THE ODYSSEY

BOOK 1 : ATHENE VISITS TELEMACHUS

The Odyssey begins with the “proem” (usually viewed as being lines 1-10; also, in our version, the lines in italics), an introduction to matters. The Iliad began with the lines, ‘The wrath of Achilles is my theme’, and thus the Odyssey has a similar introduction: ‘Tell me, Muse, the story of that resourceful man who was driven to wander far and wide after he had sacked the holy citadel of Troy’. The Muse (daughter of Zeus and Mnemosyne (‘Memory’)) is invoked to clarify that what will be told is the truth – the Muse, as goddess of culture and music, is the only entity that can guarantee such. Odysseus (who concocted the idea of the wooden horse – hence he “sacked” Troy) is now a lonely and suffering figure (thus the “much-enduring” Odysseus epithet), one who had tried to save his comrades (the incident features in book 12) but they ignored his warnings and therefore were punished with the loss of their lives by Zeus. The crucial factor to note is that Odysseus is innocent – his comrades had a choice but chose wrongly and angered the gods. A key theme in the Odyssey is one of freewill, of being able to choose between right actions to take and wrong actions to take: his comrades paid for not choosing correctly (also a good example of hybris being repaid with nemesis). What occurs in book 1 can then be summarized as follows.

The other Greek heroes at Troy had now returned home, except for Odysseus. He has been imprisoned for seven years by Calypso (fittingly, the Greek meaning is “concealer”), the daughter of Atlas, on the island of Ogygia. Whilst the rest of the gods have sympathy for him, Poseidon holds a grudge and wants him to undergo sufferings.

In a council of the gods, Poseidon being conveniently absent in Ethiopia, Zeus recalls the story of Aegisthus and his murder by Orestes, Agamemnon’s son. Athena intervenes to state the case for Odysseus’ safe return home and why the gods should once more befriend him: Poseidon may be resentful, but he cannot defeat the will of all the gods. Zeus reveals that he likes Odysseus, and that Poseidon is angry because Odysseus blinded his son, Polyphemus (the Cyclops). Athena thinks that Hermes should be sent to order Calypso to free Odysseus, whilst she goes to visit Telemachus and instill some spirit into him regarding the suitors.

This being agreed, Athena disguises herself and goes to Ithaca, where she discovers the suitors eating and drinking away Odysseus’ wealth. Claiming to be Odysseus’ friend Mentes, she receives a warm welcome from Telemachus, who apologizes for the suitors’ behaviour. He asks of his father, and Athena says he is alive and will eventually dole out justice to the suitors. Telemachus explains that the palace has fallen to ruin since Odysseus left, and that Penelope refuses to re-marry. He even wonders if he is indeed Odysseus’ son. Athena tells him to call an assembly and make the suitors leave. Further, he should go to Nestor at Pylos and Menelaus at Sparta to enquire of Odysseus. She adds that Telemachus must face up to the facts if Odysseus is dead. He must ensure his inheritance, find Penelope a husband, and punish the suitors (note: she, like Zeus, also refers to Orestes’ murder of Aegisthus).

At the banquet Phemius the bard sings of the Greeks at Troy. When Penelope enters the songs upset her, and Telemachus, asserting himself, tells her to leave, this being men’s entertainment. He calls the suitors insolent and is then questioned by them as to who his guest was (he had already guessed it was a divine visitation). Telemachus remains calm, and informs them of his intention to call an assembly and eject them from the palace. He also reveals his wish to punish them all. Shocked but still insolent, they nevertheless continue to feast, finally returning to their homes later. Telemachus retires to his quarters and plans his forthcoming journey.

BOOK 2: THE DEBATE IN ITHACA

What becomes clear in bk. 2 is the suitors’ intents. Their real aims are made public for the first time, and it is notable how they become increasingly violent in their approach to matters (cf. 123-28; 198-207; and esp. 244-51: Leocritus). The assembly is a failure, but whilst Telemachus showed his immaturity, he also at least made his mind up about a) what should be done concerning his father’s whereabouts and b) whether he should marry off Penelope or not. Penelope proves to be both intelligent in her own right but also full of the cunning associated with Odysseus (cf. the weaving of the shroud, 93-109), which makes us suspect that there is more to come from her in the future. Generally, though, book 2 belongs to Telemachus. He certainly starts off bravely in his address to the assembly, but slowly begins to lose his grip, finally breaking down in tears. We have to remember that a) he is still not convinced that he is Odysseus’ son and b) he is gradually asserting himself and would probably not even have dared to address the assembly shortly before this juncture (ie. before Athena’s arrival?).

The book itself begins with Telemachus grooming himself for the big occasion, and soon Aegyptius comments on how it is nineteen years since the Ithacans have had an assembly. Telemachus, taking the speaker’s staff, notes that there are no major problems – just the necessity of denouncing those who are taking his father’s wealth. If present, Odysseus would punish them, and he himself would like to do the same. Shamed for some little time, one suitor, Antinous, replies that it is Penelope who is to blame. She has refused to choose one of them, and has in fact led them on and wasted their time. When Telemachus has once more issued threats, a pair of eagles appear – a sure sign that Zeus is backing Telemachus. Further, Halitherses, the soothsayer, reminds all that he has already successfully predicted events, and that includes the safe return of Odysseus within the year. Eurymachus suggests he has been bribed by Telemachus and belittles his powers, the suitors will not go until one of them is betrothed to Penelope. Telemachus says he will seek news of Odysseus: if dead, then Penelope will choose another husband; if not, he will only tolerate the suitors another year. Mentor’s support is dissipated, and the suitors disperse.

Finally, Telemachus prays to Athena on the shore, and she duly appears disguised as Mentor. They plan to acquire a ship, despite the suitors. Returning home, Telemachus argues with Antinous, and is ridiculed by the suitors. He confides in the trustworthy Eurycleia, and together they sort out supplies for the journey, one which, Telemachus urges, should be kept from Penelope to stop her worrying. Athena now disguises herself as Telemachus and obtains

a ship and a crew of twenty in town. She rejoins Telemachus disguised as Mentor, and, the ship loaded, at nightfall they head for Pylos.

BOOK 3: TELEMACHUS WITH NESTOR

Telemachus reaches Pylos in the company of Athena (disguised as Mentor and determined that Telemachus will attain kleos). He finds Nestor, his sons, and members of his oikos sacrificing bulls to Poseidon on the beach – they demonstrate their familiarity with the rules of xenia by inviting their visitors to take food with them. Only after they have had their fill do Telemachus and Athena explain who they are, and Telemachus goes on to clarify what they want.

Nestor, in keeping with his role in the Iliad, recalls the past. This time it is the Trojan War itself of which he speaks. Once Troy had been destroyed, he says, a quarrel occurred between Agamemnon, the Greeks’ commander, and Menelaus, his brother and husband of Helen. Divisions arose within the army, and one faction remained with Agamemnon whilst another, which included Nestor, Diomedes, and Odysseus (and later Menelaus), sailed to Tenedos. Here, following another quarrel, Odysseus turned around and re-joined Agamemnon, which was Nestor’s last sighting of him, even though he knows he has not returned to Ithaca as yet.

Nestor then tells of the return home of other Greek heroes, and features the story of Aegisthus and Clytemnestra, and the punishment meted out to Aegisthus by the avenging Orestes. Menelaus’ adventures in Egypt are recounted, he having only recently returned home laden with much wealth. A visit to Menelaus might serve a purpose, suggests Nestor, as he might have more recent information. Telemachus and Mentor agree. Telemachus agrees to Nestor’s offer to stay the night in his palace. The next morning sacrifice is made to Athena, and Peisistratus, Nestor’s youngest son of six, accompanies Telemachus on the journey, by chariot, to Menelaus at Sparta.

