godolphin and the M a r l b o r o u g h s . . . . 268-9
Queen Anne tu rns
Sacheverell 269-70
Har ley and Bol ingbroke , the i r charac ters and poli t ical outlook . . . . 270-1
D e a t h
of
. . . 27 1-2
Compos i t i on of t he House of Commons 272-3
Whigs and Tories 273-5
Tory oppos i t ion to full-scale hostilities 274- 5
Th e Un ion wi th Scot land: Scot t i sh par t ies 275-6
The Es ta tes of Scot land throw down the gauntlet 276-7
Negot ia t ions for u n i o n ; the t rea ty o 1706, ratified in 1707 277-8
Consequences of t he Un ion ; H igh lande r s and Lowlanders 278-9
The Augus t an Age in E n g l a n d ; the new journa l i sm 279-80
At t acks on M a r l b o r o u g h 280
Swift as a pamphleteer: The Conduct of the Allies 280-1
The liberalism of Defoe 281-2
Addison's eulogy: an enlarged and unified Britain 282-3
xiv
 
WAR FINANCE, 1689-1714
By P. G. M. D I C K S O N , Fellow of St Catherine's College and Lecturer in Modern History
in the University of Oxford, and J O H N S P E R L I N G , Associate Professor in Humanities,
San Jose State College, California
Neglect of the financial side of war .
page
284-5
Mounting war expenditure 285-6
Long-term borrowing; the Tontine of 1693 286-7
Excessive reliance on short-dated borrowing; depression of credit by 1697 . . 287
Lottery loans and long annuities; the lenders 287
Technical developments in the City of London: the insurance market . . 288-9
The Bank of England and the Exchequer: tallies 289-90
Waning of public credit in 1696 290
The Bank saves the situation 290-1
Origin and development of Exchequer Bills 291-2
Over-issue of bills by Navy and Victualling Boards: the South Sea Scheme . 292
Problem of remitting money to 't he forces ab ro ad ': several false starts . . 292-3
Bank of England office at Antwerp; competing syndicates 293
Godolphin 's exchange system survives the Spanish Succession War . . . 293-4
Defects of public finance in the United Provinces 294
Financial machinery of the central government; federal revenue . . . . 294-5
The military budget and naval finance 295-6
Cost of two wars chiefly met by increasing provincial contributions . . . 296
Direct and indirect taxes in the province of Holland 296-7
Growth of public debt in Holland; loan facilities at A m s t e r d a m . . . . 297-8
France: the Contrdle Giniral; strength and weaknesses of Colbert's example . 298-9
Scale of war expenditure ; direct and indirect taxes 299-300
Long-term loans and sales of offices 300-1
Types of short-dated bills; their over-issue after 1704 301-2
Dearth of specie 302-3
Foreign remittances: the experience of Huguetan 303-4
Samuel Bernard's system: Protestant bankers and the Payments of Lyons . . 304-5
Crisis of 1709; Desmarets and the Caisse Legendre 305
Deficiencies in Habsburg financial organization . . . . . . 305-6
Estimates of revenue and expenditure 306-7
Limits to dishonouring commitments; transference of military obligations . . 307
Loans on Dutch market and from England 307-8
Internal borrowing: great nobles and Jewish financiers; Samuel Oppenheimer . 308-10
Financial crisis of 1703; proposals for a State Bank 310-11
Ineffectiveness of the Imperial Banco del Giro (1703) 311
Success of Vienna City Bank (1706); funding operations 311-13
Unprecedented scale of government expenditure 1689-1714: comparative fiscal
records 313
Cost and efficiency of State borrowing: comparisons between countries . . 313-14
International elements 314
XV
 
CHAPTER X
THE CO N DI TIO N OF FR AN CE , 1688-1715
B JEAN MEUVRET, Director of Studies at the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Paris
Louis XIV his own first minister after 1691
page
Colbert's concern with short-term nee ds; tax abuses 317-1 8
The reorganization of 1661 -88 in other branches of administration . . . 318-1 9
Tw o instruments of pow er: the intendants and the army 319
Limitations of the royal pow er; its opportunism 319-2 0
A stagnant eco no my : corn prices 320
Eco nom y distorted by dema nds of war ; the circulation of mo ney . . . 320-1
The crisis of 169 3-4 3
2
i - 2
M ov em ent o f corn prices after 1694 and the fam ine o f 1709 . . . . 3 22 -3
R epercussions o f fo od scarcity . . . 323
Financial makeshifts of the Crow n 323-4
Rio ts; the contribution of salt-smuggling to violence 324-5
The Camisard rebellion in Lang uedoc, 170 2-4 325
Th e arm y as an eleme nt of disord er; characteristics of recruitment . . . 325 -6
Criticism of royal polic y; the influence o f Beauvillier, Chevreuse and M adame de
Maintenon 326-7
Fenelon's ideas on reform: 'Letter to Louis XIV* (1693/4) and
Tilimaque
(1699) 327-9
Other critics: Boisguilbert's econ om ic analysis; Vauban 's fiscal proposals . . 329-31
Th e Contro llers-General from 1689 to 1715 331
The capitation and the dixiime; reaso ns for partial failure 332-3
Social forc es: the clergy and the increasing author ity of the bishops . . . 333
Gallicanism and the new Jansenism 333-4
The Parlements 334~5
The Provincial Estates 335 -6
Th e financiers: Legen dre, Bernard , the Paris family 336 -7
International contacts of the 'new con ver ts': the Crown and the Hug uenots . 337-8
Proliferation of offices for sale 338
Th e administrative nobility; social distances in general 338 -9
Prospects of social advancement 33 9-4 °
Importance of the larger towns; the Parisian
mondain
340-1
A shift in mental attitudes 341 -2
Gro wing cosm opolitan ism and sense of cultural superiority 342
CHAPTER XI
T H E S P A N I S H E M P I R E U N D E R
FOREIGN PRESSURES, 1688-1715
By the late ROLAND DENNIS HUSSEY, Professor ofHistory in the
University
of
California,
Lo s
Angeles, an d J. S . B R O M L E Y
The ques t ion o f dec l ine 343-4
Towards recovery; foreign elements in the p o p u l a t i o n 3 45
Public finance; t h e Church 346-7
The seigneurial system a n d t h e grandees 347-8
Shift ing cabals a t the court o f Car los I I ; h i s character. 348-9
Overseas possess ions : t h e Phil ippines , th e Canaries , t h e Indies . . . . 3 4 9
xvi
 
Territorial threats in No rth , Central and South America 350
Second marriage of Carlos II (1689): Ma ria An na of Pfalz-Neuberg . . . 350-1
The new queen 's increasing influence: dismissal of Oro pesa 351
Austrophils and Francophils: importance of the Despacho Universal . . . 351-2
Governmen t economies and other reforms 352
Max Emmanuel of Bavaria and the hereditary government of the Spanish
Netherlands 352-3
Propo sals to cur b the Inqui sition, 1696 353-4
The Nine Years War overseas: flotas, galeones, corsairs 354
Skirmishes in Hispan iola; Anglo-Spanish attack on Saint-D omingue , 1695 . . 354-5
Cartagena captured by Pointis and Ducasse , 1697 355-6
Defensive counter-measures and missionary expansion in the Indies: California,
Amaz onia, the Philippines 356-7
Catalonia in the Nine Years Wa r 357
Franco-A ustrian rivalry at Ma dri d: Card inal Porto carre ro and the queen . . 357-8
First Partition Tre aty; anti-H absburg manifestations in Ma drid . . . . 358
Hostilities in nor th Africa; the Fren ch in the South Sea and Louisiana . . 359-60
The 'D arien C om pany' of 1695: the Scots in Darien 1 6 9 8 - 1 7 0 0 . . . . 360
Second Partition Tre aty: Carlos wills his kingdoms to Philip of Anjou . . 360-1
De ath of Car los II (1 No vem ber 1700): Lou is XI V accepts the will . . . 361
Philip V in Ma drid : attitudes of the grandees and of Aragonese realms . . 361-2
Reactions in Catalonia and Valencia 362
Philip's character 362-3
Th e proble ms he had to face; consti tution al diversity 363
Louis XIV at first displays tact tow ard s Spain 363-4
Gro wth of Fren ch trading in the Ind ies: the Asiento 364-5
ncre asing F re nc h influe nce: J ea n O rr y s ent t o S pa in in 1701 . . . . 365
Orry propo ses a French -style adm inis tra tion ; his financial reforms . . . 365-6
Renovation of the Spanish army 366-7
Marriage of Philip to Maria Luisa of Savoy (1701); influence of the princess
des Ursins 367
Philip in Saragoss a, Barc elona and Na ples , 1701-3 368
Mar ia Luisa as Lieutenant of the Rea lm; her popular ity in Ma drid . . . 368-9
Frenc h disputes at M adr id: Louis XIV recalls Orry and Ma dam e des Ursins , 1704 369
Reinstatement of M adam e des Ursins and Orry , 1705 369-70
P orto ca rre ro re tir ed ; a pp oin tm en ts of A me lo t a nd G rim al do . . . . 370
Catalonia and Valencia in revolt after the arrival of Archduke Charles on
22 August 1705 370-1
Criticism of 'Ch arl es II I ' 371
1706: Philip temp orarily evacua tes M ad rid ; second recall of Orr y . . . 371-2
The war overseas; French convoy protection; Campeche, the Canaries, Florida,
Colonia do Sacram ento 372
The Manila galleon: Dampier and Woodes Rogers 372-3
After Almanza (1707): destruction of the Aragonese fueros 373-4
Breach between Spain and Fr an ce : the peace-talks of 1709 374-5
Resistance to Frenc h economic pressures 375-6
Breach with Ro me , 1709 376
P hilip a nd t he pe ac e n eg ot ia ti on s; t he r et ur n of O rr y in 1713 . . . . 3 76 -7
En d of the old system of governm ent in Spain 377
Death of Queen Ma ria Luisa in Febru ary 1714 377-8
xvii
 
