The Paris Peace Conference&

The Treaties

K.J. Benoy

A Sudden End

• When the Central Powers collapsed, it came suddenly.

• The Allies had no clear plans for the aftermath

A Conference in Paris

• No formal talks came before the war’s end.

• The victorious powers decided to meet in Paris, to decide the future of the world.

• American President Wilson would sail to Europe for the duration.

The Paris Peace Conference• There had never

been anything like this before.

• The Congress of Vienna, that settled post Napoleonic Europe, was the closest precedent – but it happened before mass media was invented.

The Personalities - Wilson

• US President Woodrow Wilson seemed to hold all the cards.– His country was powerful

and had suffered least from the war.

– He was hailed by ordinary Europeans as the “prophet of a new world.”

– America had the economic clout to lever the British and French.

The Personalities - Wilson

• However, Wilson was slow and stiff.

• He was restricted by his ideology and his commitment to two key principles:– Internationalism

– National Self-Determination.

The Personalities - Wilson

• He was no bargainer.• He had little experience in

international negotiations. • He was often fooled by

the slicker European diplomats who he disliked.

• He began with political support at home, but by the end of the Conference, he was losing the support of Congress.

The Personalities - Wilson

• Most significantly – he was not a well man.

• He suffered from high blood pressure and the stress of the conference wore on him.

• His poor health was a closely guarded secret, but we know he did suffer violently from influenza while in Europe. He may also have had strokes earlier than the famous one that incapacitated him after he returned from Europe.

The Personalities - Clemenceau

• Often known by his nick-name – “The Tiger” – he was old but determined.

• He wholly agreed with Foche and the French military, that what was needed was a peace of revenge against Germany.

The Personalities - Clemenceau

• Clemenceau understood that France had suffered mightily in the Great War and that recovery would be long and expensive.

• Germany must be made to pay.

The Personalities – Lloyd-George

• A Welshman, he was a fiery orator and brilliant thinker.

• However, he did not like to write things down.

• His nick-name was “the Goat” because he seemed able to leap from one precarious position to another without ever losing his balance.

The Personalities – Lloyd-George

• A Liberal, he was inclined to support Wilson, because he knew American support was essential to any peace agreed upon.

• However, he had been elected on a policy of “hang the Kaiser and make Germany pay!”

• In Paris his position moderated – influenced by John Maynard Keynes. LG argued most strongly for German interests, feeling a bitter and chaotic Germany was bad for European reconstruction.

The Personalities – Lloyd-George

• His chief interest lay in protecting British trade and trade routes and this flew in the face of America’s desire for open trade and trade routes which would favour US business.

The Personalities - Orlando

• Vittorio Orlando was the Italian Prime Minister.

• He went to Paris believing himself to be one of the “Big Four.”

• However, he was not considered so by Wilson, Clemenceau and Lloyd-George.

The Personalities - Orlando

• His inability to speak English gave his half-Welsh Foreign Minister, Sydney Sonnino, prominence.

• Their differences weakened Italy’s bargaining position.

• Orlando was prepared to sacrifice Dalmatia to get the city of Fiume. Sonnino would not. Italy got neither.

The Personalities - Orlando

• Clemenceau dubbed Orlando “the weeper.”

• He negotiated from weakness as his political support at home evaporated.

• He was forced from office before the Treaties were signed.

The Personalities - Others

• The winning nations each sent delegations to Paris, including a host of leaders of small nations.

• They had little influence in negotiations, but some had significant ability to disrupt any future agreements.

The Personalities - Others

• Non-white leaders also attended the conference.

• However, only the Japanese had any influence.

Not Present at the conference.

• Most significant was the absence of delegates from defeated powers.

• Neither Germany nor Russia was invited.

Friedrich Ebert Lenin

Problems

• The Chief problem at the start of the conference was the lack of an agenda.

• What would be dealt with first.

• No two countries had the same priorities.

A League of Nations?

• Wilson was fixated on the idea of forming a League of Nations.

• Clemenceau and Lloyd George used this to manipulate him.

• They accepted the principle and horse-traded for items they wanted.

Defeated Colonies• Britain and its empire

wanted colonial issues dealt with.

• Wilson favoured an end to colonial acquisitions, favouring a mandate system, where the “civilized nations” would rule over more primitive people only until they were able to look after themselves.

Defeated Colonies

• A 3 Tiered system was agreed upon:– A) Virtual independence, but

with military and administrative assistance – used in the case of Arab areas taken from Turkey.

– B) Administration by a western country to protect the natives.

– C) Administration as a virtual colony of the mandated power – to be used in the case of thinly populated or remote areas.