BOOK 4: MENELAUS AND HELEN

Telemachus and Peisistratus arrive at Menelaus’ palace in time to witness the dual marriages of his son and daughter. Despite Eteoneus’ misgivings, Menelaus observes the practice of xenia to the full, providing his anonymous guests with a bath, clothing, and a place of honour at the wedding banquet; neither does he attempt to discover their identities.

When Menelaus talks of Odysseus and refers to him as a much missed close friend, and the hardest-working Greek at Troy (ironically so, as Telemachus’ identity has not been revealed), Telemachus, in a scene of pathos, breaks down and cries. Helen, now back from Troy’s ashes and settled down again with Menelaus, enters and immediately notices the striking resemblance of Telemachus to Odysseus. Peisistratus reveals the identities of Telemachus and himself, and then tells of their plans and why they are at Sparta. Menelaus, aware of the need for tact and manners, says the business can be discussed the following morning, those present being only too mindful of the Trojan War and its sad memories.

Nevertheless, it is he and Helen who recall the war and the deeds of the outstanding Odysseus before they decide on retiring for the night.

The next morning sees Telemachus inform Menelaus of the current state of the palace at Ithaca, and why he thus must discover Odysseus’ whereabouts. Menelaus is outraged by the suitors’ behaviour (though he does not offer help). This leads to Menelaus recounting his journey from Troy and how he ended up in Egypt, from which he returned loaded with wealth (we are never told just exactly how he acquired it: the result of visits to xenia-minded foreigners, or the result of something more sinister, such as piracy?). More important is Menelaus’ visit to Proteus, the Old Man of the Sea. Armed with the knowledge, provided by Proteus’ daughter, of how to extract information from him, Menelaus learned of how he could get back home and of the fortunes of the Greek heroes who had fought at Troy. In particular, the story of Aegisthus’ killing of Agamemnon and Orestes’ revenge is featured. Most important of all, Menelaus says that Proteus told him that Odysseus was alive but imprisoned by Calypso on the island of Ogygia. Overjoyed, Telemachus prepares to leave, but not before Menelaus showers him with gifts, the form of xenia which ensures life-long friendship and a special bond between the parties concerned.

Back on Ithaca, the suitors are now aware that Telemachus has sailed, and, enraged, Antinous and Eurymachus take the lead in planning to ambush and kill him at sea as he gets close to Ithaca. Kept in the dark about his adventure by Telemachus, Penelope now learns of it from her servant Medon, and becomes grief-stricken. In spite of her servants’ efforts to console her, Penelope cries and retreats to her room, even refusing food. Athena, concerned for her, sends an apparition of her sister to her in a dream to reassure her that all is well with Telemachus.

BOOK 5: CALYPSO

A second meeting of the gods on Olympus opens book 5, and Zeus agrees to Athena’s request that Odysseus be returned home. Hermes is sent to deliver the order to Calypso (cf. 84-88, p. 5: had Hermes already left, as such, previously? Page, an “analyst” of Homer, has noted in his The Homeric Odyssey that Homer quite often has simultaneous events happen separately).

Calypso appears happily going about her business, her cave and its surroundings reflecting her wild character (cf. the description of Alcinous’ garden at Scheria (7.112, p. 98) with its civilised orderliness; Calypso’s cave (57 f.) is the longest landscape description in the Odyssey). Odysseus, in contrast, and also in true Homeric hero fashion, is to be found crying for his home (as Proteus had said: cf. 4. 556). Once aware of Hermes’ mission Calypso is annoyed, but as it is none other than Zeus himself who is behind matters she can do nothing but reluctantly comply. Odysseus, informed by Calypso that she will help him return to Ithaca, is highly suspicious of her intentions, but eventually begins to believe her to be genuine. She helps him build a boat (not a raft, as is proved by the references to ‘dowels’ and ‘gunwales’ on p. 77), and soon Odysseus is sailing for Ithaca. But Poseidon returns from Ethiopia at this juncture, spots Odysseus, and promptly whips up a storm to destroy his progress. Soon, all Odysseus has left to cling to is the wreckage of his craft. But Athena has

not deserted him, and with some help from the sea nymph Leucothoe (or Ino) as well, Odysseus manages to land on Scheria, the island of the Phaeacians. Exhausted, he shelters under olive bushes and falls asleep.

BOOK 6: NAUSICAA

Whilst Odysseus sleeps, Athena arrives on Scheria. She is determined to help him, and we discover that the Phaeacians are favoured by the gods. Athena takes the form of a daughter of a Phaeacian sea captain named Dymas and slips into Nausicaa’s room. Once inside, she speaks to Nausicaa and puts it into her head to wash some clothes the next day, as befits a girl ready for marriage, before departing for Olympus. At dawn the shy Nausicaa, careful not to make any reference to marriage or her dream, asks her father, Alcinous, for a wagon to allow her to wash clothes for the family. Permission granted, she and her maids go to the river, wash the clothes, eat, and begin a ball game. As Athena had planned, the ball falls into the river, and the resulting shriek from the maids wakes Odysseus. Naked, he is confronted by the site of Princess Nausicaa and her maids, who promptly scatter, leaving only Nausicaa to face him (Athena’s determination to get Odysseus inside the palace seeing her give Nausicaa courage). Appearing as a suppliant, but without enacting the physical embrace of the knees which formalizes the procedure, Odysseus calms the situation, begging only for directions to the town and for some clothing. Nausicaa tells Odysseus who she is, does as he asks, and correctly offers her hospitality – Zeus being the protector of strangers, it is only right to do so. Saving Nausicaa’s maidens’ blushes by bathing himself, Odysseus manages to impress the gathering, and especially Nausicaa herself. Once he is dressed and looking radiant, Nausicaa begins to wish that she could have a husband like him.

On their journey towards the town Nausicaa makes pointed but telling remarks to Odysseus concerning her marriagable status, and only now reveals her name to him. She provides useful directions for him (note how Alcinous’ palace stands beside a grove sacred to Athena) and tells him to approach her mother, Arete, as a suppliant if he wants to return home again (the instruction to by-pass her father raises interesting questions). En route to the palace Odysseus prays to Athena for aid, and though still determined to help him, she remains hidden from him due to Poseidon’s wrath being directed against Odysseus (Poseidon is her uncle).

BOOK 7: THE PALACE OF ALCINOUS

Nausicaa returns home and Odysseus, after praying in Athena’s grove, makes his way to the palace of Alcinous in the town, suitably covered by a protective mist sent to shield him by Athena herself. During his journey Athena comes to him disguised as a young girl and gives him directions to the palace of Alcinous. Odysseus admires the magnificent harbour and ships of the Phaeacians, and on her departure Athena repeats the advice of Nausicaa that Arete should be the person he approaches first, appropriately supplying him with details of the Queen’s history before she herself heads for Athens.

Somewhat hesitantly, Odysseus makes his way to the palace and is struck by the splendid drapes and furnishings of the building. The Phaeacians, we discover, are also

blessed with skills in sailing and spinning, and are very intelligent; they possess large orchards, vineyards and gardens: all are the gifts of the gods. Approaching Arete in the midst of a banquet (Athena’s protective mist is about to disappear) and throwing himself at her feet, Odysseus puts himself at her mercy as a suppliant. It is actually the Phaeacian elder Echeneus who reacts first to the plea, suggesting to Alcinous that it is unbefitting to allow a stranger to sit in the hearth awaiting an answer. Taking his lead from Echeneus, Alcinous welcomes the stranger, removes his favourite son Laodamas from his chair and gives it instead to Odysseus. Food and drink are then brought for him, and the company drink a libation to Zeus as protector of suppliants. Dismissing the gathering to their beds, Alcinous promises that Odysseus shall be given passage home, as requested. Before himself departing, Alcinous wonders if Odysseus is in fact a mischievous god in disguise, to which Odysseus assures him that he is no such thing.