C O N T E N T S
Church and State: Melchor de Macanaz and the Inquisition . . . page 378
Fall of Barcelona in September 1714: Berwick's rule in Catalonia . . . 378-9
Settlement of Cata lan governm ent, 1715-17 379-8o
Philip's marriage to Elizabeth Farne se opens a new era 380
CHAPTER XII
T H E
S U C C E S S I O N
By
S I R
G E O R G E C L A R K
Ryswick treat ies in real i ty an armist ice 381
Max Emm anue l i n t he Span ish Ne the r l ands ; Du tch ga r ri sons . . . . 3 8 1 - 2
W eakness of the Span ish forces 382
Run -dow n of Du tch and Engl i sh a rmies 382-3
Au str ian an d Fre nch forces no t substant ial ly affected 383
Th e diiference betw een 1698 an d 1688 383-4
M uch depen dent on the deat h of Car los II ; the Spanish at t i tude . . . 384
Att i t udes of the M ari t im e Pow ers and of the Ho use of Ha bsbu rg . . . 384-5
Fren ch interests in Spain and her possessions 385
Th e Spanish succession: legal issues and the claimants 385-6
Th e Ha bsb urg interest ; the secret part i t ion of 1668 386-8
Th e Bav arian claim 388
Du tch suppor te rs of par t i t ion 388
Prel iminary mo ves for a revised par t i t io n; Tallard in Lo ndo n, 1698 . . . 388-9
Policy of L ou is X I V : m il itary d isp osi tio ns in s ou th er n F ra nc e . . . . 389-90
Position of M a x E mm an uel a nd B ergeyck 's p lan s for O stend . . . . 390-1
W ill iam Il l ' s pro po sals ; the slurs on his motives 391-3
First Part i t io n Trea ty, 11 Oct ober 1698: i ts meri ts 393-4
T he de ath of Josep h F erd in an d of B avaria (F eb ru ary 1699) . . . . 394
Th e new si tuat ion 394-5
A balance between Fr anc e and Aus tr ia 395
Second Part i t ion Trea ty, 25 M arch 1700; Leopo ld I prepar es for w a r. . . 395-6
Phil ip of Anjou m ade heir to Car los II : Po rtoc arre ro and the pope . . . 396-7
L ou is X I V accepts t he will b etw een 12 a n d 14 N ov em be r 1700 . . . . 397
Phil ip V recognized in M ilan and Brussels 397
1701: Fre nch mil i tary measu res 397-8
French t roops admi t ted in to the Spanish Nether lands : wi thdrawal of the Dutch
and of M ax Em man uel 398-9
Arc hbis hop Joseph Clem ent of Colo gne and his chap ter 399-400
Phil ip V recognized by the Un ited Provinces an d Eng land, Feb rua ry-A pri l 1701 400
The English parl iament persuaded by Will iam
III;
the em pero r 's posi t ion . . 401
Com peti t io n for al l ies in Ge rm any between Leop old I an d Loui s XI V . . 401-2
Outb reak of the Gr ea t Nor ther n Wa r : the Peace of Traven dal , 18 Augus t 1700 402-3
Th e empero r de termined to wi ths tand Fren ch c la ims 403
1701: Fre nch tro ops in no rth I taly (Jan uar y); at t i tudes of I tal ian States . . 403
Mili tary and naval prep arat i ons in the west ; at t i tude s of Ge rm an States . . 404-5
Au str ian s in I tal y: Eug ene defeats Cati nat and Vil leroi 405
M arlb oro ugh and the Trea ty of the G ran d All iance (7 September) . . . 406
Franc o-Po lish negotia t ions bro ken off 406
G erm an accessions to the G ra nd All iance 406-7
Portug uese treat ies with Fra nce an d Spain (June) 407
xviii
 
C O N T E N T S
Louis XIV recognizes the Old Pretender (September) and proposes cession of
Spanish Netherlands (30 October) page 408
1702: the em peror's uncertain strategy : preference for a Mediterranean war . 408 -9
Death of William HI on 19 M arch; declarations of war, 8 April-15 May . . 409
CHAPTER XIII
By A. J. W
A \h, formerly Secretary of the State Com mission for
Dutch History at The Hague
Aims of the G ran d All iance. 410
Ge rm an States and the All iance 410 -11
Stren gth of Allied forces in 1702 411 -12
Fren ch advantag es 412
Situat ion in the Spanish Ne the rlan ds: reform s of Co un t Bergeyck . . . 412-13
S upp or t for L ouis X IV in th e E m pi re : B avaria a nd C olog ne . . . . 413-14
Will iam Il l ' s continen tal policy contin ued un der Qu een A nn e . . . . 414
Effects of W ill iam's death on the Un ited Prov inces; D ut ch war aims . . . 415
Problem of the supreme com m and : M ar lboro ugh 415-16
Initial successes of the Allies on R hi ne an d M euse , 1702- 3 416
Marlborough's preference for a mobile s trategy frustrated by the Dutch , . 416-17
1703: Vil lars break s thr oug h to Bav aria; Tyr ol at tack ed on tw o sides . . 417
Th e war in no rth I taly ; Savoy join s the All ies 417-18
Cadiz and Vigo, 1702; Portugal joins the All iance: the Methuen treat ies (May-
Decem ber 1703) 418-19
A ng lo-D utch interdict on t rad e w ith Spain an d F ran ce ( 1 7 0 3 - 4 ) . . . . 419 -20
1704:
the threa t to Vienna; Mar lborough 's march to the Danube: Blenheim
(13 August) 420-2
Stalemate in the Ne therla nds and no rth I taly 422
Opening of Al lied campaign in Spain (M arc h) : Gib ra l ta r cap tured on 3 Au gu s t . 422-3
Th e bat t le of Ma laga on 24 Au gust 423
1705:
Em peror Joseph I , Bavar ia and Transylvania 423-4
Mar lborough 's abor t ive Mosel le advance; d i f fe rences be tween Mar lborough
and the Du tch 424
Th e pl ight of Savo y; Barcelona capitulates on 14 Octo ber to the All ies . . 425
Louis XI V's first secret pea ce offers rejected 42 5-6
1706:
Ramill ies (23 M ay) and the Belgian revolut io n 426-7
The Du tch Barr ie r ; M ar lboro ugh and the government of the south Nether lan ds . 427
Anglo-Du tch Cond om inium in the south Net her lan ds ; the upper Rhin e . . 428
Th e relief of Tu rin (7 September) and Fre nch retreat across the Alp s . . . 428-9
A llies' successes in S pain follow ed by e va cu atio n of M a dr id . . . . 4 29 -3 0
F av ou rab le posi t ion of th e A ll ies: ' N o peace w ith ou t S pa in ' . . . . 43 0-1
Frus t ra t ion of Du tch Barr ie r d ip lomacy 431
1707: Charles XI I in Sax ony : M arlb oro ugh goes to Alt ran stad t in Apri l . . 431-2
Steri le cam paign in the Ne the rlan ds; Vil lars forces th e Lines of Sto l lho fen. . 432
The Aust r ians move in to Naples 432-3
Allied failure before To ul on (22 Au gus t) an d defeat at Al m anz a (25 Apr il) . 433
1708:
Aus tr ian reinforcements for Ca talo nia 434
Neth erlands the principal war the atr e: Ou den arde (11 July) . . . . 435
T h e m ur de ro us siege of L il le: fall of t he citadel o n 9 D ec em be r . . . . 4 35 -6
xix
 
