the physiological impact of soccer on elite female players and the …321746/... · 2010-06-04 ·...

The physiological impact of soccer on elite female playersand the effects of active recovery training

Örebro Studies in Sport Sciences 8

Helena Andersson

The physiological impact of soccer on elite female playersand the effects of active recovery training

© Helena Andersson, 2010

Title: The physiological impact of soccer on elite female playersand the effects of active recovery training.

Publisher: Örebro University 2010www.publications.oru.se

Editor: Heinz [email protected]

Printer: intellecta infolog, Kållered 05/2010

issn 1654-7535 isbn 978-91-7668-735-2

ABSTRACT

Female soccer is becoming more popular and professional in the world. There are, however, limited

scientific data available on how elite female players respond to physical stress during soccer games.

An effective recovery strategy following a game is important, because there are few recovery days

between the games in international tournaments. The present thesis, which was designed to mirror a

competitive situation, aimed to investigate changes in several physiological systems occurring in

female elite players in response to two soccer games. It also aimed to investigate the effects of active

recovery training on the recovery of several physiological systems. METHODS: Two elite female

soccer teams played two 90-min games separated by 72 h active or passive recovery. The active

recovery training (cycling at 60% HRpeak, resistance training at <50% 1RM) lasted one hour and

was performed 22 and 46 h after the first game. Countermovement jump (CMJ), 20-m sprint time

and isokinetic knee strength were measured before, immediately, 5, 21, 45, 51, and 69 h after the first

game, and immediately after the second game. The physical stress markers (CK, urea), oxidative stress

markers (e.g., GSSG, lipid peroxidation), endogenous (e.g., UA, thiols) and dietary antioxidants (e.g.,

tocopherols, carotenoids) and a large battery of cytokines (e.g., IL-6, TNF-) were analysed in blood.

RESULTS: No significant differences were observed in the performance parameters, oxidative stress

and antioxidant levels or inflammatory response between the active and passive recovery groups.

Sprint and isokinetic knee strength were reduced by the same extent after both games. CMJ decreased

after the first game and remained reduced throughout the study period. Blood physical stress markers,

GSSG and endogenous antioxidants increased with similar amplitude after both games together with

unchanged lipid peroxidation. The dietary antioxidants showed either a rapid and persistent change

(e.g., tocopherols) or a delayed rise (carotenoids) after the first game. A transient increase occurred in

several pro- (e.g., IL-12, TNF-α, MCP-1), anti-inflammatory (e.g., IL-4, IL-10, INF-α) and mixed (IL-

6) cytokines after the first game. Fewer cytokines increased in response to the second game.

CONCLUSION: Two repeated elite female soccer games separated by 72 h induced similar acute

changes in several physiological parameters. After the first game, differences in the recovery pattern of

the neuromuscular parameters occurred. In particular, the slow recovery of CMJ indicates that special

attention should be devoted to the training of explosive force. Furthermore, the recruitment of

antioxidants in response to the transient increase in GSSG resulted in the maintenance of the redox-

balance in female players. Similarly, a strong and balanced pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine

response occurred after one single female soccer game. The consequences of the dampened cytokine

response during repeated soccer games are, however, unknown. In general, the majority of the

parameters had recovered prior to the second game and the physiological alterations induced by the

first game did not affect the performance of players in the second game. Finally, active recovery

training conducted after a soccer game does not accelerate the recovery time for neuromuscular,

oxidative stress, antioxidant and inflammatory responses in elite female players.

KEY WORDS: Football, Training, Recovery, Intermittent exercise

Helena Andersson, School of Health and Medical Sciences,

Örebro University, SE-70182, Örebro, Sweden. e-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Female soccer is becoming more popular and professional in the world. There are, however, limited

scientific data available on how elite female players respond to physical stress during soccer games.

An effective recovery strategy following a game is important, because there are few recovery days

between the games in international tournaments. The present thesis, which was designed to mirror a

competitive situation, aimed to investigate changes in several physiological systems occurring in

female elite players in response to two soccer games. It also aimed to investigate the effects of active

recovery training on the recovery of several physiological systems. METHODS: Two elite female

soccer teams played two 90-min games separated by 72 h active or passive recovery. The active

recovery training (cycling at 60% HRpeak, resistance training at <50% 1RM) lasted one hour and

was performed 22 and 46 h after the first game. Countermovement jump (CMJ), 20-m sprint time

and isokinetic knee strength were measured before, immediately, 5, 21, 45, 51, and 69 h after the first

game, and immediately after the second game. The physical stress markers (CK, urea), oxidative stress

markers (e.g., GSSG, lipid peroxidation), endogenous (e.g., UA, thiols) and dietary antioxidants (e.g.,

tocopherols, carotenoids) and a large battery of cytokines (e.g., IL-6, TNF-) were analysed in blood.

