THE NEW WORLD MYTHOLOGY IN ITALIAN EPIC

POETRY 1492-1650

by

CARLA ALOEgrave

A thesis submitted to the University of Birmingham for the degree

of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Italian Studies

School of Languages Cultures Art History and Music

College of Arts and Law

University of Birmingham

September 2015

University of Birmingham Research Archive

e-theses repository This unpublished thesisdissertation is copyright of the author andor third parties The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation Any use made of information contained in this thesisdissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder

ABSTRACT

My thesis explores the construction of the New World mythology as it appears in early

modern Italian epic poems It focuses on how Italian writers engage with and contribute to

this process of myth-creation how the newly created mythology relates to the political social

and cultural context of the time and investigates extent to which it was affected by the

personal agendas of the poets By analysing three New World myths (Brazilian Amazons

Patagonian giants and Canadian pygmies) it provides insights into the perception that Italians

had of the newly discovered lands in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries as well as

providing a greater understanding of the role that early modern Italy had in the lsquoinventionrsquo of

the Americas Italian epic poets domesticated New World myths for their own purposes using

written visual and material sources as an anchor for their agendas The study of these myths

changes in some cases completely our reading of the poems New World myths are at once

an exercise in ekphrasis of the maps cartouches engravings and collectible objects they

derived from and a record of the impact the Americas had on the early modern Italians

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Foremost I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisors Ita Mac Carthy and

Paolo De Ventura for their careful guidance inspiring advice and unrelenting support Thank

you so much

I owe a great deal to both the Arts and Humanities Research Council and to the College of

Arts and Law Graduate School at the University of Birmingham for their financial support I

am particularly grateful to the AHRC International Placement Scheme that allowed me to

spend six months at the Huntington Library in San Marino (California) where I had the

opportunity to consult valuable material and work in an international environment

I am indebted to both the Universitas 21 and Paul amp Henry Woltmann Memorial

Scholarships that enabled me to spend a period of time at the University of British Columbia

(Vancouver) and the Houghton Library at Harvard University (Cambridge MA) respectively

I would like to extend great thanks to my tutors in these universities Daniela Boccassini at

UBC and Elvira Di Fabio at Harvard University In addition I would also like to thank the

University of Birmingham Postgraduate Research Support Fund and the Royal Historical

Society for having funded the conferences that have crucially contributed to the making of

this thesis

I am grateful to many researchers and scholars with whom I had the opportunity to share my

ideas during placements conferences lunches or online conversations I am particularly

indebted in strictly alphabetical order to Judith Allen Francesco Marco Aresu Marco

Arnaudo Tancredi Artico Kim Beauchesne Eraldo Bellini John Brewer Riccardo

Bruscagli Theodore J Cachey Jr Francesca Calamita Clizia Carminati Giuseppe Crimi

Elena Daniele Surekha Davies Moacutenica Garciacutea Aguilar Lorenzo Geri Nathalie Hester Steve

Hindle Stefano Jossa Erik Koenke Franco Manai Peter Mancall Alfonso Nava Laurent

Odde Cinzia Scafetta Federico Schneider Patricia Seed Alex Standen Chet Van Duzer and

Clare Watters

I also extend my thanks to the staff of the numerous libraries and archives I have visited who

have been extremely patient in fielding my requests In particular to the staff of the

Huntington Library (San Marino California) Houghton Library (Cambridge

Massachussetts) Koerner Library (Vancouver Canada) Vatican Apostolic Library (Vatican

City State) British Library (London UK) Cadbury Research Library (Birmingham UK)

Braidense Library (Milan Italy) New York Public Library (New York City NY) National

Library of Spain (Madrid) the University of Auckland Library (Auckland New Zealand) the

Giuseppe Billanovich Reference Room in the Universitagrave Cattolica del Sacro Cuore (Milan

Italy) and the University of Malaga Library (Malaga Spain) David Brender Sonia De

Amicis and Paolo De Tassis deserve a special mention for having provided me with useful

material for this thesis

I would like to express my gratitude to the past and present members of the department of

Italian Studies at the University of Birmingham who have always been incredibly supportive

and understanding My thanks are also extended to the department of Italian studies at the