1709:
failure
of
peace negotiat ions page 436-7
Louis XTV appeals to h is peo ple ; M alplaquet (11 Septem ber) a pyrrhic victory . 437-8
Allies on the defensive
1710:
failure
of
fur ther peace negot ia t ions (M arch-Ju ly) 439-40
Th e 'N e Plus Ul t ra Li nes ' ; Al l ied debacle in
Spain
440
440-1
Negot ia t ions be tween St John and Torcy
441
Disavowal
of
. . . .
442-3
1712: Congress meets at Utrecht , 29 January: the Br i t i sh ' res t ra in ing orders ' of
21 M ay 443
The Dutch defeated by Vil lars a t De nai n on 24 July 443-4
1713: the new Barrier and the Peace of Utrech t (March -Apr i l ) . . . . 444
1714: Treat ies
444
The fate of Cata lonia 444-5
1715: the Thi rd Barr ie r Trea ty (15 November)
445
in the University of Oxford
Ear ly movem ents towar ds peace , 1706-8 446-7
Differences ab ou t Sp ain : change in Fre nch at t i tu de 447-8
At t i t ude
of
Whigs : Br i ta in and Aust r ia opposed to par t i t ion
. . . . 448
a
Confl ict ing aims of the powers: the Prel iminaries
of
1709 448-9
Lack of a coherent policy in Vienna; Wratis law's I tal ian policy . . . . 449-50
The negot ia t ions of M arch -M ay 1709 : Du t ch demands st epped up . . . 450-1
French concess ions ; the ques t ion of compensation for Phil ip V . . . . 451-2
Th e 4 th an d 37th a r t ic les re jected by F ran ce ; causes of misunders tanding . . 453-4
Vien na's intransigence 454-5
a
. 455
a t
. . . . 456
Break-up of Go dolp hin ' s minis t ry the turn ing-poin t 456-7
War-wear iness br ings suppor t
to
. . .
in
The Mesnager Convent ion
Dutch reluctantly accept this as
a
basis
460
The Congress
461
The 'Spec i f i c De m an ds ' o f t he A ll i es : B r i ti sh and Du tc h 462
Emperor ' s re fusa l t o cons ider par t i t io n of the Spanish inheri tance . . . 462-3
Possibility of Philip
V
. . .
463-4
. .
464-5
The c la ims of Pruss ia : Up per Guelder lan d and Neuchate l 465-6
Por tuguese ga ins and d isappoin tments
466
xx
 
Settlement with Savoy: Sicily and an Alpine barrier page 466-7
Habsburg isolation: the emperor negotiates over Spain 467-8
French claims against Austria: the Italian princelings 468
Louis XTV removes the Old Pretender to Lorraine in February 1713 . . . 469
Parliament rejects Bolingbroke's commercial treaty with France . . . . 469-70
Britain and France settle American questions 470
Signing of peace treaties with France, n April 1713 470
Britain's major war aims achieved . 470-1
Dutch forced to acquiesce 471
Divergences between the emperor and the German princes 471-2
Negotiations conducted between Villars and Eugene (November 1713-January
1714) 472
The German settlement; religious divisions in the Empire 473-4
The Treaty of Baden, 7 September 1714 474
Comparative instability of the German settlement 474-5
Political and commercial negotiations between England and Spain: the Asiento . 475-6
Anglo-Spanish peace treaty signed on 13 July 1713 476
Treaty between United Provinces and Spain signed on 26 June 1713 . . . 476
Treaty between Spain and Portugal of February 1715: Colonia do Sacramento . 476
Second Anglo-Dutch Barrier Treaty, 30 January 1713 476-7
Austro-Dutch Barrier Treaty, 15 November 1715 478
Later history of the Dutch Barrier 478
Value of the pacification of Utrecht 478-9
CHAPTER XV
FRANCE AND ENGLAND IN NORTH A M E R I C A ,
1689-1713
By P H I L I P S. H A F F E N D E N ,
Lecturer in American History
The background of revolutionary disturbances; the role of Boston . . . 480-1
Massachusetts: a compromise with independence 481
New York: Jacob Leister 481-2
Maryland: dissatisfaction with proprietary government 482
Virginia and East Jersey 482-3
The Massachusetts charter of 1691 483
Changes outside New England 483-4
French Canada: State and Church . 484-5
Long-range control from Versailles . . . 485
Character of French Canadians 485-6
The French and the American Indians; Frontenac 486
Failure of the Phips expedit ion to Quebec (1690) 487
Frontenac borrows the methods of Indian warfare 487-8
French successes in Newfoundland and Hudson's Bay 488-9
The French chastise the Iroquois and procure their neutrality (1701) . . . 489-90
The Navigation Act of 1696 and the Board of Trade 490-1
The Crown and the colonial charters 491-2
The Puritan theocracy at bay: the Salem trials; Quakers and Anglicans . . 492-3
Religion in other colonies; French and German sects 493-4
Effects of war on moral behaviour 494
xx i
 
C O N T E N T S
E d u c a t i o n : H a r v a r d , Y a l e , W i l l i a m
a n d
M a r y page 4 9 4 - 5
P r i n t i n g p r e s s a n d l ib ra r ies 4 9 5
Soc ia l s t ruc tu re a n d u r b a n c o n s c i o u s n es s 4 9 5 - 6
N e w F r a n c e : s o c i a l s e r v i c e s , e d u c a t i o n a n d cu l tu re 496-7
Th e miss ionar y f ron t ie r 497-8
T h e u p p e r M i s s i s s i p p i a n d L o u i s i a n a : J e s u i t s a n d Seminar i s t s . . . . 4 9 8 - 9
O r i g i n s o f Lou is ia na , 1684-98 499-500
I t s ea r ly v ic i s s i tudes : t h e L e M o y n e b r o t h e r s a n d C r o z a t 5 0 0 - 1
T h e W a r o f the Span ish Success ion i n N e w E n g l a n d 5 0 1 - 2
V a u d r e u i l a n d Dudley cons ider reg iona l neu t ra l i ty 502
Massachuse t t s f a i l s t o c a p t u r e P o r t R o y a l , A c a d i a 5 0 2 - 3
R a p i d c h a n g e s o f f o r t u n e i n N e w f o u n d l a n d 5 0 3
C a r o l i n i a n a t t a c k s o n F l o r i d a m i s s i o n s 5 0 3 - 4
Ind ian po l i t i c s a n d t h e defence o f L o u i s i a n a 50
C a p t u r e o f Por t Roya l (Oc tober 1710) a n d t h e ' G l o r i o u s E n t e r p r i s e ' . . . 505
F i a s c o o f t h e Q u e b e c e x p e d i t i o n o f 1711 505-6
Seeds o f i m p e r i a l d i s i n t e g r a t i o n ; t h e p a s s i n g o f a g e n e r a t i o n . . . . 506-7
A m e r i c a n a t t i t u d e s t o t h e Peace 507-8
N e w F r a n c e r e t a i n s i t s v i g o u r 508
Effects o f w a r o n p o p u l a t i o n ; i n c r e a s e o f E n g l i s h p r e p o n d e r a n c e . . . 508
CHAPTER XVI
P O R T U G A L A N D H E R E M P I R E ,
1680-1720
By V. M A & A L H A E S G O D I N H O , Docteur is Lettres, Sorbonne
Slum p and boo m in Portug uese Atlantic econom y; the course of prices, 1668-1728 509-10
Cr is is of produ ct ion in Braz i l : sugar , sp i ri t s, and tobacco . . . . . 5 1 0 - 1 1
Restr icted mo ney supply 511
Anti-m ercanti le feel ing: the Inquisi t ion 511-12
Fall in re-e xpo rts . 512
Indus t r ia l inves tment pro jec ts and new manufac tures , 1670-92 . . . . 5 1 2 - 1 3
Sum ptuary laws to cu t dow n impo r ts 513
M one tary polic y: success of the revalu at ion decree of 1688 513-14
T he slave t ra de : th e C ac he o C om pa ny a nd th e A sien to of 1696 . . . . 514-15
M oz am biq ue: fresh coloniz ing efforts 516
G oa and M aca o : new Eas t I nd i a compan ie s merged in 1700 . . . . 5 1 6 - 1 7
Revival of Easte rn tra de ; profi ts and cargoes 517
The Om anis capture M om basa (1698) ; the Zambes i de l ta 517-18
Dec ay of Port ugue se ci t ies in In dia ; mig rat ions of Indo- Portu guese . . . 518-19
Tra de boo m dur ing and af te r the Nine Years W ar 519-20
Exten sion of ol ive groves and vineyards 520-1
Collapse of policy of industr ial izat ion 521-2
Interests of the nobil i ty in grow th of wine exports 522
A watersh ed in econom ic policy : the cycle of por t , ma deira, and gold. . . 523
Expansion of t rade with England after 1688; s ignif icance of the Methuen treaty
of 27 De cem ber 1703 . 523-4
A strictly defen ive foreign po licy o rie ntate d to wa rd s F ra nc e . . . . 524
Fron t ie r proble ms in the Peninsula and South Am er ica 525
Treaties with Spain and Fra nce , 18 Ju ne 1701 525
An glo -Du tch sea pow er an d the M ethu en treat ies of 16 M ay 1703 . . 525-6
The arm y in relat io n to a s low pop ulat ion r ise 526- 7
Th e ravages of war, 1704- 12: food supplies 527-8
xxii
 