RESULTS: No significant differences were observed in the performance parameters, oxidative stress

and antioxidant levels or inflammatory response between the active and passive recovery groups.

Sprint and isokinetic knee strength were reduced by the same extent after both games. CMJ decreased

after the first game and remained reduced throughout the study period. Blood physical stress markers,

GSSG and endogenous antioxidants increased with similar amplitude after both games together with

unchanged lipid peroxidation. The dietary antioxidants showed either a rapid and persistent change

(e.g., tocopherols) or a delayed rise (carotenoids) after the first game. A transient increase occurred in

several pro- (e.g., IL-12, TNF-α, MCP-1), anti-inflammatory (e.g., IL-4, IL-10, INF-α) and mixed (IL-

6) cytokines after the first game. Fewer cytokines increased in response to the second game.

CONCLUSION: Two repeated elite female soccer games separated by 72 h induced similar acute

changes in several physiological parameters. After the first game, differences in the recovery pattern of

the neuromuscular parameters occurred. In particular, the slow recovery of CMJ indicates that special

attention should be devoted to the training of explosive force. Furthermore, the recruitment of

antioxidants in response to the transient increase in GSSG resulted in the maintenance of the redox-

balance in female players. Similarly, a strong and balanced pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine

response occurred after one single female soccer game. The consequences of the dampened cytokine

response during repeated soccer games are, however, unknown. In general, the majority of the

parameters had recovered prior to the second game and the physiological alterations induced by the

first game did not affect the performance of players in the second game. Finally, active recovery

training conducted after a soccer game does not accelerate the recovery time for neuromuscular,

oxidative stress, antioxidant and inflammatory responses in elite female players.

KEY WORDS: Football, Training, Recovery, Intermittent exercise

Helena Andersson, School of Health and Medical Sciences,

Örebro University, SE-70182, Örebro, Sweden. e-mail: [email protected]

LIST OF PUBLICATIONS

I Andersson H, Raastad T, Nilsson J, Paulsen G, Garthe I, Kadi F (2008). Neuromuscular fatigue and recovery in elite female soccer: Effects of active recovery. Med Sci Sports Exerc 40 (2), 372–380.

II Andersson H, Karlsen A, Blomhoff R, Raastad T, Kadi F (2009). Plasma

antioxidant responses and oxidative stress following a soccer game in elite female players. Scand J Med Sci Sports 23. E-publication ahead of print version.

III Andersson H, Bøhn S-K, Paulsen G, Raastad T, Blomhoff R, Kadi F (2009).

Differences in the inflammatory plasma cytokine response following two elite female soccer games separated by a 72-h recovery. Scand J Med Sci Sports 17. E-publication ahead of print version.

IV Andersson H, Karlsen A, Blomhoff R, Raastad T, Kadi F. Active recovery

training does not affect the antioxidant response to soccer games in elite female players. Accepted for publication in Br J Nutr. May 19, 2010.

LIST OF ABBREVIATION

AA Ascorbic Acid ANOVA The Analysis of Variance CHO Carbohydrate CK Creatine Kinase CMJ Countermovement jump CV Coefficient of variance d-ROMs The Diacrons Reactive Oxygen Metabolites EDTA Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid ELISA Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay FIFA Fédération Internationale de Football Association

FRAP Ferric Reducing/Antioxidant Power Assay GM-CSF Granolyte/Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor GSH Reduced glutathione GSSG Oxidised glutathione HIR High Intensity Running HPCL High Performance Liquid Chromatography HR Heart Rate IL Interleukin IL-1 RA IL-1 Receptor Antagonist INF Interferon IP ImmunoProtein MCP-1 Monocyte Chemoattractant Protein-1 MDA Malondialdehyde MIG The Monokine induced by Interferon-Gamma MIP Macrophage Inflammatory Protein NIST 970 SRM

National Institute of Standards and Technology, Standardized Reference Material nr 970

RANTES Regulated upon Activation Normal T-cell Expressed and Secreted RNS Reactive Nitrogen Species ROS Reactive Oxygen Species TBARS Thioburbiuric acid-reactive substances TGSH Total Glutathione TNF Tumor Necrosis Factor UA Uric Acid UEFA Union of European Football Associations