The Middle East

• Three key issues dominated discussions:– Arab self determination had

to be addressed. Promises were made by the British. Would they be met?

– Britain and France had imperial designs on the region. Control of oil was already an issue.

– Britain made war-time promises to Zionists. Would a Jewish homeland be granted? Did this mean a Jewish country?

The Middle East

• In the final compromise, A-type mandates were set.

• Promises to the Arabs were broken, except for establishing the Kingdom of Hejaz.

• Britain got Palestine, Transjordan and Iraq (including Kuwait).

• France got Syria and Lebanon.

• The Jews did not get a homeland.

The Middle East - Turkey

• War time agreements existed that called for carving up of most Turkish territories.

• Greece was particularly interested in West Asia Minor – Greek in ancient times – mixed ethnically in 1919.

The Middle East - Turkey

• War between Turkey and Greece ensued, with the Turks triumphant.

• Ethnic cleansing occurred on both sides.

• These countries have resented each other ever since.

TurkeyTreaty of Sevres

• The Paris treaty with Turkey proved the most short-lived; The end of the Ottoman Empire and its replacement by a resurgent Turkey under Mustafa Kemal Attaturk, doomed it.

• A number of its provisions were dropped in the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne:

– Greece lost Eastern Thrace and territory in mainland Asia Minor.

– Armenia did not gain independence.

– No independent Kurdistan was created.

– European zones of influence were dropped.

The Military Commission• There was serious infighting

here.• France wanted German

power permanently broken.• In a compromise, German

power would be limited – but the powers would also commit themselves to disarmament in the future.

• Would they actually follow through?

• Germany’s armed forces would be tiny: 100,000 men; no air force, a minimal navy with no capital ships.

The Western Agreement

• France wanted control of the Rhineland, but LG felt this would just repeat the Alsace-Lorraine problem of the pre-war years.

• LG proposed an American-British guarantee of France against unprovoked German attack. This would end the age old British fear of a continental commitment.

The Western Agreement

• France refused the compromise.

• It agreed only to demilitarization of the Rhineland and the right to occupy the Saar and Rhineland if Germany did not follow the treaty exactly.

The Western Agreement• The Allies nearly fell out on

this. Wilson threatened to quit the conference and sign a separate peace with Germany.

• Finally a compromise was reached.– The Saar would be under

League of Nations control for 15 years – followed by a plebiscite.

– The Rhineland would be demilitarized and temporarily occupied, until it was clear that Germany was obeying the treaty.

The Eastern Agreement

• Clearly events in Russia would strongly influence this.

• In 1919, the outlook was distinctly unclear.

• The Delegates at Paris strongly wanted to isolate the Soviets to bring about their defeat.

The Eastern Agreement - Poland

• France wanted a strong Poland – allied with France against Germany – a replacement for the lost Russian ally.

• Britain wanted a small, cohesive Poland.

• Wilson, thinking about the Polish vote in America, was sympathetic to the Poles.

The Eastern Agreement - Poland• Poland was given a

generous deal.– It won access to the sea

as it was granted German populated East Prussian territory.

– It had a customs union with Danzig, now detached from Germany and under League of Nations control.

– It was granted considerable territory in the East – at the cost of Russia.

The Eastern Agreement - Czechoslovakia

• Britain was sympathetic to the Czechs, as many former Russian prisoners fought for the British after gaining freedom.

• Problems existed though:– 3 million Germans lived in the

Sudeten area, claimed by the Czechs.

– Other ethnic minorities existed throughout the former Austro-Hungarian lands.

The Eastern Agreement – AustriaTreaty of St. Germain

• Old Austria was thoroughly dismembered.

• It would emerge a tiny nation of 7 million – fully 2 million in its ethnically diverse capital.

• Vienna, once hub of a great empire, was now cut off from its hinterland.

• The country might not be economically viable.

• Anschluss – union with Germany – was expressly forbidden.

The Eastern Agreement – HungaryTreaty of Trianon

• Like Austria, Hungary was thoroughly dismembered.

• Many ethnic Hungarians were assigned to neighbouring countries.

Further Complications

• The big issues dealt with, it was felt the little ones would fall into place.

• Unfortunately, they did not.

Fiume

• This was an Italian populated city, surrounded by a Slavic countryside, in former Austro-Hungarian territory.

• Wilson wanted a Free City with a plebiscite in 15 years.

• Italian adventurers simply invaded and ultimately handed the territory over to Italy. Gabriel D’Annunzio –

who seized Fiume

Treaty of Versailles - Germany

• Of course the most important treaty was the one dealing with Germany.