CONTENTS
Shrinkage of s ilver supply ; contra dictor y results of Succession W ar . . page 52
Brazil : the Buen os Aires t rad e before and after 1670; convoys to Lisbon . . 528-9
Expan sion in Braz i l : Colo nia do Sacr ame nto, 1680-1715 529-30
Developments in Am azoni a : the M ara nha o and Gr an Para . . . 530
The Jesuits in Up per Am azo nia; the Fre nch of Caye nne 531
Catt le-raising and the pene trat io n of the interior 531- 2
The great cat t le do m ain s: grow th of the leather t rad e 532
Expedit ions from Sao Pa ul o: the bande irantes in quest of gold . . . 532-3
Systematic expl orati on of th e inter ior from 1674; the gold rush after 1700 . . 533 -4
Th e exp ort of Brazilian gold, 1699-1755 534 -5
Eur opea n dest inat ions of Brazi l ian gold 535
Renewed fall in Portuguese price levels, 1712-30, and new attempts to foster
industry 535-6
C ro wn revenues before a nd after 1716; a m erca nti le m o na rc hy . . . . 5 36 -7
Land ed wealth and the rel igious Ord ers 536
Th e wealth of the nobil i ty 537-8
F or m s of p ro pe rty a nd of rights over th e lan d a nd its p ro du ce . . . . 5 38 -9
State and society in Portug al 539-^0
CHAPTER XVII
T H E M E D I T E R R A N E A N
B y J E A N M A T H I E X , Agrege de I'Universite, Paris
U n i t y a n d divers i ty ; eas te rn a n d w e s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n 54 0
Coastal t raff ic a n d i n n u m e r a b l e p o r t s ; s h i p p i n g h a z a r d s 5 4 0 - 1
P o p u l a t i o n s o f ci t ies 5 4 1 - 2
C a d i z , L e g h o r n , G e n o a , M a r s e i ll e s 5 4 2 - 3
P l a g u e : a s te rn quaran t ine sys tem 543
C o r s a i r s , M u s l i m a n d C h r i s t i a n 5 4 3 - 4
T h e p o w e r
o f
A l g i e r s : p r i z e s
a n d
t h e
r e d e m p t i o n
o
5 4 4 - 5
F r a n c e a n d t h e B a r b a r y R e g e n c i e s ; C h r i s t i a n c o r s a i r s ; M a l t a . . . . 5 4 5 - 6
Pr iva tee r s a n d me rc ha n t me n; neu t ra l flags 546- 7
Nava l fo rces a l imi ted de te r r en t 547- 8
E c o n o m y
o f t h e
M e d i t e r r a n e a n ; c o r n t r a d e ; i m p o r t s
a n d
. . . 54 8
M u s l i m o v e r l a n d t r a d e - r o u t e s 5 4 8 - 9
T h e L e v a n t t r a d e ; t h e C a p i t u l a t i o n s a n d c o n s u l a r o r g a n i z a t i o n . . . . 5 4 9 - 5 0
E n g l i s h , D u t c h a n d F r e n c h in t he L e v a n t ; F r e n c h B a r b a r y c o m p a n i e s . . 55 0 -1
T h e b a l a n c e o f E a s t - W e s t t r a d e ; L e v a n t i n e i n d u s t r i e s 55
T h e m e a n s o f p a y m e n t ; t h e s p e c i e t r a d e ; c l o t h e x p o r t s 5 5 1 - 2
T h e F r e n c h l e a d b y 1715-20 . 5 5 2 - 3
T h e e m p i r e s
o f
a n d
T u r k e y : m e t h o d s
o f
. . . .
5 5 3 - 4
M o r o c c o u n d e r
t h e
S u l t a n M u l e y I s m a e l
5 54
o f
f o r m e r M e d i t e r r a n e a n p o w e r s : V e n i c e 5 5 4 - 6
C h a n g i n g n a t u r e
o f
V e n e t i a n e c o n o m y ;
t h e
5 56
S p a n i s h d o m i n i o n s in I t a l y : N a p l e s a n d Sicily, t h e M i l a n e s e . . . . 5 5 6 - 8
T h e c u l t u r e
o f
N a p l e s ; m u s i c
a n d t h e
a r t s 5 5 8 - 9
T h e a c h i e v e m e n t o f V i c t o r A m a d e u s I I o f S a v o y 5 5 9 - 6 0
Limi ted resources
o f
P i e d m o n t - S a v o y
56 0
Adm in is t ra t iv e , f i scal a n d lega l r e fo rms ; t h e r o y a l s u p r e m a c y . . . . 56 0- 1
Nega t ive aspec t s o f r e f o r m i n P i e d m o n t - S a v o y . . . . . . . 5 6 1 -2
S h i p b u i l d i n g in t he M e d i t e r r a n e a n : t h e O t t o m a n s a n d Venice . . . . 562
N a v a l m a n p o w e r a n d ga l ley s l aves ; t h e F r e n c h g a l l e y c o r p s . . . . 5 6 2 - 3
xxiii
 
The uses
565
se a
power: Mezzo morto 565-6
The irruption o f English s e a pow er: Gibraltar 566 -7
The French navy
5 6 7 - 8
T h e A n g l o - D u t c h in the Mediterranean, 1694-6: th balance-sheet . . . 5 6 8 - 9
The Mediterranean
Partition Treaties
the Spanish Succession
w a r
t o w a r o n
la nd; French c m m ercial s u r e m a c y . . .
571
CHAPTER XVIII
T H E A U S T R I A N H A B S B U R G S
By J. W. STOYE, Fellow of Magda len College and Senior Lecturer in
Mod ern H istory in the University of Oxford
Court and governm ent in the Hofb urg 572
Vienn a: burghers and noblem en 572 -3
The growth of autocra cy: the central treasury and the court chancery . . 573
Resistance to autocracy : the Estates and office-holders 573 -4
Th e defects of governm ent at the centre: overlapping com mittees . . . 574 -5
Habsburg devotion to the Catholic Church and to 'Our H o u s e ' . . . . 575-6
C on flicts o f p rio rity b etw ee n w id ely sca tte red h eredita ry c la im s . . . . 57 6
The reconquest of Hungary, 1685-8 576-7
Strength of the Habsburg positio n in the Balkans by 1689 577 -8
Pressure from western Europe 578 -9
Conflict between tw o fronts; breakdown of peace talks with the Turks . . 579
Habsburg thrusts into Macedo nia and Rumania 579-8o
Rev ival of Turkish pow er in 169 0; military dead lock after 1691 . . . . 580
The battle of Zenta (11 September 1697) and the Peace of Carlowitz (1699) . 580-1
Habsburg government in the newly conquered lands; popula tion movem ents . 581 -2
Tra nsylva nia: M ichael Apafl surrenders his title, 1697 582
Hunga ry: the policy of Cardinal Ko llonich 582-3
Tax ation leads to peasant unrest 583
Th e Hungar ian rebellion of 1703: Rak oczi and Berczenyi 583 -4
Rak ocri's military successes and recognition by the Transylvanians . . . 584-5
Suppression of the rebellion: battles of Zsibo (November 1705) and Trencui
(August 1708) 585
The peac e settlement at Szatmar and the Die t of 1712-15 585 -6
Relatio ns between the emperors and the Germ an princes 586-7
The influence of Habsbur g patronag e in western and central Germany . . 587 -8
Sha dow y character of the Imperial author ity itself 588
Bavaria before and after Blenheim 588 -9
Habsburg and Wittelsbach 589-90
Friction with Brandenburg -Prussia and friendship with Han over . . . 590
Forwa rd policy in Italy: the Spanish succession 590-1
Habsburg reluctance to embark on hostilities in Spain 591
Agreem ents within the family on Spanish partition, 1703 592
The agreement with Victor Am adeu s of Savo y, Nov em ber 1703 . . . . 592 -3
xxiv
 