2

•

VO max Maximal oxygen uptake

LIST OF ABBREVIATION

AA Ascorbic Acid ANOVA The Analysis of Variance CHO Carbohydrate CK Creatine Kinase CMJ Countermovement jump CV Coefficient of variance d-ROMs The Diacrons Reactive Oxygen Metabolites EDTA Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid ELISA Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay FIFA Fédération Internationale de Football Association

FRAP Ferric Reducing/Antioxidant Power Assay GM-CSF Granolyte/Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor GSH Reduced glutathione GSSG Oxidised glutathione HIR High Intensity Running HPCL High Performance Liquid Chromatography HR Heart Rate IL Interleukin IL-1 RA IL-1 Receptor Antagonist INF Interferon IP ImmunoProtein MCP-1 Monocyte Chemoattractant Protein-1 MDA Malondialdehyde MIG The Monokine induced by Interferon-Gamma MIP Macrophage Inflammatory Protein NIST 970 SRM

National Institute of Standards and Technology, Standardized Reference Material nr 970

RANTES Regulated upon Activation Normal T-cell Expressed and Secreted RNS Reactive Nitrogen Species ROS Reactive Oxygen Species TBARS Thioburbiuric acid-reactive substances TGSH Total Glutathione TNF Tumor Necrosis Factor UA Uric Acid UEFA Union of European Football Associations

2

•

VO max Maximal oxygen uptake

TABLE OF CONTENT

1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................11

1.1 BACKGROUND: FEMALE SOCCER ..............................................11

1.2 PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF FEMALE SOCCER .....................12

1.2.1 Characteristics of female soccer players ............................................12

1.2.2 Workload during games ....................................................................12

1.2.3 The effects of a soccer game on performance and ............................ 13 neuromuscular fatigue markers

1.2.4 The effects of a soccer game on blood markers ................................14 of physical stress

1.3 EXERCISE, OXIDATIVE STRESS AND ANTIOXIDANTS ...........14

1.3.1 Oxidative stress .................................................................................14

1.3.2 Antioxidant compounds .................................................................... 15

1.3.3 The effects of a soccer game on oxidative stress .............................. 16 and antioxidant compounds

1.4 THE INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE TO EXERCISE .....................17

1.4.1 Cytokines and chemokines ................................................................17

1.4.2 The effects of a soccer game on the infl ammatory cell response .......18

1.5 ACTIVE RECOVERY STRATEGIES IN SOCCER ..........................19

2 AIMS OF THE THESIS .........................................................................21

3 METHODS & MATERIALS ...................................................................23

3.1 SUBJECTS ........................................................................................23

3.2 STUDY DESIGN ...............................................................................23

3.3 ACTIVE RECOVERY TRAINING ..................................................24

3.4 DIET ................................................................................................. 25

3.5 EVALUATION OF WORKLOAD DURING THE GAMES ..............26

3.6 BLOOD SAMPLING ........................................................................27

3.7 NEUROMUSCULAR FATIGUE AND BLOOD ..............................27 MARKERS OF PHYSICAL STRESS

3.7.1 Sprint, CMJ and isokinetic strength tests ..........................................27

3.7.2 Perceived muscle soreness ..................................................................28

3.7.3 Blood markers of physical stress; CK, urea, .....................................29 uric acid and glucose

Innehåll Helena Andersson.indd 9 2010-05-19 13.05

11

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND: FEMALE SOCCER

In the early eighteenth century, female soccer games were played as an annual ritual

between married and single women in Scotland (Williamson 1991). Female soccer

became increasingly popular during World War I when games were organised by

factory workers in England to raise money for charity (Williamson 1991). In 1920,

for example, a game was played with a crowd of 53,000 people in the stands

(Newsham 1997). In 1921, however, the English Football Association first decided

that permission was necessary for clubs to organise female soccer games and later

forbade females from playing soccer stating that it was “quite unsuitable for females

and should not be encouraged” (Williamson 1991). The ban on female soccer was

not lifted until 1971.

Today, female soccer is one of the fastest growing sports and has 26 million

participants around the world (FIFA 2007). For example, Germany has over one

million registered female soccer players (Deutscher Fussball-Bund 2009), while both

Sweden and Denmark have approximately 60,000 registered players (Dansk

Boldspil-Union 2009; Svenska Fotbollförbundet 2008). In 2006, 448 female

international games were played in 134 countries (FIFA 2007). Moreover, several

countries have leagues with full-time professional players. For national teams, the

FIFA Women’s World Cup, the Olympic Games and the UEFA Women’s

Championship are the most prestigious tournaments. At the club level, in addition to

the domestic national leagues, the most prestigious competition is the UEFA

Women’s Champions League.