Left alone with just Alcinous and Odysseus, Arete sees her chance and suspiciously asks Odysseus who he is, where he is from, where he got his clothes, and had he not just come from wandering over the sea? Odysseus shrewdly avoids answering her questions directly, instead relating his sojourn with Circe and how Poseidon had wrecked his raft on his leaving her, hence his arrival on Scheria and his meeting with Nausicaa. Annoyed that his daughter did not bring Odysseus home herself, Alcinous is corrected by Odysseus, who says she showed him every kindness. Alcinous then says that a man such as Odysseus would make an ideal marriage with his daughter, but that he knows that Odysseus must leave and that it shall be tomorrow upon the Phaeacians’ ships of ‘surpassing excellence’. Praising and blessing Alcinous, Odysseus is overjoyed, and Arete has a bed made-up for him in the portico. All retire to sleep.

BOOK 8: THE PHAEACIAN GAMES

Alcinous leads Odysseus to the Phaeacians’ place of assembly, whilst, unknown to them, Athena disguises herself as Alcinous’ herald and rounds-up the Phaeacians for attendance at the assembly by telling them that all will be revealed about the stranger (Odysseus), who has the appearance of a god.

Alcinous announces that Odysseus is a brave, though anonymous traveller and that he shall be returned home, as he wishes, by way of a new black ship. He says that all the Phaeacian princes should gather at his palace, together with the blind bard Demodocus, to entertain Odysseus. Odysseus’ new Phaeacian crew make the ship ready and join the celebration at the palace, where cattle are sacrificed for a meal. When the meal is consumed Demodocus begins to sing of the deeds of the famous, in this case of the clash of Agamemnon and Odysseus at Troy – Odysseus immediately begins to weep, and tries his best to hide his tears from the assembled Phaeacians. But Alcinous notices Odysseus’ grief and, trying to protect him from his embarrassment, suggests the whole company go outside to partake of games, as amongst mortals the Phaeacians are unbeatable in such events.

The Phaeacian youths eagerly begin matters with a race, followed by wrestling, jumping, discus and boxing. Laodamas, the winner of the boxing contest, decides that Odysseus should be challenged. When his offer is rejected outright by Odysseus, his

companion, Euryalus, berates Odysseus, saying that the mistake is his own, as the stranger is more like the captain of a merchant ship, and obviously no athlete. Enraged, Odysseus returns his insults, picks up the largest discus available, and hurls it beyond the boundaries of the crowd. Athena, disguised, points out where the discus has landed, saying also that no Phaeacian will surpass this throw. Odysseus now throws out a challenge to all-comers (except, as his host, Laodamas) at any sport, and singles out archery as his speciality, as it was an art he used successfully at Troy. Silenced, the crowd say nothing, and it is Alcinous who steps forward to apologize for Laodamas but also to tell Odysseus that, whilst they may not be the best at certain sports, the Phaeacians excel at running and sailing, and are also keen enthusiasts of feasting, music, dancing, clothing, bathing and sleeping. At this, Demodocus’ lyre is produced, and after some dancing by the boys the bard sings of how Aphrodite and Ares were out-witted in their liaison by the guile of Hephaestus. The tale is well-received by the gathering, and Laodamas and Halius perform a dance which delights Odysseus. He is then given gifts by the Phaeacian princes, and particularly welcomed is Euryalus’ valuable sword and his accompanying apology for his earlier insult.

At sunset all gather in Alcinous’ palace, where he and Arete add further gifts of their own to Odysseus’ haul; he then has a bath and re-joins the men in the main hall. Nausicaa bids him a fond farewell, and Odysseus provides Demodocus with some meat and asks if his great talent will stretch to singing of the story of the Greeks’ taking of Troy by the Wooden Horse strategem. Once more, touched by a tale of which he was a part, Odysseus breaks down in tears; once more, Alcinous is the only person who detects Odysseus’ grief. Alcinous immediately stops Demodocus mid-song, noting that it has upset their guest, and asks Odysseus who he is and where he is from, as his ships will need to know where they are heading. He adds the ominous note that his father used to say that Poseidon would one day wreck a Phaeacian ship that had given a stranger safe passage and surround Scheria with a wall of mountains. He finishes by asking Odysseus to tell them of all the adventures he has undertaken on his travels and to explain why tales of Troy bring him such sorrow.

BOOK 9: THE CYCLOPS

Book 9 opens with a direct continuation from the question asked of Odysseus at the end of book 8, and, prompted by Demodocus’ singing, he proceeds to tell King Alcinous of his adventures prior to his arrival on Scheria. Firstly he reveals his true identity: ‘I am Odysseus, Laertes’ son. The whole world talks of my strategems, and my fame has reached the heavens’ (p. 124). He says that he is from Ithaca, and continues by singing its praises. Neither Calypso or Circe could manage to prevent him returning to it, his home and parents having the greater appeal to him.

It was a wind sent by Zeus, he says, when he was returning from Troy’s sack that started him on his wanderings. Firstly Ismarus, a city of the Cicones, was ravaged. But his men took to squandering their time with their booty, and the Cicones were reinforced and instantly rallied, defeating Odysseus’ men in an all-day pitched battle which cost the Greeks six lives fron each of their ships. Dejected, the Greeks were then hit by another storm from Zeus and were grounded. Undaunted, they soldiered on before being hit by a combination of

North Wind and current, which sent them past Cythera (an island just south of Laconia). Ten days later they landed in the country of the Lotus-eaters, who were friendly to the three of the crew sent to meet them. So much so, that the three ate the lotus fruit offered to them and promptly lost all will to return home. Odysseus recovered them and left the country quickly.

But the next place they landed on was an island adjacent to that of the fierce and ungodly Cyclopes, a people without decency, ships or laws. Having eaten well, the next day Odysseus became curious about the Cyclopes’ island and, leaving his fleet behind, sailed there with his own ship and crew. Espying a Cyclops, his cave and sheep from out at sea, upon landing Odysseus took twelve men with him and approached what he suspected may be a dangerous confrontation. The Cyclops being absent with his flock, Odysseus and his men entered the cave, the latter wanting to take what they could and beat a hasty retreat. But Odysseus was curious about the Cyclops and wanted some gifts from him, so all stayed. What is more, they lit a fire and ate his cheese. On his return he blocked the cave entrance with a boulder; they hid but were eventually discovered when he himself lit a fire. The Cyclops demanded to know who they were. Upon being told they were Greeks returning from Troy, who were now aproaching him as suppliants under the protection of Zeus, the Cyclops replied that Zeus was neither worshipped or held in esteem by his people. Odysseus avoided telling him anything else, but the Cyclops merely grabbed two of his men, bit their heads off, ate them, and fell asleep. Unable to move the boulder, Odysseus and his men were trapped, and next morning the Cyclops ate two more men, replaced the boulder and went to tend his sheep.