C O N T E N T S
Archduke Charles between th Maritime Powers and Vienna; devotion to his
Spanish tit le page 593
Austrian campaigning in Italy, 1701-7; con tributions levied on the principalities 593-4
Habsburg disputes with the papacy 594-5
Defeat of Clement XI in the War of Comacchio, 1708-9 595
The claims of Victor Amadeus in Lombardy: Habsburg distrust . . . 595-6
The attitude of Emperor Charles VI to Victor Amadeus II and Philip V . . 596-7
Austrian rule in Italy compared with the Spanish 597
Italian cultural influences at Vienna 597-8
The Austrian Netherlands: old liberties confirmed 598
The return to ambitions in the Balkans, 1716-18 598
Economic and social conditions in the old possessions; lord and peasant in
Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia 598-600
Impact of war taxation on the agricultural classes '' .
600
The nobility a unifying force in the Habsburg lands 601
The entrenched position of the Church and its influence 601-2
A static landlocked economy; production in the towns and on the larger estates. 602-3
A tight gild-structure; court purveyors and privileged manufactures . . . 603
Government and mineral resources: the
Irmerberger Hauptgewerkschaft . . 603-4
Development of trade with south-east Europe: the policy of Charles VI . . 604-5
Importance of Silesia; shifts in trade-routes of the Austrian lands . . . 605-6
Projects of economic reform frustrated before 1714 606-7
Charles VI loses interest in them after 1720 607
CHAPTER XIX
THE RETREAT OF THE TU RKS, 1683-1730
By A. N. K U R A T , Professor of History in the University of Ankara,
and J. S. B R O M L E Y
Exten t of the Ot toman empi re and its adminis t rat ive divis ions . . . . 608
Cont rac t ion in Asia ; Meso potamia , Syr ia and Leba non 608-9
Impor tance of Egypt: pol i t ical c lans a d mili tary insurrect ions . . . . 609-10
The Red Sea and the Black Sea; Tatars and Cossacks 610
Front ier defence and the system of fortresses 610
Com mun ica t ions ; in te rna l and ex te rna l comm erce 610-12
Industr ia l craf ts : gi ldsmen and janissar ies 612
T o w n and count ry ; the g rowth of tax-farms 612-13
A stagnant agricul ture and peasant migrat ion 613
Mili tary manpower, terr i tor ia l and profession al ; the janissar ies and other corps . 613-14
The navy: gal leys and sailing-ships 615
Sultan and grand vizier ; importance of the efendis 615-16
Influence of the ulema; the intr igues of the Seragl io 616-17
Self-criticism and the dis t rust of western influences 617
The Pa t r ia rcha te of Cons tan t inople . 617-18
Religion, race and poverty 618
1683: the retreat f rom Vienna; the Holy League of 1684 618-19
The s t ruggle fo r Hungary ; fa l l of Nove Zamky (1685) and of Buda (1686) . . 619
Turks d r iven out of the Morea (1685-7) ; the defeat a t Nagyharsany (12 Augus t
1687) 620
Army revol t of 8 November 1687 and t h e d e t h r o n e m e n t of M e h m e d IV . . 620 -1
1688: the Austr ians capture Peterwardein and Belgrade; fa i lure of peace par leys 621
XX V
 
C O N T E N T S
The crisis of 1689 and Fazil Mustafa Pasha: a turn in the tide . . . page 621-2
The slaughter at Zalankemen (19 August 1691) and attempts at mediation . . 622-3
The Venetians in Chios, 1694-5 623
Resilience of Ottoman war effort; financial dislocation and social evils . . 623-5
Russian attacks on Azov , 1695-6; their implications 625-6
The battle of Zenta (1697) and the agreements a t Carlowitz (26 January 1699) . 626
Many-sided significance of the Peace 626-7
Threats of Venice and Russia to the Dardanelles and Black Sea . . . . 627-8
Reforms of Hiiseyn Pasha ; the armed forces 628-9
Conflict between grand vizier and Mufti of Constantinople 629
'T he Adrianople affa ir'of August 1703: abdication of Sultan Mustafa II . . 629
Character of Sultan Ahmed I I I : Chorlulu Ali Pasha grand vizier . . . 630
Poltava, 1709: Charles XI I in Turkey 630-1
Increase in anti-Russian feeling: Devlet-Girei Khan and the Bender circle . . 631-2
Baltaji Mehmed Pasha: Turkey at war with Russia, 20 November 1710 . . 632
Tsar Peter appeals to the Balkan Christians; their relations with Moscow . . 632-3
Antagonism between Orthodox and Catholic; Moldavia and Wallachia . . 633
Russian advance to Moldavia 633-4
Russian surrender on the Pruth, 21 July 1711; criticism of Baltaji Mehmed . 634-5
Peter abandons Azov and Taganrog 635
A Greco-Turkish regime: growing influence of the Phanariots . . . . 635-6
Russia and Poland: further declarations of war by the Porte . . . . 636
Peace of Adrianople, 5 June 1713; Charles XII leaves Turkey, September 1714 . 636-7
Plans to recover the Morea from Venice: Silahdar Ali Pasha . . . . 637-8
Campaign in the Morea , 1715; Corfu threatened, 1716 638
Vienna decides to intervene: confusion in the Divan 638-9
Eugene routs Silahdar Ali Pasha at Peterwardein, 5 August 1716, and takes
Temesvar on 12 October 639
Fall of Belgrade, 16 August 1717; Venetian defeats at sea 640
Treaty of Passarowitz, 21 July 1718 640-2
Reasons for military inferiority of the Ottoman 642
Ottoman desire for peace: Ibrahim Pasha and'the Age of Tulips' . . . 642-3
Cultural developments 643-4
Epidemics, dear food, and unemployment 644
The Afghans invade Persia: Tsar Peter moves to the Caspian, 1723 . . . 644-5
The Turks and Russians dismember Persia, 1724-30 645
Janissary rising in Constantinople, September-November, 1730 . . . . 645-6
Sultan Mahmud I murders Patrona Halil an d his associates . . . . 647
CHAPTER XX (i )
XII AND THE
GREAT NORTHERN WAR
By R A G N H I L D H A T T O N , Professor of International History
in the University
of
London
The war of 1700-21 seen as the climax of historic rivalries 648
Swedish theory of empire 648-9
Shifting balance of power in the Baltic 649
Reassessments and reforms under Charles XI 649-50
Sweden's neutrality in the Nine Years War: a prosperous interlude . . . 650-1
1697:
Holstein-Gottorp and Livonia: the coalition between Denmark, Saxony and
Russia 652-3
 
Augustus of Saxony-Poland attacks Livonia in February 1700 . . . page 653-4
The Swedes attack De nm ark: Peace of Travendal, August 1700 . . . . 654-5
Swedish success over the Russians at Narva, 30 November 1700 . . . 655-6
Decision to attack Augustus; the crossing
of
. . 656
Charles XII's Polish policy and its critics 658
Stanislas Leszczynski crowned king of Poland: the Treaty of Warsaw, 1705 . 658-9
Poland as a base for a campaign against Russia or as a buffer-state . . . 659-60
Swedish victories at Klisz6w (1702) and Fraustadt (1706) 660-1
Character of Charles XII 661-2
Charles moves into Saxony, 1706; Treaty
of
1708:
The routes to Moscow 665
Russian defence plan: costly Swedish victory at Holowczyn, 14 July 1708 . . 665-6
Failure of Lewenhaupt to join the main Swedish army: battle of Lesna, 9 October 666-7
Winter quarters and scorched-earth tactics 667
1709:
Swedish diplomacy in search of a military success 667-8
The defeats at Poltava and Perevolochna, 8-11 July 668-9
Charles in Turkey for four years; schemes for a coalition at Bender . . . 669-70
Sweden invaded from Denmark and Norw ay: attitude of the Maritime Powers,
1710 670
his
plans
for
reforms
in
Sweden
67 1
Stenbock's victory at G a d e b u s c h ( D e c e m b e r 1712) an d sur render at T o n n i n g
(January
Failures of Swedish diplomacy 671-2
T h e ' tum ult ' of Bender , Febru ary 1713; Charles reaches Stralsund
on 21 N o v e m b e r
1714 672-3
and
1715 .
6 7 3 - 4
The fall of Stralsund (23 December 1715) and of W i s m a r (19 Apr i l 1716) . . 674
Administrat ive reforms in Sweden; Gor tz and the Jacobi tes . . . . 674-5
Negotiat ions with Peter the G r e a t and G e o r g e I of England . . . . 675-7
Th e succession qu est ion ; s t ruggle between
the
Holstein
and
. . 677
1718: the invasion of N o r w a y and dea th of Char les XI I on 11 D e c e m b e r . . 677
W h a t he had had in mind 677-8
Treaties
of
Stockholm
and
Sweden
no
longer
a
.
THE ECLIPSE OF POLAND
B y J 6 z E F GIEROWSKI, Professor of M odern Polish History, and
A N D R Z E J K A M I N S K I , Lecturer in Modem European History,
in the Jagiellonian University, Cracow
'Eclipsis P oloniae '
Causes of paralysis; the basic malaise; a pessimistic generation . . . . 681-2
John Sobieski and Augustus
Saxony 682-3
Polish participation in the War of the Holy Leagu e: meagre results . . . 683-4
Sobieski's succession strategy and family dissensions 684-5
Lithuanian opposition to Sobieski's dynasticism spreads to Poland . . . 685-6
xxvii
 