University of Auckland for having welcomed me and provided me with all I needed during

the weeks I was with them especially Daniela Cavallaro

Thank you to my family and friends for their unremitting encouragement and support

Especially those who hosted me during my frequent lsquovagranciesrsquo and that were able to cheer

me up in the most disconsolate moments

Deserving of special mention is my boyfriend Alex who I met when I just started working on

this thesis and who has witnessed it evolve from the first title to the last footnote His

scientific background taught me that there are different perspectives from which to view the

world and that ldquodatardquo is not such a scary word as I believed Thank you for having been my

rock taking part in conferences that were not your cup of tea just to listen to me speaking

following me in museums and libraries around the world improving your Italian and

knowledge of Italian literature ldquoper disperazionerdquo Your love and enthusiasm means the world

to me

Finally this thesis owes a substantial debt of gratitude to my parents who inspired my love of

literature and art from a young age They provided me with the ldquoali e radicirdquo to write it My

mother started an English course just to be able to read this work whilst my father will be

happy to know that his attempt to take me to the Louvre Museum instead of Disneyland when

I was nine did actually have an impact on me (in any case he lsquohadrsquo to take me to Disneyland

as well)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Volume I

Introduction 1

Primary sources 7

Methodology 28

Chapter 1 Introducing the New World mythology 36

Bridging the Old World and the New 38

Bringing the New World mythology back home 46

The New World myths in Italy 56

Chapter 2 The queendom of the American Amazons 58

Introducing the American Amazons 59

An allegory for America 63

American Amazons as tools of Italian propaganda 78

The American querelle des femmes 90

Chapter 3 ldquoPatagones vel regio gigantorumrdquo 107

Introducing Patagonian giants 109

The cartographic scenario 118

Threshold Tasso 127

Tommaso Stiglianirsquos socchi 139

The flight of the roc in Bartolomeirsquos America 147

Graziani and the hybrid Succarath 157

Visualising the Patagonians 163

Chapter 4 Canadian pygmies from the cabinet of curiosity to epic poetry 166

Lilliput ante litteram 168

Canadian pygmies at the court of Cosimo I dersquo Medici 174

The New World in the Nanea 177

Pygmies or dwarves 195

The New World in Arcigrandonersquos body 203

Naturalia exotica and artefacta Morgante 221

Conclusions 232

Bibliography 241

Primary literature 241

Secondary literature 248

Volume II

Appendix Illustrations 288

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

(Appendix)

1 Bernardo Castelli Frontispiece of Torquato Tassorsquos Gerusalemme liberata Genoa

1590 p 289

2 Jacopo Zucchi Allegory of the Discovery of America 1585 Preserved in Rome

Galleria Borghese p 290

3 Juan de la Cosa Carta Universal 1500 Puerto de Santa Mariacutea (Cadiz) Preserved in

the Naval Museum in Madrid MNM CE257 p 291

4 Piri Reis World Map 1513 Now preserved in the Topkapı Palace library Istanbul

Turkey H 1824 Image from the University of Wisconsin - Green Bay website

httpwwwuwgbedudutchspseudoscpiririeshtm p 291

5 Atlas Vallard 1547 Preserved in the Huntington Library San Marino California HM

29 (10) Portolan chart of West Indies Mexico Central America northern South

America Image from the Huntington Catalogue Images

httpbancroftberkeleyedudigitalscriptoriumhuntingtonHM29html p 292

6 Pierre Desceliers Mappemonde 1550 The map in preserved in the British Library

London Add MS 24065 p 293

7 Caspar Vopel Nova et integra universalisque orbis totius description 1558 Detail of

Amazon and cannibal in Brazil The map is preserved in the Houghton Library at

Harvard University 512577P Image from the Houghton Library copy image

httpidslibharvardeduidsview7723780buttons=y p 287 p 293

8 Lodovico Buti Mexican Warrior 1588 Uffizi Gallery Florence copy De Agostini

Editore httpwwwagefotostockcomenStock-ImagesRights-ManagedDAE-

88011081 p 294

9 Genoese Planisphere 1457 Now preserved in the Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale

Florence Italy Port 1 Image from

httpcartographic-imagesnetCartographic_Images248_The_Genoese_Maphtml p

295

10 Genoese Planisphere 1457 Detail of the hippogriff p 295

11 Pierre Desceliers Mappemonde 1546 The map is preserved in the John Rylands

Library Manchester UK French MS 1 Detail of South America copy Austin Whittall

University of Birmingham Research Archive

e-theses repository This unpublished thesisdissertation is copyright of the author andor third parties The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation Any use made of information contained in this thesisdissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder

ABSTRACT

My thesis explores the construction of the New World mythology as it appears in early

modern Italian epic poems It focuses on how Italian writers engage with and contribute to

this process of myth-creation how the newly created mythology relates to the political social

and cultural context of the time and investigates extent to which it was affected by the

personal agendas of the poets By analysing three New World myths (Brazilian Amazons

Patagonian giants and Canadian pygmies) it provides insights into the perception that Italians

had of the newly discovered lands in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries as well as

providing a greater understanding of the role that early modern Italy had in the lsquoinventionrsquo of

the Americas Italian epic poets domesticated New World myths for their own purposes using

written visual and material sources as an anchor for their agendas The study of these myths

changes in some cases completely our reading of the poems New World myths are at once

an exercise in ekphrasis of the maps cartouches engravings and collectible objects they

derived from and a record of the impact the Americas had on the early modern Italians

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Foremost I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisors Ita Mac Carthy and

Paolo De Ventura for their careful guidance inspiring advice and unrelenting support Thank

you so much

I owe a great deal to both the Arts and Humanities Research Council and to the College of

Arts and Law Graduate School at the University of Birmingham for their financial support I

am particularly grateful to the AHRC International Placement Scheme that allowed me to

spend six months at the Huntington Library in San Marino (California) where I had the

opportunity to consult valuable material and work in an international environment

I am indebted to both the Universitas 21 and Paul amp Henry Woltmann Memorial

Scholarships that enabled me to spend a period of time at the University of British Columbia

(Vancouver) and the Houghton Library at Harvard University (Cambridge MA) respectively

I would like to extend great thanks to my tutors in these universities Daniela Boccassini at

UBC and Elvira Di Fabio at Harvard University In addition I would also like to thank the

University of Birmingham Postgraduate Research Support Fund and the Royal Historical

Society for having funded the conferences that have crucially contributed to the making of

this thesis

I am grateful to many researchers and scholars with whom I had the opportunity to share my

ideas during placements conferences lunches or online conversations I am particularly

indebted in strictly alphabetical order to Judith Allen Francesco Marco Aresu Marco

Arnaudo Tancredi Artico Kim Beauchesne Eraldo Bellini John Brewer Riccardo

Bruscagli Theodore J Cachey Jr Francesca Calamita Clizia Carminati Giuseppe Crimi

Elena Daniele Surekha Davies Moacutenica Garciacutea Aguilar Lorenzo Geri Nathalie Hester Steve

Hindle Stefano Jossa Erik Koenke Franco Manai Peter Mancall Alfonso Nava Laurent

Odde Cinzia Scafetta Federico Schneider Patricia Seed Alex Standen Chet Van Duzer and

Clare Watters

I also extend my thanks to the staff of the numerous libraries and archives I have visited who

have been extremely patient in fielding my requests In particular to the staff of the

Huntington Library (San Marino California) Houghton Library (Cambridge

Massachussetts) Koerner Library (Vancouver Canada) Vatican Apostolic Library (Vatican

City State) British Library (London UK) Cadbury Research Library (Birmingham UK)

Braidense Library (Milan Italy) New York Public Library (New York City NY) National

Library of Spain (Madrid) the University of Auckland Library (Auckland New Zealand) the

Giuseppe Billanovich Reference Room in the Universitagrave Cattolica del Sacro Cuore (Milan

Italy) and the University of Malaga Library (Malaga Spain) David Brender Sonia De

Amicis and Paolo De Tassis deserve a special mention for having provided me with useful

material for this thesis

I would like to express my gratitude to the past and present members of the department of

Italian Studies at the University of Birmingham who have always been incredibly supportive

and understanding My thanks are also extended to the department of Italian studies at the