Hitting on a plan, Odysseus and his men took the Cyclops’ green olive-wood staff, sharpened it, and then hardened it in the fire. Odysseus then plied the Cyclops with wine upon his return and, asked his name, said it was ‘Nobody’. As the Cyclops slept off the effects of the wine Odysseus and four of the crew re-heated the huge staff and plunged it into his eye. Blinded, he screamed loudly but when his fellow Cyclopes came to inquire what had happened to Polyphemus, he could only reply that it was ‘Nobody’s treachery’, and they left him to his devices. But Odysseus and his crew were still stuck inside the cave, and his cunning was needed to get them out. His plan was to strap his men and himself to the bellies of the sheep, as Polyphemus always touched their backs as they left the cave. Odysseus himself was the last to leave, but though Polyphemus stopped the ram he was clinging to, he did not suspect anything, and all escaped safely to the ship. But as they put to sea, Odysseus could not resist mocking Polyphemus, and his reply was to launch a boulder at them from the shore. The splash drove the ship back to land, and though it made another escape, once more Odysseus mocked Polyphemus, revealing to him his real identity in the process. The Cyclops then reveals that it was predicted that a man named Odysseus would blind him, and he prays to his father Poseidon that Odysseus may never return home to Ithaca. Odysseus and his crew, swept to their destination by another rock from Polyphemus, re-united with the rest of the men, sacrificed the sheep, and left the island the next day.

BOOK 10: CIRCE

Odysseus continues to recount his adventures, and now tells of how he and his crew next came to the island of Aeolia, the floating island which is the home of Aeolus, the King of the Winds. They were treated to a show of xenia which rated with any they had encountered on their journey, and when they left Aeolus provided Odysseus with a leather bag which concealed all the winds which, if free, could blow his vessels off their course.

Some ten days later Ithaca was, at long last, sighted. But Odysseus fell asleep, and his men began to wonder just what the bag concealed. Was it full of riches denied to them by Odysseus? Curiosity overcame them, and they ripped open the bag. The winds immediately flew out and unleashed a storm of the worst kind upon them, which blew their ships back to Aeolia. Here, viewing the act as ungodly, Aeolus dismissed Odysseus’ explanations and withdrew his aid from the Greeks. Disheartened at their banishment from Aeolia, and also denied any winds, Odysseus and his men rowed away, and within days landed on the island of the Laestrygonians. These were giant cannibals who attacked Odysseus and his men and sunk their ships – only that of Odysseus survived. Although now severely mauled and missing their dead comrades, the crew, in their one remaining ship, pressed onwards.

Their next port of call turned out to be the island of Aeaea, home to the goddess Circe, though at first they considered it to be a deserted place. Several days after their arrival, Odysseus sent Eurylochus and half of the crew to explore it. Later he returned, telling of how the men had been confronted by lions and wolves which had been enchanted, and how a beautiful woman who lived in a large palace had invited them in, fed them, and then promptly turned them into swine with a wave of her wand and was now keeping them in pigsties – their minds still being human but their shape being that of pigs. Odysseus went alone to search for the missing crew members, his men being too scared to follow. He met Hermes along the way, disguised as a nobleman, who revealed all about Circe and informed Odysseus how to deal with her – he also gave Odysseus some precious moly, a plant used only by the gods.

Circe’s charms and spells failed to work on Odysseus, though she was charm itself in her dealings with him. Defeated and physically threatened by Odysseus, Circe agreed to turn his men back into their original human form. But she now recognised in Odysseus a man that Hermes had predicted would arrive on her island. Keen to entertain him, Odysseus and herself then became lovers, and the pair spent much time together.

Nearly a whole year had passed before the men, longing for Ithaca, pressurized Odysseus to embark for it at once. Circe had long promised that she would help him return home, and he kept her to her word. But Circe told him that if it was a safe journey he required, then he must first visit Hades to enquire of the dead prophet Tiresias what he needed to do. During the final night the young Elpenor got drunk and when he awoke fell to his death from the roof of Circe’s palace. The crew nevertheless made ready to depart and Circe gave Odysseus foodstuffs and directions for the journey, even slipping past his men invisibly to leave some sacrificial animals by the ship. The only blot on the horizon was the news Odysseus had to tell his men – they were now to travel to Hades. The challenge depressed and frightened them, and they were terrified as they set out on the next leg of their

voyage, which was to visit a place long feared and avoided by the living and which meant nothing but misery to the dead themselves.

BOOK 11: THE BOOK OF THE DEAD

Circe’s instructions proved to be very worthwhile to Odysseus, and sailing to the edge of the world, he and his followers poured libations to the dead (honey, milk, water and wine). This act he followed by the sacrifice of a ram and a black ewe: immediately the smell of the blood drew the dead souls from the Underworld into his presence, and Odysseus kept them at bay with his sword whilst he awaited the arrival of his particular prey, the prophet Tiresias. Before he arrived, the shade of the dead Elpenor appeared, demanding funeral rites; then came his mother, Anticleia, whom he could only stare at with grief, as she wanted the blood that was reserved for Tiresias.

Once present, and refreshed by the cup of blood, Tiresias revealed the future of Odysseus. In it he saw the great trials Odysseus must face on his nostos, but could also tell him that he would arrive back at Ithaca – though nobody would know who he was – and would once again rule over it. Neverthless, he must also placate Poseidon before he can achieve a happy and long life. Tiresias having left, Odysseus then prepared himself to meet other dead souls from the past.

His mother re-appeared, bringing sad news of Penelope, Telemachus and Laertes; then it was the turn of those females who were famous throughout Greece: Tyro, Antiope, Alcmene, Megare, Epicaste [or Jocasta], Chloris, Leda, Iphimedeia, Phaedra, Ariadne, Maera, Clymene and Eriphyle (here Odysseus broke off his tale to the Phaeacians, but Alcinous’ persuading made him continue with it again). Persephone then drove away the spirits of the women.

Next came Agamemnon, revealing the story of how he met his doom at the hands of Aegisthus and Clytemnestra. This was followed by the appearances of Achilles, Patroclus, Antilochus and Ajax – the latter of which would not return his greeting. Minos, Orion, Tityus, Tantalus, Sisyphus, and finally Heracles then appeared to him. Overwhelmed by the grief of their tales and the tasks they have to perform, Odysseus retired to his ship, much to the relief of his worried men, who then made haste to man the ship and depart.

BOOK 12: SYCLLA AND CHARYBDIS

Complying with Elpenor’s last wish, Odysseus and his crew returned to Aeaea, the home of Circe, to give him the correct funeral rites. Here Circe proved loyal once more, providing both supplies and vital information concerning the dangers ahead, before finally allowing her guests to embark on their further travels in a happy frame of mind.

The first obstacle to be confronted was that presented by the infamous Sirens. Their song lured sailors onto the reefs around their island, but Odysseus was determined to hear them sing. He arranged to have his men’s ears stopped with wax whilst he was tied to the ship’s mast, thus gaining safe passage but, despite his struggles to set himself free, allowing Odysseus to also safely hear the Sirens’ voices.

The next encounter was with the double threat of Scylla and Charybdis. The six-headed Scylla managed to pluck six of the crew from the ship, whilst Odysseus attempted to fight her, and the whirlpool Charybdis was, with some stealth, narrowly avoided.