During international female soccer tournaments, such as the FIFA Women’s

World Cup and Olympic games, only two days of recovery are allowed between

games compared to four to five days of recovery in male soccer tournaments. There

are no reports, as far as we know, investigating whether two days of recovery after a

game is sufficient recovery time for female players. Due to the short period of time

separating two soccer games, it is important to optimise the recovery of players. It is

therefore important to study the impact of a soccer game on several physiological

systems in order to design effective recovery strategies. Such information about elite

female soccer players is scarce, however.

3.8 OXIDATIVE STRESS MARKERS AND .........................................29 ANTIOXIDANT COMPOUNDS

3.8.1 Oxidative stress markers ...................................................................29

3.8.2 Antioxidant compounds ....................................................................30

3.9 INFLAMMATORY CELLS AND CYTOKINE RESPONSE............ 31

3.9.1 Leukocyte cell count ......................................................................... 31

3.9.2 Cytokine analysis .............................................................................. 31

3.10 STATISTICAL ANALYSES...............................................................32

3.11 ETHICAL APPROVAL ..................................................................... 33

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .................................................................. 35

4.1 WORKLOAD DURING THE GAMES ............................................ 35

4.1.1 Main fi ndings .................................................................................... 35

4.1.2 Discussion. ........................................................................................36

4.2 NEUROMUSCULAR FATIGUE AND BLOOD MARKERS OF .....37 PHYSICAL STRESS AFTER ELITE FEMALE SOCCER GAMES (PAPER I)

4.2.1 Main fi ndings ....................................................................................37

4.2.3 Discussion ......................................................................................... 39

4.3 OXIDATIVE STRESS MARKERS AND ANTIOXIDANT .............40 COMPOUNDS AFTER ELITE FEMALE SOCCER GAMES (PAPER II AND IV).

4.3.1 Main fi ndings ....................................................................................40

4.3.2 Discussion .........................................................................................42

4.4 INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE AFTER ELITE .............................46 FEMALE SOCCER GAMES (PAPER III)

4.4.1 Main fi ndings ....................................................................................46

4.4.2 Discussion .........................................................................................47

5 CONCLUSIONS ...................................................................................51

5.1 MAIN FINDINGS OF THE THESIS ...............................................51

5.2 IMPLICATIONS ...............................................................................52

5.3 STUDY STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS ...................................53

5.4 FUTURE DIRECTIONS ................................................................... 55

6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................57

SVENSK SAMMANFATTNING ................................................................59

REFERENCES.............................................................................................61


The physiological impact of soccer on elite... ✍ helena andersson I 11

11

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND: FEMALE SOCCER

In the early eighteenth century, female soccer games were played as an annual ritual

between married and single women in Scotland (Williamson 1991). Female soccer

became increasingly popular during World War I when games were organised by

factory workers in England to raise money for charity (Williamson 1991). In 1920,

for example, a game was played with a crowd of 53,000 people in the stands

(Newsham 1997). In 1921, however, the English Football Association first decided

that permission was necessary for clubs to organise female soccer games and later

forbade females from playing soccer stating that it was “quite unsuitable for females

and should not be encouraged” (Williamson 1991). The ban on female soccer was

not lifted until 1971.

Today, female soccer is one of the fastest growing sports and has 26 million

participants around the world (FIFA 2007). For example, Germany has over one

million registered female soccer players (Deutscher Fussball-Bund 2009), while both

Sweden and Denmark have approximately 60,000 registered players (Dansk

Boldspil-Union 2009; Svenska Fotbollförbundet 2008). In 2006, 448 female

international games were played in 134 countries (FIFA 2007). Moreover, several

countries have leagues with full-time professional players. For national teams, the

FIFA Women’s World Cup, the Olympic Games and the UEFA Women’s

Championship are the most prestigious tournaments. At the club level, in addition to

the domestic national leagues, the most prestigious competition is the UEFA

Women’s Champions League.

During international female soccer tournaments, such as the FIFA Women’s

World Cup and Olympic games, only two days of recovery are allowed between

games compared to four to five days of recovery in male soccer tournaments. There

are no reports, as far as we know, investigating whether two days of recovery after a

game is sufficient recovery time for female players. Due to the short period of time

separating two soccer games, it is important to optimise the recovery of players. It is

therefore important to study the impact of a soccer game on several physiological

systems in order to design effective recovery strategies. Such information about elite

female soccer players is scarce, however.