University of Auckland for having welcomed me and provided me with all I needed during

the weeks I was with them especially Daniela Cavallaro

Thank you to my family and friends for their unremitting encouragement and support

Especially those who hosted me during my frequent lsquovagranciesrsquo and that were able to cheer

me up in the most disconsolate moments

Deserving of special mention is my boyfriend Alex who I met when I just started working on

this thesis and who has witnessed it evolve from the first title to the last footnote His

scientific background taught me that there are different perspectives from which to view the

world and that ldquodatardquo is not such a scary word as I believed Thank you for having been my

rock taking part in conferences that were not your cup of tea just to listen to me speaking

following me in museums and libraries around the world improving your Italian and

knowledge of Italian literature ldquoper disperazionerdquo Your love and enthusiasm means the world

to me

Finally this thesis owes a substantial debt of gratitude to my parents who inspired my love of

literature and art from a young age They provided me with the ldquoali e radicirdquo to write it My

mother started an English course just to be able to read this work whilst my father will be

happy to know that his attempt to take me to the Louvre Museum instead of Disneyland when

I was nine did actually have an impact on me (in any case he lsquohadrsquo to take me to Disneyland

as well)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Volume I

Introduction 1

Primary sources 7

Methodology 28

Chapter 1 Introducing the New World mythology 36

Bridging the Old World and the New 38

Bringing the New World mythology back home 46

The New World myths in Italy 56

Chapter 2 The queendom of the American Amazons 58

Introducing the American Amazons 59

An allegory for America 63

American Amazons as tools of Italian propaganda 78

The American querelle des femmes 90

Chapter 3 ldquoPatagones vel regio gigantorumrdquo 107

Introducing Patagonian giants 109

The cartographic scenario 118

Threshold Tasso 127

Tommaso Stiglianirsquos socchi 139

The flight of the roc in Bartolomeirsquos America 147

Graziani and the hybrid Succarath 157

Visualising the Patagonians 163

Chapter 4 Canadian pygmies from the cabinet of curiosity to epic poetry 166

Lilliput ante litteram 168

Canadian pygmies at the court of Cosimo I dersquo Medici 174

The New World in the Nanea 177

Pygmies or dwarves 195

The New World in Arcigrandonersquos body 203

Naturalia exotica and artefacta Morgante 221

Conclusions 232

Bibliography 241

Primary literature 241

Secondary literature 248

Volume II

Appendix Illustrations 288

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

(Appendix)

1 Bernardo Castelli Frontispiece of Torquato Tassorsquos Gerusalemme liberata Genoa

1590 p 289

2 Jacopo Zucchi Allegory of the Discovery of America 1585 Preserved in Rome

Galleria Borghese p 290

3 Juan de la Cosa Carta Universal 1500 Puerto de Santa Mariacutea (Cadiz) Preserved in

the Naval Museum in Madrid MNM CE257 p 291

4 Piri Reis World Map 1513 Now preserved in the Topkapı Palace library Istanbul

Turkey H 1824 Image from the University of Wisconsin - Green Bay website

httpwwwuwgbedudutchspseudoscpiririeshtm p 291

5 Atlas Vallard 1547 Preserved in the Huntington Library San Marino California HM

29 (10) Portolan chart of West Indies Mexico Central America northern South

America Image from the Huntington Catalogue Images

httpbancroftberkeleyedudigitalscriptoriumhuntingtonHM29html p 292

6 Pierre Desceliers Mappemonde 1550 The map in preserved in the British Library

London Add MS 24065 p 293

7 Caspar Vopel Nova et integra universalisque orbis totius description 1558 Detail of

Amazon and cannibal in Brazil The map is preserved in the Houghton Library at

Harvard University 512577P Image from the Houghton Library copy image

httpidslibharvardeduidsview7723780buttons=y p 287 p 293

8 Lodovico Buti Mexican Warrior 1588 Uffizi Gallery Florence copy De Agostini

Editore httpwwwagefotostockcomenStock-ImagesRights-ManagedDAE-

88011081 p 294

9 Genoese Planisphere 1457 Now preserved in the Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale

Florence Italy Port 1 Image from

httpcartographic-imagesnetCartographic_Images248_The_Genoese_Maphtml p

295

10 Genoese Planisphere 1457 Detail of the hippogriff p 295

11 Pierre Desceliers Mappemonde 1546 The map is preserved in the John Rylands

Library Manchester UK French MS 1 Detail of South America copy Austin Whittall

ABSTRACT

My thesis explores the construction of the New World mythology as it appears in early

modern Italian epic poems It focuses on how Italian writers engage with and contribute to

this process of myth-creation how the newly created mythology relates to the political social

and cultural context of the time and investigates extent to which it was affected by the

personal agendas of the poets By analysing three New World myths (Brazilian Amazons