Next the ship landed on the island of Thrinacie, the home of the cattle of Hyperion, the Sun-god. Marooned there for a month, and urged on by Eurylochus, the crew set about killing and devouring Hyperion’s cattle, even though both Tiresias and Circe had warned against this danger and they themselves knew they were committing an act of hybris. Odysseus, cast into a sleep by the gods, he claimed, was taken unawares and could not prevent their actions. Hyperion, distraught and enraged, evoked Zeus, as overseer of dike, and he promised to deal with the culprits. Odysseus berated his men, but it was too late. The omens for the future began to make themselves plain when the dead carcasses of the cattle began to crawl around and bellow. Remaining one week longer on the island, ship and crew then put to sea, but Zeus was true to his word, and before long he struck the ship with lightning. All of Odysseus’ men were flung overboard to their deaths, whilst he soldiered on against another (southerly) storm amidst the wreckage of his all but totally disintegrated craft. Eventually he was blown back towards the twin evils represented by Scylla and Charybdis. Although in grave danger, Odysseus managed to haul himself out of the water by grabbing a fig tree, thus avoiding Charybdis’ swirling depths, and paddled the now re-emerged timbers of his ship silently past Scylla. It was ten days later that he was washed up on Ogygia, the island home of Calypso, and, as Odysseus now says to his Phaeacian audience, that tale needed no re-telling, as he had only just told them of it the previous day.

BOOK 13: ODYSSEUS LANDS IN ITHACA

Odysseus finishes his story, bringing matters up to date, and the impressed Alcinous suggests he should be given presents and taken home. The next day the Phaeacians throw a banquet and prove their hospitality by loading Odysseus with expensive gifts and also delivering him to Ithaca, as they promised, in one of their magic ships. The injustice of their situation is highlighted when Poseidon, enraged by their generosity towards Odysseus, informs Zeus that the Phaeacians, his very own descendants, cannot be allowed to escape punishment, as he would be disgraced in front of the other gods if they did. Zeus agrees, and on his suggestion (p. 197) Poseidon turns the returning Phaeacian ship into stone as it approaches their harbour at Scheria.

On Ithaca Odysseus awakes to find the island covered in Athena’s mist, in order to protect his arrival being discovered, and wonders where he has been stranded. His annoyance is interrupted by the approach of Athena, disguised as a shepherd. She informs him that he is, indeed, on Ithaca. Odysseus does not reveal his identity and invents a story of his fleeing Crete because of his murder of Orsilochus (“ambusher”), the famed Idomeneus’ son (a Greek hero in the Trojan War and frequently and favourably mentioned by Homer in the Iliad). Athena is pleased with his attempt at deception (nb. an ironic situation, as, of all people, it is she whom he attempts to deceive), and tells Odysseus that she was responsible for the Phaeacians liking him, but that he must now submit to further trials and humiliations here on Ithaca, though she will be supporting him (it transpires that she would not oppose her uncle,

Poseidon, on the matter of Odysseus’ safe return home). Showering praise on Odysseus for his patience and cunning and clarifying Penelope’s loyalty to him, Athena clears the mist and helps him to hide his gifts in a cavern. She then disguises him almost beyond recognition, as an aged beggar, and directs him towards the loyal Eumaeus’ hut, finally leaving for Sparta to summon Telemachus.

BOOK 14: IN EUMAEUS’ HUT

Odysseus makes his way, as Athena suggested, to the hut of Eumaeus, the swineherd. From the very first Eumaeus is welcoming, seeing off the dogs that attack Odysseus, praising the absent, he thinks, master, and offering food. He only asks the old stranger his name after they have eaten, and in the meantime the talk is of Odysseus and his generosity, Zeus’ protection of strangers, and the evil deeds of the suitors. Eumaeus explains how every tramp who arrives at Ithaca has a tale to tell Penelope concerning Odysseus in exchange for a cloak, but he himself knows that his master is dead and bitterly regrets his passing. The stranger is moved, and solemnly swears that Odysseus will return within the month and avenge the wrongs done to his wife and son. Ironically, Odysseus being the very person he is talking to, Eumaeus refuses to believe him, and regrets that Telemachus has now been possessed by some god, as he has also gone travelling, to Pylos in search of his father, and the suitors are lying in wait to kill him on his return. Eventually, Eumaeus asks the stranger his name and background, and Odysseus naturally invents a story to answer his questions. Again, Odysseus uses Crete (as he had done when Athena inquired about him in bk. 13) as a cover, informing Eumaeus that his half-brothers had swindled him of his share of an inheritance there, since when he had fought at Troy, had success in Egypt (cf. Menelaus’ story in bk. 4), been shipwrecked on Thesprotia (where he heard that Odysseus was alive), and finally escaped a trap on Ithaca that brought him to Eumaeus’ hut. Eumaeus pities him, but, being moralistically inclined, has little sympathy for the lies he has told about Odysseus’ whereabouts. Soon the herdsmen return, and the ritual of sacrifice before eating is strictly observed. To obtain a cloak but also test Eumaeus, Odysseus invents another story, this time involving the cunning of Odysseus at Troy. Suitably impressed, Eumaeus lends him his cloak to sleep under, whilst he himself goes to guard Odysseus’ boars for the night: Odysseus’ metis has won out yet again.

BOOK 15: TELEMACHUS RETURNS

Athena arrives in Lacedaemon (the region dominated by Sparta) to look after Telemachus’ interests, and goes to Menelaus’ palace at Sparta to warn him that he must return to Ithaca. She says that the suitor Eurymachus’ wealth is perhaps making an impression on Penelope, and women are not to be trusted in such matters. Further, the suitors’ ringleaders are lying in wait for him off the coast of Ithaca and intend to kill him, though, she adds, she doubts that they will succeed as their deaths are already fated. Nevertheless, Telemachus should avoid the strait by landing at the first place in Ithaca he comes to, and after that continue on to the hut of Eumaeus, who will inform Penelope that he has returned. Athena then leaves for Olympus.

Telemachus immediately wakes Peisistratus and tells him they are leaving. Peisistratus insists that they see Menelaus before doing so (to slip away would be a terrible

insult and transgression of the custom of xenia, and considering Telemachus has matured it is notable that it is the more mature Peisistratus, who is the same age as Telemachus, who stops him from blundering here – although he does seem to want some presents!). When approached Menelaus is the very spirit of xenia, giving them a meal, many gifts and a fond farewell. As they are about to depart an eagle is seen carrying a white goose in its talons (the eagle is Zeus’ symbol), and Helen interprets the omen as a sign that Odysseus has returned or is about to. Determined to reach home, Telemachus refuses to visit Pylos, as he knows that Nestor’s insistence on hospitality will detain him (wise thinking or another blunder?).

Whilst observing the correct rituals, to Athena, before embarking for Ithaca, Telemachus is approached by a stranger named Theoclymenus (whose family history is re-counted in some depth at p. 229 ff., though there seems little reason why it should be). He wants sanctuary on Telemachus’ ship, as he is being hunted for a murder he committed at Argos. Telemachus acts correctly and takes him on board as he sails (despite admitting to murder, he has come as a virtual suppliant and thus cannot be turned away).

Meanwhile Odysseus tests Eumaeus by saying he will beg in town and visit the suitors to secure a meal from them, hardwork not being an obstacle as he can turn his hands to many things. As Odysseus hoped, Eumaeus offers him a temporary roof over his head, and also criticizes the suitors in the process. Elated, Odysseus guardedly inquires of his mother and father. He discovers that his father is alive but wishes for death, and that his mother died grieving for her lost son; Eumaeus continues by mentioning that he no longer sees Penelope since the suitors arrived. Odysseus then asks of Eumaeus’ past life, and is told of it in some detail, including how he was the son of a king but was sold to Laertes by Phoenician sailors. The pair talk into the early hours.

Telemachus lands in Ithaca and tells Theoclymenus to seek out Eurymachus for hospitality. Apollo sends his hawk, and Theoclymenus interprets its appearance as a sign of the royalty and future rule of Telemachus’ house on Ithaca. Arranging for his friend Peiraeus to provide Theoclymenus with hospitality at his home, Telemachus makes his way to Eumaeus’ hut.