C O N T E N T S
Th e interregnum of 1696 -7: the contested election at Wola , 27 Jun e 1697 . page 686
Frederick Augustus I of Saxony crowned king of Poland as Augustus II,
15 Sep temb er 687
Possibilities and weaknesses of the Polish-Saxo n Un ion 687-8
Fail ure of du ke of Co nti to oust Aug ustus 688
Res um ptio n of wa r with the Ot tom an , 1698: setbacks for Aug ustus . . . 688-9
Dis pute with Prussia over Elblag, 1698-1700 689-90
Civil war in Lith uan ia: the Sapieha family capitulate , Decem ber 1698. . . 690-1
Th e Sejm of 1699 an d th e wit hdr awa l of Sax on forces from Po lan d . . . 691-2
T h e a nti-S we dis h c oa li tio n a n d t he in va si on o f L iv on ia , 1700 . . . . 692
Au gu stu s tries to limit th e conflict with Sw eden, 1700-1 692-3
Charle s XI I cultivates a pro-Sw edish faction in Polan d 693
Renewe d civil war in Lith uan ia (1700) and appeal for Russ ian help . . . 693-4
Opposition groups within Po land ; James Sobieski 694
Th e Sejm of 1701 and the Swedish invasion of Lithu ania 694-5
Charle s XI I calls for the depo sition of Aug ustu s II and occupies Wars aw, 1702. 695
Conditional suppo rt for Augus tus in Polan d 695-6
Cossack rising in the Dnie per Uk rain e, 1702-4 696
Swed ish successes in 1703 ; the Sejm meets at Lub lin 696-7
Anti-S axon confederacy of War saw , 1704 697
Ch arle s X II ha s Stanis las Leszczyriski crow ned king in Wa rsa w, 12 July 1704 . 697
Sup port for Au gu stu s: Gen eral Confederacy of Sando mierz, 1704 . . . 697-8
R us so -P olis h a llia nc e: t he T re aty of N ar va , 30 A ug us t 1704 . . . . 698-9
C harles X I I im po ses t he T re aty of W ar sa w, 28 N ov em be r 1705 . . . . 699
Difficult po siti on of Ch arle s XI I in 1706: th e Swedes deva state Po lan d . . 699-700
Th e Swedes invade Saxony while the Russ ians advan ce into Polan d . . . 700-1
Th e Tre aty of Al tran sta dt: Aug ustus deprived of the Polish Cro wn . . . 701
Tsar Peter and the confederates of Sandomierz: alternative candidates for the
Polish thr on e 701
Char les XI I retur ns to Pola nd (1707) and moves into the Uk rain e (1708) . . 702
Au gustu s pressed to ret ur n: Leszczynski withd raws beyon d the Vistula . . 702-3
B attl e o f P o lt av a ; A u gu st us finally d ec id es t o r et ur n in 1709 . . . . 7 03 -4
Gr ow th of Rus sian influence in Po land 704
The devastation and depopu lation of Poland 704-5
Th e decay of the tow ns and decline of the gentry 705-6
Creeping disintegration of Po lan d; growing independenc e of provincial diets . 706
Rep ublica n tendencies in refo rm: ideas of Szczuka and Karwick i . . . 706-7
T h e G en er al C ou ncil of W ar sa w (1710) a nd t he Sejm of 1712 . . . . 70 7-8
Asce ndanc y of Peter the Gr eat and revival of the Leszczynski part y . . . 708-9
Aug ustus intent on ensurin g succession to his so n: absolutist schemes. . . 709-10
Attitu des of foreign pow ers to these pl an s: the Fre nch treaty of Augu st 1714 . 710
Extremist policy of Char les X II fatal to Au gus tus and to Pol and . . . 710-11
Polish discon tents exploited by Peter the Gr eat 711
Violent agitation against Saxons in Lithuania and Poland: the General Con-
federacy of Ta rno gr6 d, 1715 711-12
Au gus tus gives way to the confederates in No vem ber 1716 712
Rus sian diplom acy at a loss ; th e Silent Sejm of 1717 712-13
Military, econo mic and ecclesiastical reforms prop osed to the Sejm of 1718 . 713-14
Successful opp ositi on of the hetm ans supp orted by Russ ia and Prussia . . 714
P ola nd th e s eco nd m ajo r victim of t he G re at N o rt he rn W ar . . . . 714-15
XXVlll
 
CHAPTER XXI
RELATIONS OF EAST AND WEST
By M. S. A N D E R S O N ,
Reader in International History
Russia
seventeenth century page 716
The educat ion of Peter the G r e a t ; his charac ter and interests . . . . 716-17
Conflict with the Tsarevna Sophia, Prince V. V. Gol i t syn and the strel'tsy, 1689 717-18
The capture of Azov (1696): Peter 's Black Sea policy 718-19
Pe te r ' s ' g r ea t embassy ' t o wes t e rn Eu rope , 1697 719
Suppression of strel'tsy revolt , 1698 719-20
A series of great innovations, 1699-1724 720
The reorganiza tion of t he a rmy ; the t ra in ing of officers 720-1
The construct ion of a fleet 721-2
Development of economic l if e: Pe t e r ' s 'm e rcan t i l i sm ' 722 -3
Industry and industr ial labour: successes and failures 723-4
Fai lure of commercial policies: a merchan t mar ine and commercial t reat ies . 724-5
Agriculture resistant to change despite some innovations 725
Administrat ive changes: the pr i kazy (1699-1701),
the
trative colleges from 1718 725 -6
Bureaucrat izat ion of the provinces: s trengthening of cent ra l cont ro l . . . 726
Intellectual life and educat ion 726-7
Books , the theatre, science and the ar t s 727-8
The conservatism of t he Or thodox Church ; end of its a u t o n o m y . . . . 728-9
Structure of society: landowners and peasan t s ; the ' T a b l e of R a n k s ' . . . 729-30
A forced evolut ion 73 °- i
Intolerable physical and financial burdens laid on the peasants . . . . 7 3 1 - 2
The rebell ion of the Do n Cossacks (1706-8) and des t ruc t ion of the Zaporozh ian
secK 732
Religious dissent
and the
t ragedy
Tsarevich Alexis 732- 3
Pol tava a tu rn ing-poin t in Russ ia ' s re la t ions wi th Eur ope 733-4
Bids for Russ ian suppor t : the N o r t h e r n War and the Spanish Succession . . 734-5
The Western powers and the N or th after 1713 735-6
Peter and the Balkans : the Russo-Turkish war of 1711 736
Fears of Russ ian dominat ion of the Balt ic and nor th Germany, 1716-22 . . 736-7
Russia politically part of Europe: Pe ter ' s second journey to the West , 1717 . 737
Diplomat ic and dynast ic relat ions established with the European s ta tes . . 737-8
Contemplated marriage al l iances 738
Expans ion in Asia : Ch ina and Siberia; Persia and the Casp ian . . . . 738-9
Growing interest of the West in Russ ia 739-4°
Peter 's contemporary s tanding as a m o n a r c h 740
xxix
 
I. THE ART OF WAR ON LAND
By D A V I D G. C H A N D L E R , Senior Lecturer in Military History
at the Royal Military Academy, S andhurst
Limited and total warfare page 741
Growth
in
size
of
armies
741-2
Ottoman army relatively backward 743
The Swedish 'militar y revo lution ' 743-4
Military administration in France: Le Tellier and Louvois 744-5
The Ordre du Tableau (1675) and other com mand-structures . . . . 745-6
Developments
in
The art of fortification and siege-warfare; Vauban and Coehoorn . . . 750-1
Use
of
Exceptions: Charles XI I , Marlborough, Eugene and Villars . . . . 752-3
Limiting factors on operations: terrain and weather 753
Four main war-theatres in western Eur ope 753-4
The Baltic lands
March-formations and field administration; Marlborough's night-marches . . 756-7
Battle-form ations; fire contro l 758-9
Types
of
cavalry
and
Little progress
The seasonal rhythm of war and politics; winter quarters 762-3
Recruiting and redrafting; poverty the great provider 763-5
Foreign contingen ts: the case of the Swiss can tons 765-6
The theory of conscription by government
766
Conscription in Germa ny 768-9
The German trade in soldiers 769
The British arm y: mercenaries, volunteers and conscripts 769-70
Recruitment of cavalry and dragoons easier than raising foot-soldiers. . . 770-1
The Scandinavian systems; discontent
The demands of Charles XII, before and after Poltava 774
The Danish militia: the order of 24 Februa ry 1701 and its social repercussions . 774-5
Mobilization of manpower in Russia; breakdown of old Cossack organization . 775-6
XXX
 