Patagonian giants and Canadian pygmies) it provides insights into the perception that Italians

had of the newly discovered lands in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries as well as

providing a greater understanding of the role that early modern Italy had in the lsquoinventionrsquo of

the Americas Italian epic poets domesticated New World myths for their own purposes using

written visual and material sources as an anchor for their agendas The study of these myths

changes in some cases completely our reading of the poems New World myths are at once

an exercise in ekphrasis of the maps cartouches engravings and collectible objects they

derived from and a record of the impact the Americas had on the early modern Italians

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Foremost I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisors Ita Mac Carthy and

Paolo De Ventura for their careful guidance inspiring advice and unrelenting support Thank

you so much

I owe a great deal to both the Arts and Humanities Research Council and to the College of

Arts and Law Graduate School at the University of Birmingham for their financial support I

am particularly grateful to the AHRC International Placement Scheme that allowed me to

spend six months at the Huntington Library in San Marino (California) where I had the

opportunity to consult valuable material and work in an international environment

I am indebted to both the Universitas 21 and Paul amp Henry Woltmann Memorial

Scholarships that enabled me to spend a period of time at the University of British Columbia

(Vancouver) and the Houghton Library at Harvard University (Cambridge MA) respectively

I would like to extend great thanks to my tutors in these universities Daniela Boccassini at

UBC and Elvira Di Fabio at Harvard University In addition I would also like to thank the

University of Birmingham Postgraduate Research Support Fund and the Royal Historical

Society for having funded the conferences that have crucially contributed to the making of

this thesis

I am grateful to many researchers and scholars with whom I had the opportunity to share my

ideas during placements conferences lunches or online conversations I am particularly

indebted in strictly alphabetical order to Judith Allen Francesco Marco Aresu Marco

Arnaudo Tancredi Artico Kim Beauchesne Eraldo Bellini John Brewer Riccardo

Bruscagli Theodore J Cachey Jr Francesca Calamita Clizia Carminati Giuseppe Crimi

Elena Daniele Surekha Davies Moacutenica Garciacutea Aguilar Lorenzo Geri Nathalie Hester Steve

Hindle Stefano Jossa Erik Koenke Franco Manai Peter Mancall Alfonso Nava Laurent

Odde Cinzia Scafetta Federico Schneider Patricia Seed Alex Standen Chet Van Duzer and

Clare Watters

I also extend my thanks to the staff of the numerous libraries and archives I have visited who

have been extremely patient in fielding my requests In particular to the staff of the

Huntington Library (San Marino California) Houghton Library (Cambridge

Massachussetts) Koerner Library (Vancouver Canada) Vatican Apostolic Library (Vatican

City State) British Library (London UK) Cadbury Research Library (Birmingham UK)

Braidense Library (Milan Italy) New York Public Library (New York City NY) National

Library of Spain (Madrid) the University of Auckland Library (Auckland New Zealand) the

Giuseppe Billanovich Reference Room in the Universitagrave Cattolica del Sacro Cuore (Milan

Italy) and the University of Malaga Library (Malaga Spain) David Brender Sonia De

Amicis and Paolo De Tassis deserve a special mention for having provided me with useful

material for this thesis

I would like to express my gratitude to the past and present members of the department of

Italian Studies at the University of Birmingham who have always been incredibly supportive

and understanding My thanks are also extended to the department of Italian studies at the

University of Auckland for having welcomed me and provided me with all I needed during

the weeks I was with them especially Daniela Cavallaro

Thank you to my family and friends for their unremitting encouragement and support