BOOK 16: ODYSSEUS MEETS HIS SON

The scene opens in Eumaeus’ hut, where he and Odysseus are preparing breakfast. The footsteps heard by Odysseus turn out to be those of Telemachus, who is welcomed like a long-lost son by Eumaeus. Telemachus has come to see Eumaeus and to find out about Penelope’s latest situation before he returns to the palace. He is friendly towards Odysseus but inquires of Eumaeus who his guest is. Eumaeus explains that the stranger is from Crete, and says he will now place him in Telemachus’ care. Telemachus is embarrassed, and offers clothes or the shelter of Eumaeus’ hut to the stranger but says that he cannot guarantee his safety should he enter the palace, the suitors being in control and his mother being torn between loyalty to Odysseus and the prospect of a new life with one of them. The stranger says that he is outraged by the behaviour of the suitors, and that if only he were Odysseus he would attack them (note the irony). Eumaeus is sent by Telemachus to tell Penelope that he has returned safely and for her to inform Laertes of the news.

Athena now appears outside the hut, but only to Odysseus’ eyes, disguised as a beautiful woman. She tells Odysseus that it is time to reveal his identity to Telemachus so that the suitors’ downfall can be planned, returns Odysseus to his former stature, and promptly disappears. Telemachus is startled by the transformation and when Odysseus, who begins to cry, informs him of his true identity refuses to accept the situation, believing him to be a god playing tricks. He is finally convinced when Odysseus tells him of Athena’s part in matters, and then he, too, begins to weep.

The Phaeacians’ role in the affair is made plain to Telemachus, and he tells Odysseus of the suitors’ strength, emphasizing that Odysseus and himself could never successfully take on such odds alone. Odysseus is unperturbed, as both Athena and Zeus will, he says, be with them (during his explanation of this, he is referred to by Homer as ‘the patient’ Odysseus). Telemachus must, he says, return to the palace, and he will also arrive there later, to be insulted and taunted, but whatever the treatment handed out, Telemachus must make no reaction. More importantly, on his signal Telemachus must hide the weapons that are in the hall, leaving aside two spears, two swords, and two shields for themselves; and at all costs he must not reveal to anyone that Odysseus has returned. Telemachus begins to demonstrate his new found confidence by suggesting that Odysseus postpone until later his plan to sound out the men-servants’ loyalty by a personal approach to their houses.

Penelope is told by Eumaeus of Telemachus’ return in private (emphasizing his common sense: the messenger from Telemachus’ ship blurted this out in front of all the women-servants). The suitors’ meeting about the situation is interrupted by the return of those among them who were shipped out to kill Telemachus at sea, and the whole body of them re-convene in the place of assembly (note: no locals are allowed to join them). Newly-returned, Antinous takes the rostrum, and he advocates killing Telemachus as soon as possible and before he can publicly denounce them for their plan to kill him; they must then divide his wealth between them, allowing the successful suitor for Penelope’s hand to keep the house. The conscientious suitor, Amphinomus, rejects the disgraceful plan, saying it must first have the sanction of Zeus, and the suitors, in agreement, return to the palace.

Penelope, knowing of the suitors’ plan from Medon, now confronts them in the hall. She denounces Antinous for his evil scheme and his ignoring of the customs of xenia, especially as Odysseus had once given his father shelter when the local mob threatened to kill him. Eurymachus answers that he would kill any man that tried to kill Telemachus – but pointedly ends his speech with the escape clause that the gods’ will shall decide matters, revealing his true feelings and aims.

The evening sees Athena revert Odysseus into his guise as an old beggar (she also sent sleep to Penelope) upon the return of Eumaeus. He tells Odysseus and Telemachus of the ship’s re-appearance in the harbour before they retire for the night.

BOOK 17: ODYSSEUS GOES TO THE TOWN

Telemachus goes into town to see Penelope, and it is agreed that Odysseus will follow him later. Telemachus receives a warm welcome from the maids, and especially from Eurycleia.

Penelope is also welcoming, but Telemachus is somewhat terse, and tells her to make offerings to Zeus, demonstrating his role as dominant male. He avoids the attentions of the suitors, is re-united with Theoclymenus, and Penelope joins them. Although she is eager to hear of Telemachus’ travels to Pylos and Sparta, it is the news received from Menelaus, that Odysseus could be alive and a virtual captive of Calypso, which moves her. Theoclymenus doubts the story, and prophesizes that Odysseus has already landed on Ithaca and is preparing for the destruction of the suitors. At supper time Telemachus invites the suitors to eat (showing respect for xenia), and it is they who slaughter animals to provide them with their food (without offerings to the gods, showing no respect for religious scruple).

Whilst Odysseus, still in disguise, and Eumaeus are on their way into town they are confronted by Melanthius, Odysseus’ chief goatherd, who heaps insults on them (and the absent Telemachus), and attempts to assault Odysseus by launching a kick at his hip, but misses. Knowing that he must remain enduring and patient, Odysseus refrains from taking action against Melanthius, and Eumaeus merely curses him. Once at the palace, it is decided that Odysseus will go inside after Eumaeus has entered. In one of the most famous scenes in ancient Greek literature, Odysseus is recognised by his now aged and neglected dog, Argus, and has to hide a tear from Eumaeus’ view. Having once again seen his master after twenty years of waiting, Argus immediately accepts his death.

Eumaeus enters the hall and takes his place at the table by Telemachus, Odysseus following him some while later. Telemachus gives him some bread and meat and tells Eumaeus to instruct him to beg more from the suitors, an idea which is supported by Athena when she appears to Odysseus. Setting off to beg, and being received with curiosity rather than abuse, Odysseus soon encounters Melanthius, who informs the suitors that this beggar has been brought to the hall by Eumaeus. Antinous begins to hurl abuse at Eumaeus, for bringing another vagabond to eat their food (a very ironic gesture), and Eumaeus bravely trades insults, correcting him on his view of xenia (ie. Antinous only employs it for respectable persons). Rebuked by Telemachus, this does not stop Antinous from insulting Odysseus when he begs food of him, his hard luck story of a disastrous piratical trip to Egypt having no effect on Antinous. Odysseus’ stand against Antinous results in a stool hitting him on the back, but Odysseus refuses to take direct action, and instead addresses the suitors, openly insulting Antinous in front of them. Antinous threatens him, but the suitors begin to doubt the wisdom of his action. Both Odysseus and Telemachus, enraged by Antinous’ behaviour, inwardly swear to take their revenge on him later.

Penelope hears of the action, curses Antinous (as does the Housekeeper/Nurse Eurynome), and tells Eumaeus to invite the stranger to join her in the hope that he has heard something of Odysseus on his travels. Eumaeus informs Penelope of the stranger’s marvellous stories, whilst a sneeze from Telemachus, Penelope claims, is an omen that supports her words and that the suitors will soon die. Penelope’s offer, including that of a cloak and tunic for him, is rejected by Odysseus, who, fearing attack from the suitors, prefers to wait until sundown to see her. It is viewed as a shrewd decision by both Eumaeus and Penelope, and advising Telemachus to be alert for his safety, Eumaeus returns home to tend the pigs whilst the suitors continue their merriment.

BOOK 18: THE BEGGAR IN THE PALACE

Book 18 introduces us to the beggar Irus, an arrogant, greedy character, but popular with the suitors. He arrives one afternoon and sets about intimidating Odysseus. Not content with trying to remove him from the premises (more irony, as it is Odysseus’ house), he wants Odysseus off his begging preserve of Ithaca altogether. The suitors look on as an argument develops, and soon Antinous decides that a boxing match is in order, with goats’ paunches to be awarded to the winner.