Poland's military weakness page 776-7
Officers: the bond between Peter's army and Russian landowners . . . 777
Brandenburg-Prussia: the Cadet Corps and the winning of the Junkers . . 777-8
The military career in Ge rma n families; comm oners and noblemen in Prussia . 778-80
Household Gu ards in England and elsewhere 780
Policy of Lou is XIV: royal p ressure s and social conven tions . . . . 780 -1
Aristocratic attitudes to military service in Italy and Spain 782-3
Army and militia in Eng land; the Scottish influx; purcha se of commissions . 783-4
The 'ha lf-p ay ' officer; old soldiers 784
Other soldier-civilian relationships 784-5
Varied r61e of intendants in French frontier provinc es: Fland ers, Arto is, Alsace 785-6
Supply of armies in southern Ne therlands and western Germ any . . . 786-7
Billeting and barracks 787
Profits of wa r: fortunes and failures 788-9
The armed forces as a reflection of social struc tures 789
Growing distinction between military organization and civil society in the West;
social transformation in Russia and Prussia 789-90
3. NAVIES
By J. S. BROMLEY and A. N. RYAN, Senior Lecturer in Naval H istory
in the University of Liverpool
Changes in relative strengths of
navies;
The line-of-battle: capital ships and others 791-2
Building programm es: English, French and Du tch before and after 1688 . . 792-3
Design of warsh ips; ship science in France 793-4
Levelling influence of the line-ahead: the importance of num bers . . . 794
Factors governing the size and structure of navies ; conflicts of use . . . 794-6
Pressures of mercantile opin ion: English and Du tch assum ptions . . . 796
American versus European strategy : navies subordinate to armies . . . 796-8
Conflict between sea and land requirements in the Dutch Republic: its naval
decline 798-9
The Zeeland privatee rs; the privateering war 800-2
Vauban and the guerre de course 802-4
Economic warfare ; rights of neutrals 804-5
The Swedish and Danish navies 805
Character of naval warfare in the Baltic ; Tsa r Pete r's galleys . . . . 806-7
Rapid rise of Russian sea power 807
Limited endurance of warsh ips; naval bases in the Baltic 807-8
Mediterranean bases; Cadiz and Lisbon 807-8
Bases overseas; the West Indies 809
Defence problems and naval difficulties in the Car ibbean 809-10
Dockyards in Eng land; the problem posed by Brest 811
French arsena ls: Du nkirk , Rochefort, Brest and To ulon; their supplies . . 811-13
Forest policies in France and England; timber imports from the Baltic, Germany
and No rth America 813-14
Dockyards and con trac tors: shipbuilding and naval stores 814-15
The State and its contractors in France and England 815-17
Problems of victualling: English and Fren ch compared 817-19
Dockyard labou r: the expansion in England 819
Labour discipline in dockyards ; irregu lar employment and pay . . . . 819-20
a XXXI MHS
 
Manning problems: the Inscription Maritime page 820-1
The Marines in France and England 822
Fren ch impressment and the system of classes 822-3
The English press gangs and the voluntary register of 1696-1710. . . . 823-4
Danish and Swedish methods of manning 824-5
Sickness; hospital ships and naval hospitals 825-6
Th e formation of officers 826-7
Emergence of the regular naval officer: rank and po st; flag officers . . . 827-8
Nava l ethics 828-9
'Ge ntle m en ' and 'ta rp au lin '; the warrant officers 829
Admin istrators, naval and civilian 829-31
Spending and borrowing in England and France 831-2
Nava l finance in the Un ited Provinces and Scandinavia 832
Adm inistrators and statesmen 832-3
Political prior ities: unique situation of the English navy 833
CHAPTER XXIII
ECONOMIC ACTIVITY
I. THE MAP OF COMMERCE, I683-I721
By J A C O B M. P R I C E , Professor of History in the University of Michigan
Internationa l aspects of prod uction and exchange over the short term . . 834
W ars and economics; mercantilism old and new 834-5
Gro wth of international finance; an age of speculative creativeness . . . 835-6
Inter-regional exchanges of goods and comm odities 836
Baltic grain exp orts; the Amsterdam market 836-8
Other corn-exporters: the transformation of England 838
Corn production and market conditions in France 838-9
The timber trad e; masts 839-41
Pitch and tar : Russia and No rth America break the Swedish tar monopoly . 841-2
Turpentine and rosin : the French Landes 842
Flax and he m p: Riga and Archangel 843-4
Ash and potash for the soapm akers; tallow and wax 844-5
Salt p ro du ctio n in E u ro pe : D utc h dom inance in B altic im po rts . . . . 844 5
E uro pea n vin ey ard s: F re nc h, Spanish a nd Portuguese w ines . . . . 846-7
The victory of Oporto in England; expansion of the Dutch entrepot favours
Bordeaux 846-7
Spirits: growth of brandy distillation in France and of gin in England . . 847
Euro pean fisheries: decline of the Du tch herring-fleets; the Scots . . . 847-8
The whale fishery: Du tch supremacy in Greenland and the Davis Strait . . 848
The cod fisheries of Iceland and New foundland; the New England fishery . . 848-9
The French fisheries; impo rtance of the Banks ; post-war recovery . . . 849-50
Other overseas commodities: the North American fur trade and its European
markets 850-1
The sources of tobac co; blending at Am sterdam; European competition . . 851-2
Increase of smoking in Russia and France; the French tobacco-farm learns to
buy British 852-3
Rice; dyestuffs 854-5
The African slave tra de : the English outdistance their com petitors . . . 855-6
East Ind ia tra de : its special features 856
xxxii
 
The Dutch predominance decreases; French disappointments in the East .
page
856-7
Sugar, pepper and spices; Dutch selling policy 857-8
Coffee and tea: the new trades to Mocha and Can ton 858-9
Raw silk: competition between Persia and Bengal 859-60
Wrought silks and cottons from India compete with European textiles; calico-
printing in Europe 860-1
Outward cargoes: the shipment of specie; decline of Dutch purchases of gold
and copper in Japan 861-2
Specie in the Levant trade: Spanish silver and Brazilian gold . . . . 862-3
The woollen industry in France: imports of Spanish wool; centres and types of
production 863-4
The Dutch woollen industry depressed; growth of Silesian and German
manufactures 864-5
The great English woollen and worsted industry: centres of production and
export markets 865-6
The linen t rade: manufactures n western and eastern Europe . . . . 866-7
European silk manufacture: expansion in France; a new industry in England . 867-8
Coal-mining: growth of English ascendancy 868-9
The iron industry in Liege, England and Sweden: Swedish pre-eminence . . 869-70
English and French foreign trade compared: their principal orientations . . 870-1
The 'map of commerce': preponderance of the Baltic-Iberian artery; the Sound
statistics 871
Dutch foreign trade and shipping: its pattern in I740 and in 1670 . . . 871-2
Dutch and English shipping activity compared; post-war growth of French
tonnage 872-3
Incidence of the wars on international business cycle 873-4
The most striking changes in the general map of commerce 874
2. PRICES, POPULATION AND ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES IN EUROPE, I688-I7I5:
A NOTE
By JEAN ME UV RE T
Prices as an index of economic activity: contours of 1690-1714 . . . . 874-5
Cereals: variations in rye at Amsterdam, Lyons and Carpentras . . . . 875-6
Olive oil, wines, peppers 877-8
Examples of price rigidity in textiles 878-9
The building industry: bricks and wages 879
Mutations in money values 879-80
Relative rigidity in prices of non-foodstuffs in relation to soaring food prices . 880-1
Variations in intensity of food crises: France and northern Europe . . . 881
Prices of raw wool compared with corn prices at Castelnaudary . . . . 881
The meaning of a fall in pewter valuations 881-2
'Rigidi ty'of wages 882
English population in the eighteenth century 883-4
Evidence for Venice, Sicily, Munich, Augsburg, Zurich, Catalonia, central Sweden 884-5
A relatively stationary situation: examples from England and Fr an ce. . . 885
Factors determining popula tion: family limitation, war, morbidity . . . 885-7
Morbidity and food shortages 887-8
Crises in birth and death rates; French demographic geography . . . 888-9
Subsistence and mortality elsewhere: Piedmont, London, Finland . . . 889-90
Agricultural returns: an example from the Paris region 890-1
The effect of low prices on producers 891-2
xxxiii 2-
 
Industry linked with agriculture page 892
Activi ty in ur ba n crafts : out put and changes in the quali ty of man ufacture . 892-3
Da nis h Soun d tol ls com pare d with po rt dues of Am ster dam ; East Ind ia sales . 893
Tra nsfor ma tion of English foreign trade 894
Und erlying buoy ancy of Fren ch external t rade 894-5
Depre ssion of inland centr es: bo om and slump at Genev a 895
Tight money and interest rates in France; rentes constitutes . . . . 895-6
Solidi ty of the Am sterd am Exchan ge Bank 896
Th e Na tion al Deb t in Englan d 896-7
W ars the m ain cause of h igher price level in 1690-1714 . . . . 897
T A B L E S A - J 898-902
I N D E X 903
xxxiv
 