Especially those who hosted me during my frequent lsquovagranciesrsquo and that were able to cheer

me up in the most disconsolate moments

Deserving of special mention is my boyfriend Alex who I met when I just started working on

this thesis and who has witnessed it evolve from the first title to the last footnote His

scientific background taught me that there are different perspectives from which to view the

world and that ldquodatardquo is not such a scary word as I believed Thank you for having been my

rock taking part in conferences that were not your cup of tea just to listen to me speaking

following me in museums and libraries around the world improving your Italian and

knowledge of Italian literature ldquoper disperazionerdquo Your love and enthusiasm means the world

to me

Finally this thesis owes a substantial debt of gratitude to my parents who inspired my love of

literature and art from a young age They provided me with the ldquoali e radicirdquo to write it My

mother started an English course just to be able to read this work whilst my father will be

happy to know that his attempt to take me to the Louvre Museum instead of Disneyland when

I was nine did actually have an impact on me (in any case he lsquohadrsquo to take me to Disneyland

as well)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Volume I

Introduction 1

Primary sources 7

Methodology 28

Chapter 1 Introducing the New World mythology 36

Bridging the Old World and the New 38

Bringing the New World mythology back home 46

The New World myths in Italy 56

Chapter 2 The queendom of the American Amazons 58

Introducing the American Amazons 59

An allegory for America 63

American Amazons as tools of Italian propaganda 78

The American querelle des femmes 90

Chapter 3 ldquoPatagones vel regio gigantorumrdquo 107

Introducing Patagonian giants 109

The cartographic scenario 118

Threshold Tasso 127

Tommaso Stiglianirsquos socchi 139

The flight of the roc in Bartolomeirsquos America 147

Graziani and the hybrid Succarath 157

Visualising the Patagonians 163

Chapter 4 Canadian pygmies from the cabinet of curiosity to epic poetry 166

Lilliput ante litteram 168

Canadian pygmies at the court of Cosimo I dersquo Medici 174

The New World in the Nanea 177

Pygmies or dwarves 195

The New World in Arcigrandonersquos body 203

Naturalia exotica and artefacta Morgante 221

Conclusions 232

Bibliography 241

Primary literature 241

Secondary literature 248

Volume II

Appendix Illustrations 288

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

(Appendix)

1 Bernardo Castelli Frontispiece of Torquato Tassorsquos Gerusalemme liberata Genoa

1590 p 289

2 Jacopo Zucchi Allegory of the Discovery of America 1585 Preserved in Rome

Galleria Borghese p 290

3 Juan de la Cosa Carta Universal 1500 Puerto de Santa Mariacutea (Cadiz) Preserved in

the Naval Museum in Madrid MNM CE257 p 291

4 Piri Reis World Map 1513 Now preserved in the Topkapı Palace library Istanbul

Turkey H 1824 Image from the University of Wisconsin - Green Bay website

httpwwwuwgbedudutchspseudoscpiririeshtm p 291

5 Atlas Vallard 1547 Preserved in the Huntington Library San Marino California HM

29 (10) Portolan chart of West Indies Mexico Central America northern South

America Image from the Huntington Catalogue Images

httpbancroftberkeleyedudigitalscriptoriumhuntingtonHM29html p 292

6 Pierre Desceliers Mappemonde 1550 The map in preserved in the British Library

London Add MS 24065 p 293

7 Caspar Vopel Nova et integra universalisque orbis totius description 1558 Detail of

Amazon and cannibal in Brazil The map is preserved in the Houghton Library at

Harvard University 512577P Image from the Houghton Library copy image

httpidslibharvardeduidsview7723780buttons=y p 287 p 293

8 Lodovico Buti Mexican Warrior 1588 Uffizi Gallery Florence copy De Agostini

Editore httpwwwagefotostockcomenStock-ImagesRights-ManagedDAE-

88011081 p 294

9 Genoese Planisphere 1457 Now preserved in the Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale

Florence Italy Port 1 Image from

httpcartographic-imagesnetCartographic_Images248_The_Genoese_Maphtml p

295

10 Genoese Planisphere 1457 Detail of the hippogriff p 295

11 Pierre Desceliers Mappemonde 1546 The map is preserved in the John Rylands

Library Manchester UK French MS 1 Detail of South America copy Austin Whittall