Irus, as he says himself, is the younger man (or so it appears), and thus the favourite to take the prize. But once Odysseus strips for combat it dawns on the crowd that he is very muscular, and Irus begins to have a change of heart. Antinous will have none of this, and despite Odysseus’ attempts to show leniency towards him during the fight, he still manages to break Irus’ jaw. The suitors, thinking the whole event hilarious, can only award Odysseus congratulations and the prize before retiring for dinner. When Amphinomus toasts him, Odysseus, thinking him sensible, tries to make him aware of the danger at hand, but he says nothing – though he suspects that something bad is about to happen.

Athena now puts it into Penelope’s head to appear before the suitors, and endows her with great beauty while she sleeps. Penelope tells Eurynome that she also wants to warn Telemachus about the evil intentions of the suitors. Looking radiant, Penelope impresses the whole gathering. Once again she begins to lecture them, disapproving of the recent fight and berating Telemachus’ weakness in the process, though he gives as good as he gets in return. Eurymachus compliments her on her beauty, but she refers to Odysseus, and his wealth which they are draining away (she also mentions that she may well have to choose a partner before too long). Ashamed, the suitors send servants to bring her gifts – but Antinous adds that they will not leave until she has chosen one of them. Penelope goes to her room while they continue to enjoy themselves (but still at the estate’s expense!). During this interval Odysseus sends some maidservants to comfort Penelope but, like her brother, Melanthius, in book 17, Melantho begins to berate Odysseus (she has become Eurymachus’ lover and has turned her back on Penelope, who raised her), but gets short shrift from him. Encouraged by the vengeful Athena, Eurymachus insults Odysseus, who replies angrily, and once again a stool is thrown. But Eurymachus only succeeds in hitting a servant. The atmosphere is tense, and Telemachus bravely, and to everyone’s surprise, suggests everyone calms down by returning home for the night. Amphinomus agrees, and his servant takes round wine from which the suitors drink and offer libations before going to their respective homes.

BOOK 19: EURYCLEIA RECOGNISES ODYSSEUS

The suitors having gone to their homes, Odysseus and Telemachus tidy the hall, taking care to carefully lock away the weapons in another part of the palace. Odysseus then ensures that Telemachus retires to bed. Penelope enters with her maids, and is set upon cleaning the palace, but a clash between Odysseus and Melantho sees her spring to the former’s defence and firmly put the maidservant in her place.

Letting the servants commence their tasks, Penelope falls into conversation with the beggar. She begins to reveal her plight to him, recounting how her husband has been away from the palace and of her pains in keeping the suitors at bay, admitting that she has had to resort to scheming, subterfuge and plain lying to fend off their approaches, but, more pressing, with Telemachus’ coming of age he is now capable of looking after the palace himself, which places some further stress on the situation. Obviously overcome by this tale, Odysseus nevertheless says nothing, and is relieved when Penelope asks of his own circumstances. Relying on his wits, the arch-deciever quickly invents a story which not only portrays him as being, yet again, from Crete, but also tells of his suffering: most impressively of all, he reveals that he knew Odysseus personally. He supplies some convincing evidence to confirm that this is the case, whilst also predicting that Odysseus is alive, well, and on the brink of returning home. Taken with the beggar, Penelope leaves, but before doing so, and following Odysseus’ request that an aged servant should do the task, she instructs the old nurse Eurycleia to bathe his feet. She, having reared Odysseus, recognises the scar on his knee. Excited, Odysseus has to firmly tell her not to reveal the truth to Penelope as yet, to which demand she agrees.

At this point Penelope returns and tells Odysseus that she has reached a decision. She will challenge the suitors to try and string Odysseus’ famous bow and shoot an arrow directly through a row of no less than twelve axe heads, as he himself had done in the past. The winner will have her as his bride – if any one of them is capable of achieving the feat. The beggar, as she thinks he is, listens intently before agreeing that this is a good idea. His subsequent remark that Odysseus will return home prior to any suitor being put to the test does not register with Penelope. She then departs whilst Odysseus makes ready to sleep on the hall floor, but once in her room she cannot sleep due to memories of her husband flooding her mind, and it is Athena who eventually bestows sleep on her.

BOOK 20: PRELUDE TO THE CRISIS

Odysseus spends the night apprehensive of the outcome of the now guaranteed clash with the suitors. But in his hour of need Athena appears to soothe his fears by telling him that she will help him, which virtually assures his victory. Penelope is also struck by fear, but hers is concerned with a possible marriage to another man, and she prays to Artemis, wishing for death rather than such an arrangement.

For Odysseus, Zeus is the answer to his prayers, and next morning his wish for a visible sign that confirms his support is answered with a crack of loud thunder – a sign noticed by others and placing the palace in sombre mood. Odysseus now weighs up the odds against him. Melanthius continues to mock him, but there are also the separate arrivals of Eumaeus and Philoetius, the herdsman, both loyal and to be counted on.

The arrival of the suitors, fresh from their planning of Telemachus’ death, sees the tension increase. Firstly the arrogant Ctesippus hurls insults at Odysseus and follows this up by throwing an ox-hoof at him. This fires Telemachus, who turns on the suitors and proceeds to list all their crimes. The suitors are quite taken aback by this, but recover themselves amidst their drunkenness to mock his words, openly laughing at his efforts to upbraid them. It

is here that the prophet from Argos, Theoclymenus, warns that an awful fate is awaiting the suitors, and that justice will soon be dealt out to them. His warnings meet with no better a reception than did Telemachus’ scoldings, and he leaves the palace enraged, the suitors’ laughter and insults wringing in his ears. This leaves Odysseus and Telemachus to keep an eye out for each other, as the suitors continue to make merry, eating and drinking at their expense.

BOOK 21: THE GREAT BOW

The great bow of Odysseus is placed in the hall by Penelope and she then says that there will be a contest: her new husband will be the suitor who manages to string the bow and shoot his arrow through all of the twelve axes. None of the suitors refuse the challenge. Antinous seems quite confident of success, so much so, that he can find time to verbally attack Eumaeus and Philoetius for their tears, shed when they realize that this announcement means that it is now accepted that Odysseus is dead.

Telemachus, having dug the trench into which the axeheads are fitted, is quite keen to match the feat of his father by stringing the bow, but over three efforts he fails to do so, and just as he has appears to be succeeding with his fourth, Odysseus shakes his head to make him stop. Odysseus is now prepared to reveal his identity to those he trusts and needs, and he thus removes Eumaeus and Philoetius to one side and tells them that he is Odysseus. The pair are delighted and their services are immediately secured.

All is now as the suitors wanted, and they pull with all of their might, one after the other, but fail to string the bow. Even after attempts to grease it, they still have no joy. Bitterly disappointed, Antinous calls off further efforts until the following day. Before they can dismiss, Odysseus claims his right to accept the challenge, but the suitors, outraged, refuse him permission. Re-assuring the suitors that she would not marry the man, even if he won, she nevertheless gives the beggar a chance to string the bow. Careful to ensure that his mother and her maidservants are removed from the hall first, Telemachus then has the bow sent to Odysseus. Simultaneously, Eumaeus and Philoetius ensure that every gate and door within the palace is locked, so that none can leave or enter the scene.

As Odysseus takes the bow the suitors hurl insults at him, but he continues his task without comment. He deliberately takes his time, firstly stringing the bow, much to the suitors’ surprise, but then even more shocking is his shot with it, as it flies straight through the row of twelve axes without touching any of them. The signal having been given, as such, whilst the suitors sit in total shock Telemachus steps up to his father’s side, fully armed and ready for combat.