HE phase of European experience studied in the present volume,
and to some extent in its predecessor,
1
has elastic chronological
boundaries an d no such recognizable identity as may be claimed for
ages of reformation or revolution, thoug h it contained features of bo th. Nor
does a single figure bestride it. The conventional description which fixes
on the decline of France is at best a half-truth, and then only for the W est.
Even in characterizing 'T he Age of Louis X I V from 1661, the editors of
the 'old '
were aware of 'the long, and seemingly remote, history
of the Ottom an Power in Eu ro pe ' as a main determinant of a period w hich
lacked '
the
organic unity which belongs to o ur Napo leon v olu m e'; and as
soon as this 'question of life and death' had been settled at Carlowitz in
1699, ' a large division of the canvas is filled by the great Swedish or
"No r thern" War ',
formally closed at Nystad in 1721, six years after the
Roi Soleil
had gone to his grave but more than three before Peter, the
great tsar, was to follow him.
If we consider the political geography of these years (ch. v), it is the
changing m ap of eastern Euro pe which impresses us first. By 1716 Sweden
was stripped of her trans-Baltic provinces, the basis of her great-power
position (ch. xx (i )) , with a comm erce and revenues that had long been her
answer
to
of
the
3
Sweden 's loss was chiefly to the ad van tage
of Russia, which staked out claims also in the direction of the Black Sea
and the Caspian and was able for a time to station troops in Den mark and
Poland, to send caravans to Peking and work up feeling against Islam in
the Balkans. There, the Peace of Passarowitz in 1718 added Transylvania
and Little Wallachia, with much of Serbia and Bosnia, to the war-
trodden wastes of Hungary acquired by the House of Habsburg at
Carlowitz. Some of these developments, it is true, proved ephem eral. The
Turks were to recover Belgrade, the key
to
their position in Europe, and
over half a century was to pass before the Russians occupied the C rimea;
Tsar Peter's ignominious surrender to Tu rkish forces on the river Pru th in
1711 was as great a sensation as had been his destruction of King Charles
XII's brilliant expeditionary force at Poltava and Perevolochna in 1709.
1
science, music and Ottoman affairs well into the eighteenth century.
* Th e
Stanley Leathes, Preface, pp. v-vii.
*
e
 
RISE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND RUSSIA
But 'the Turkish menace' was a thing of the past and 'the Eastern
Question' had been noisily announced. Several features it had in this
period, however, which were not to concern the future. Carlowitz ended
the last war which had at least begun, with the Ho ly League of 1684, as a
crusade. In effect, it also marked the end of a persistent Polish interest in
the Rumanian principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, although the
Polish hold on neighbouring P odolia was now restored. Passarowitz like-
wise pu t a term to V enetian am bitions in the Aegean : they had seemed to
threaten Constantinople itself when the republic stood in possession of the
Morea for a generation. During the interval between these historic
settlements the viking Charles XI I, w ho dreamed of attracting O tto-
man and Persian trade to a Swedish Baltic and who for five years estab-
lished his own nom inee on the Polish throne, was to scheme in vain for a
vast combination of Swede and Turk, Pole and Cossack, against the
victor of Poltava.
Charles's fertile imagination, especially in exile on Turkish soil, drew
together the strands of Baltic and Levantine affairs, bu t
he was
not
the
only
ruler capable of conceiving an eastern Europe utterly different from that
which took shape in this period. Frederick Augustus of Saxony, soon
after his controversial election to the Polish throne in 1697, entertained
the vision of a trading power which would extend from Riga to the
Caspian, as well as of a territorial link between Poland and Saxony along
the middle Oder— a link which Brandenb urg seemed willing to encourage
in return for concessions in the Vistula delta. It was a Saxon thrust into
Swedish Livonia, as much as Danish pretensions to Sleswig-Holstein,
which opened two decades of war in the N or th and drew the Swedes into
the Penelope's web of Polish politics (ch. xx(2 )). The Polish-Saxon Union
turned out to be disastrous to the strengthening of central government in
Warsaw because it led to foreign intervention, invited by dissident noble-
men w ho feared for historic liberties or by Augustus II himself, whose best
intentions were suspect of absolutism and comprom ised by the behaviour
of his Saxon troops. Yet Charles XII 's determination to b reak that Union
at any price—thus involving the Polish-Lithuanian Com monw ealth in his
own ruin
—should warn us not to read its history backwards. Like
Sweden's own bid to r etain d omination of the eastern Baltic, and indeed to
extend it to the Arctic, the potentialities of the Polish-Saxon U nion were a
major issue of the Great Northern War, which can only be understood in
the light of these contemporary options and not simply as a stage in the
1
Paradoxically, nevertheless, in resolving to fill the thron e with a Polish subject, Charles
was anticipating one of J.-J. Rousseau's principal recommendations for the preservation of
the Commonwealth's independence. Rousseau's Considerations sur le gouvernement de la
Pologne, though written in 1772 with conscious modesty, remains a remarkable diagnosis of
the streng th and weaknesses of this unique nation , whose spiritual vitality and originality he
recognized. Since the tendency of historians has been to underline its factiousness, it is
interesting that Rousseau saw the constitutional resort to spontaneous confederation as
'a political masterpiece'.
 
expansion of Muscovy. Although Peter was to enjoy Russia's familiar
privilege of
tertius gaudens
in the end, at least as arbiter in Polish and
Lithuanian party conflicts, the first twenty years of his reign must be seen
as a struggle for survival (ch. xxi). The Dnieper frontier itself had been
settled as recently as 1686; and even this 'perpetual peace', with its
provision for a tsarist protectorate of the Orthodox religion in Poland,
could no t be taken in M oscow as perm anent p roof against Polish irreden-
tism in the Ukraine.
Muscovy's humble value in Western eyes in 1689 was repeatedly con-
firmed at the hand of Sweden's young warrior-king until Poltava dramati-
cally resurrected the anti-Swedish coalition of 1698-9 and restored
Augustus II to the Polish thron e. The tsar h ad still to survive his hum ilia-
tion on the Pruth, and his most drastic administrative reforms, till then
subsidiary to the Swedish conflict, belong to his last decade; but by the
time of Charles XI I's return to Sweden, in 1715, the 'm aritim e po w ers ' of
Britain and the Netherlands, with a western balance of power only just
attained, were uneasily aware of the need to contain 'a kind of northern
Turk' (p. 735), who threatened to turn the Baltic into a Russian lake,
much as the Ottomans regarded the Black Sea as their
mare clausum.
When Peter first visited the West in 1697, he came to acquire its tech-
nology; in 1717 he returned as a conqueror and reformer, the greatest
ruler of the
age.
At the Russian celebration of the Peace of Ny stad h e was
congratulated on joining his newly created Empire to the comity of
political nations. East and W est remained indeed far apart in understand-
ing: for all his realism, Peter had some of the pride of his Orthodox
churchmen (whose dislike of westernizing policies rivalled that of their
Ottoman cou nterparts, the
and he may have intended Holy Russia
to turn her back on the W est after several decades of appren ticeship. But
when
he died, in 1725, the chancelleries of the West were amply represented
at his handsome new capital of St Petersburg, with its Germ an architects
and Dutch printing-presses (ch. xxi).
It had not been Russian friendship, however, but rather Sweden's and
Denmark's, or at least the use of their troops, that the western powers
competed for in their own protracted wars of 1688-97 and 1701-14
(ch. VII and xm). For the British and the Dutch, the perseverance of
distrust between the N orthern Crowns was a tiresome irrelevance. Stock-
holm was nervous of Danish irredentism in Scania, while Copenhagen
lands and fortification rights mingled confusedly with those of Denm ark in
Sleswig and Holstein. This dispute, no more than patched up by the
Treaty of Altona in 1689, largely explains De nm ark 's pa rticipation in the
Northern War; it was only the concerted attack from two other new
kings, Augustus II and Peter I, that took Charles XII by surprise. As they
had tried to straighten ou t the Holstein question, so the western powers
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
 
RISE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND RUSSIA
would have stopped the larger struggle if they could, especially when the
death of the childless King Carlos II
1
of Spain in 1700 opened the possi
bility of another ordeal by arms in the West itself. In the event, the
Spanish Succession War was never to merge with the Northern War,
although Augustus II more than once sought allies among the western
belligerents, while fears of a Swedish diversion westwards contributed to
the mission of the commander-in-chief of the Maritime Powers, Marl-
borough, to Charles XII in camp at Altranstadt in 1707. Western dip-
lomacy had been altogether more active at Stockholm during the Nine
Years War, when both sides found supporters among the Swedish
magnates and set value on the arbitration of Charles XI in the deadlock
into wh ich their hostilities entered from 1693; bu t Dan ish troo ps in the
pay of the M aritime Powers then played a m ore direct role than anything
the Swedes ever did. The reco rd of these years shows the breakdown of the
classical French 'eastern barrier' in Sweden as in Poland. At the same
time,
neither Sweden nor Denmark—where French influence tended to
predominate in proportion as it lost ground in Stockholm—relished an
Anglo-Dutch command of the seas, and the Northern Crowns were
capable of sinking their differences in defence of their rights as neutral
traders against attempts by the Maritime Powers to dictate to them. The
most constant interest of all the western powers in the Baltic was their
comm erce, particularly their naval supplies and the corn and timber of the
Polish and north German plain (ch. xxm (1)), however hard they sought
to snatch political advantages for themselves and deny them to their
rivals.
others,
2
but nothing in the baffling silences of Charles XII's personality
rings truer than his refusal to take foreign subsidies at the e