• Some of this was easily sorted, but much was not.

• The issues of war-guilt and of reparations were crucial.

Article 231

• Article 231 – “The War Guilt Clause,” was sure to enrage Germany.

• However, it was needed in order to justify reparation payments.

Reparations• Germany had forced

France to pay reparations after the Franco-Prussian War.

• France & Belgium were particularly adamant that Germany should pay for the cost of this war. After all, German cities were untouched while most of Flanders lay in ruins.

Reparations

• The final sum was not set until after Germany reluctantly signed the Treaty of Versailles.

• The amount finally specified was 133 billion gold marks – 10 billion British pounds -- US$33 billion.

Over-all Reactions of Allies• When most of the final deals were hammered out,

the leaders looked at the over-all effect.• LG and the moderates felt the Treaty of Versailles

overwhelming and impractical; it was too harsh; Germany might not sign.

• Wilson was too alienated to consider further revision. He refused to renegotiate anything.

• Clemenceau was against anything that might lessen the terms of the treaty.

German Reaction

• Germany was appalled at what was unfolding at the Paris talks.

• Many Germans felt that Wilson’s pre-war talk hinted at a fairly soft peace.

• They quickly forgot the harsh peace that they had imposed on Russia at Brest-Litovsk.

German Reaction• Germany insisted on changes

to the treaty, but undermined its position by protesting every single point, instead of focussing on essentials.

• Only tiny concessions were made.

• Germany refused to hand over ‘war criminals.”

• However, in the end there was no alternative but to sign.

• Germany could not resume fighting.

Problems of the Pace• There was

a clear perception in Germany, and to a lesser extent in Britain, that the Treaty of Versailles was unjust.

Red areas represent German and Austrian lands lost.

The Poem reads: “You must carve in your heart

These words, as in stone -

What we have lost

Will be regained!”

Problems of the Peace• Germany lost 25,000 square

miles of territory together with 6 million inhabitants. Germany lost 65 percent of her iron ore reserves, 45 percent of her coal, 72 percent of her zinc and 10 percent of her industrial capacity. A 26 percent tax was placed on all German imports. It was calculated that, with interest, the cash reparation burden would have taken 50 years to pay off. 

Problems of the Peace

• Despite the principle of self-determination being implemented, many national minorities were outside their own nation states.

• German minorities, in particular, would pose future problems.

Problems of the Peace• Austria and Hungary were

both probably too small to function as economic units.

• Some promises, like the Allied commitment to disarmament, would not be properly honoured.

• Only cooperation could ensure that the treaties were enforce, but even as the conference ended, it was clear that this cooperation would not happen.

Problems of the Peace• Wilson returned to the USA a sick

man. He soon suffered a stroke on September 29.

• Wilson refused to accept Congress’ wish to modify the treaties. He failed to secure 2/3 support, needed to ratify the treaties.

• The USA signed a separate treaty with Germany in 1921.

• The USA did not join the League of Nations.

• Collective security was undermined and no new balance of power emerged from the treaties.

On a More Positive Note

• The principle of self-determination was adhered to as much as possible.

• Everything possible was done to encourage nationalism and democracy.

• It was actually less harsh than the treaty Germany imposed on Russia in 1918.

Interpretations of the Treaties - Liberals

• The treaties were a violation of Wilson’s 14 Points.

• Had LG and Clemenceau cooperated with Wilson, a lasting peace might have been achieved.

• The USA might have signed the treaties.

Interpretations of the Treaties - Marxists

• Versailles and the other treaties were the inevitable result of capitalist imperialism.

• The liberal “open door” policy argued for by the Americans was nothing but a US plot to gain economic world domination.

• The League of Nations was just a mechanism to guarantee the peace needed for US economic penetration abroad.

• The chief aim of the peace was to contain communism and prevent it spreading

Interpretations of the Treaties - Conservatives

• Wilson was a foolish idealist.• He did not grasp the need to reduce German power until

restraints were strong enough to check a German revival.• He misunderstood the German mind in thinking that the

defeated nation would renounce revenge.• Victory was thrown aside at Paris.• Democracy would never guarantee peace.• Wilson’s demand for national self-determination led to a

Balkanization of Europe.• Britain’s commitment to Europe was a dangerous and

unnecessary move that threatened Imperial security.

Conclusion

• Regardless of interpretation, the treaties that emerged from Paris did establish the framework for the next decade and beyond.

• Europe would either have to make it work or come up with an alternative system.

• Unfortunately America would generally not be a part of the security arrangements that emerged.

Finis