BOOK 22: THE BATTLE IN THE HALL

Jumping into action, Odysseus wastes no time in seeing off the main suitor, Antinous, immediately shooting an arrow into his throat. The suitors’ are at first stunned but then this reaction quickly turns to one of anger, as they think the beggar has simply gone mad. Amidst the resulting confusion Odysseus at last provides information about himself, and though he

does not speak his name, the suitors shrink back as they realise who they are confronting. Finally, it is Eurymachus who answers him. But, in typical mode, he blames Antinous for everything, saying that he was aiming to become king of Ithaca, but that the rest of the suitors will gladly pay for all they have taken from the palace. The offer makes no impression on the enraged Odysseus, and Eurymachus then encourages the suitors to unite and fight, to which Odysseus replies by piercing his liver with an arrow. Next, the “good” suitor Amphinomus makes for Odysseus, but Telemachus despatches him with a spear.

With both their leaders Antinous and Eurymachus now dead, the suitors continue to fight for their survival. Chaos follows, and their efforts to get to Odysseus cost them dearly. Their use of tables to fend off Odysseus’ arrows has little effect, and they begin to fall in large numbers. As Telemachus brings out weapons, he and Odysseus are joined by Eumaeus and Philoetius, and the four face the suitors together. The treacherous Melanthius provides the suitors with weapons from the storeroom, but Eumaeus and Philoetius combine to capture and bind him. Soon, all of the arrows are spent, and the four continue the fight with the weapons brought by Telemachus. Athena is crucial to the outcome of the contest, encouraging Odysseus to overcome the odds stacked against him. Although out-numbered, the quartet are eventually successful, and not a single suitor remains alive: not even those who beg for mercy manage to save themselves. It is now time for Odysseus to deliver dike upon those members of his oikos who have betrayed him.

Phemius the bard and Medon the herald are spared, as Odysseus knows that they are loyal and could not refuse to do the suitors’ bidding. But for others a nastier fate is planned. Eurycleia’s joy on seeing the dead bodies and her attempt to rejoice with a hymn are quickly quashed by Odysseus, who, as ever, is mindful of piety and says that the deaths are not a matter for celebration. But he does ask her to reveal which of the maidservants betrayed him during the period of his absence. Twelve are identified, and after they have been made to clean the hall and rid it of the suitors’ bodies, they are marched outside and hanged. The insolent Melanthius, the traitor who mocked, attacked and betrayed Odysseus is given a particularly nasty death: his nose, ears, genitals, hands and feet are hacked off and he is left to die (though Odysseus actually takes no part in meting out the punishment).

Odysseus then orders Eurycleia to, firstly, fetch sulphur, so that the hall, polluted by both the suitors’ behaviour and their deaths, can be properly cleansed, and, secondly, to gather together Penelope and all the remaining female servants in the hall. The concerned Eurycleia asks Odysseus to don a cloak, but he refuses, being set on personally cleansing the hall of the pollution. While he does this, Eurycleia goes to bring the servants, and they joyously welcome Odysseus home.

BOOK 23: ODYSSEUS AND PENELOPE

Eurycleia tells Penelope of Odysseus’ return and the killing of the suitors. Extremely doubtful, Penelope decides to survey matters for herself. At first she does not recognise the still grimy Odysseus. Telemachus scolds her, but Odysseus removes him, telling him to ensure that the palace still vibrates with song and dance so as to fool the locals into thinking that nothing had changed within. Taking a bath, and emerging from it in suitably godlike

fashion, Odysseus then returns to confront Penelope. A battle of wits takes place. Despite the cunning of Odysseus, Penelope is a match for him, and she herself cunningly delivers a stern test which only the real Odysseus could pass. Her winning hand is the mention of the bed which Odysseus had built. He having asked for a bed for the night, Penelope directs Eurycleia to move this very same one, their marriage bed, outside for him to sleep on. One corner-post being built from a living olive-tree in the courtyard, it is impossible to move without great difficulty, and Odysseus, outraged that she could do such a thing in his absence, angrily reveals the history of the bed and how he constructed it. Penelope realises the truth: this is the man she married. The pair immediately embrace and fall into each other’s arms, and he begins to recount his adventures to her. He tells of the visit to Hades to speak with Teiresias, whilst the rest of the house finally falls silent for the night. To allow them some extra time, Athena delays the dawn. Eventually Eurynome guides them to their room, ‘where blissfully they lay down on their own familiar bed’. [Note that this is line 296: the original end of the Odyssey?] After making love, Penelope is still keen to hear the rest of Odysseus’ adventures, and he tells her of them, even including the liaisons with Circe and Calypso in the process. Finally, needing to see his father, Odysseus arms himself and takes Telemachus, Eumaeus, and Philoetius to Laertes’ farm.

BOOK 24: THE FEUD IS ENDED

Book 24 begins in Hades, and we meet, once again, as we did in book 11, the ghosts of Agamemnon, Achilles, Patroclus, Antilochus and Ajax. It is Hermes who next appears, undertaking his duty of escorting the souls of the dead to Hades, but this time the dead souls are those of the newly-deceased suitors. This unusually large trail of dead prompts Agamemnon to enquire as to who they are and how they died, and it is the suitor Amphimedon, first appearing in book 22, where he was killed by Telemachus, who supplies the details of the tale to him. The story makes a great impression on Agamemnon, and he immediately praises both Odysseus, for his prowess as a warrior, and Penelope, for her loyalty.

The scene quickly switches to Ithaca, where Odysseus makes his way to Laertes’ cottage. Still using his cunning, Odysseus delays revealing his identity, and feeds Laertes a false tale about his adventures, but finally introduces himself to the old man as his long-lost son. When Laertes realises the truth he is overwhelmed with joy and lovingly clasps Odysseus to his breast. Not only is it Laertes who is overcome with joy, as soon Dolius (first mentined in book 4, and subsequently, in passing, in 17, 18 and 22) and his sons arrive and warmly greet their returned master as well.

But the secret of what happened to the suitors cannot be kept from the Ithacans forever, and they now discover the truth of the matter. Thus the suitors’ relatives call for an assembly to discuss what should be done next. Whilst Medon and Halisthernes call for calm, Eupithes, the father of Antinous, and others decide upon action. Seeking vengeance for their sons’ deaths, they gather their weapons and head for Laertes’ farmland.

Homer then transports us to Olympus, where Athena is taking up Odysseus’ case with Zeus. There is no doubt in Zeus’ mind that Odysseus is innocent of any crime, and that the

suitors’ deaths were justified (ie. their hybris brought about their nemesis). Deciding that the next issue must be that of the restoration of peace on Ithaca, he tells Athena to ensure that this is carried out.

We are then taken back to the scene on Ithaca, the suitors’ relations now having arrived at Laertes’ farm determined to enact their revenge. They are faced by the small but equally determined following of Odysseus, which comprises of Odysseus, Telemachus, Eumaeus, Philoetius, Dolius, his six sons, Laertes, and one special ally – Athena, once again disguised as Mentor. She personally approaches Laertes to give him encouragement, and it is he who casts the first spear, striking dead Eupithes on the spot. At this signal Odysseus and his followers spring to the attack, and it is only the intervention of Athena which prevents them from slaughtering the suitors’ relatives. But as the they run for the cover of the city Odysseus again sets about them, and it calls for a thunderbolt from Zeus to control his anger. Athena then orders Odysseus to desist from violence – or else face the wrath of Zeus himself. He happily obeys her and ceases his pursuit. Still in the guise of Mentor, Athena then establishes peace between the two factions.