3.8 OXIDATIVE STRESS MARKERS AND .........................................29 ANTIOXIDANT COMPOUNDS

3.8.1 Oxidative stress markers ...................................................................29

3.8.2 Antioxidant compounds ....................................................................30

3.9 INFLAMMATORY CELLS AND CYTOKINE RESPONSE............ 31

3.9.1 Leukocyte cell count ......................................................................... 31

3.9.2 Cytokine analysis .............................................................................. 31

3.10 STATISTICAL ANALYSES...............................................................32

3.11 ETHICAL APPROVAL ..................................................................... 33

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .................................................................. 35

4.1 WORKLOAD DURING THE GAMES ............................................ 35

4.1.1 Main fi ndings .................................................................................... 35

4.1.2 Discussion. ........................................................................................36

4.2 NEUROMUSCULAR FATIGUE AND BLOOD MARKERS OF .....37 PHYSICAL STRESS AFTER ELITE FEMALE SOCCER GAMES (PAPER I)

4.2.1 Main fi ndings ....................................................................................37

4.2.3 Discussion ......................................................................................... 39

4.3 OXIDATIVE STRESS MARKERS AND ANTIOXIDANT .............40 COMPOUNDS AFTER ELITE FEMALE SOCCER GAMES (PAPER II AND IV).

4.3.1 Main fi ndings ....................................................................................40

4.3.2 Discussion .........................................................................................42

4.4 INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE AFTER ELITE .............................46 FEMALE SOCCER GAMES (PAPER III)

4.4.1 Main fi ndings ....................................................................................46

4.4.2 Discussion .........................................................................................47

5 CONCLUSIONS ...................................................................................51

5.1 MAIN FINDINGS OF THE THESIS ...............................................51

5.2 IMPLICATIONS ...............................................................................52

5.3 STUDY STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS ...................................53

5.4 FUTURE DIRECTIONS ................................................................... 55

6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................57

SVENSK SAMMANFATTNING ................................................................59

REFERENCES.............................................................................................61


12 I The physiological impact of soccer on elite... ✍ helena andersson

12

1.2 PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF FEMALE SOCCER

1.2.1 1.2.1 1.2.1 1.2.1 CCCCharacharacharacharacteristicsteristicsteristicsteristics of female soccer players of female soccer players of female soccer players of female soccer players

The general characteristics of female soccer players have been extensively described

in the literature (Davis & Brewer 1993; Jensen & Larsson 1992; Rhodes & Mosher

1992; Stølen et al. 2005; Tamer et al. 1997; Todd et al. 2002; Tumilty & Darby

1992). These studies showed that average range in height (158-170 cm), weight (55-

65 kg), 2

•

VO max (47-58 mL.min-1.kg-1), vertical jump performance (31- 44 cm) and

20-m sprint time (3.00-3.31 s) vary among players in the various levels of

competition and the different positions of players in the field (Krustrup et al. 2005;

Mohr et al. 2008; Polman et al. 2004; Siegler et al. 2003; Stølen et al. 2005; Tumilty

& Darby 1992).

1.2.2 1.2.2 1.2.2 1.2.2 Workload during gamesWorkload during gamesWorkload during gamesWorkload during games

Heart rate and blood lactate levels. The workload during a female soccer game is

relatively high, but includes variations between players. The evaluation of heart rate

during games shows that the mean heart rate represents ~85% of HRpeak (average

range 161-177 bpm) and that the players may reach near maximum values (~97%

HRpeak; average range 171-205 bpm) several times during a game (Andersson et al.

2010; Davis & Brewer 1993; Krustrup et al. 2005). A blood lactate value of

approximately 5 mmol·L-1 is usually reported by the end of a game (Davis & Brewer

1993; Krustrup et al. 2010). However, somewhat higher lactate values can be found

after an intense work period during games (Krustrup et al. 2006). Both the mean

heart rate and blood lactate levels reported in female players are within the same

ranges of values reported in males (Bangsbo 1994).

Movement pattern analysis during games. The first reports on the movement pattern

during female soccer games showed that players covered an average distance of

8.5±2.2 km (Davis & Brewer 1993). More recent studies report total distances

around 10 km per game (Gabbett & Mulvey 2008; Hewitt et al. 2007; Krustrup et

al. 2005; Mohr et al. 2008) which is similar to data on male players (Krustrup et al.

2005; Mohr et al. 2008; Mohr et al. 2003b). The total distance includes a large

amount of walking and jogging (>50%). The distance covered in high intensity

13

running (HIR), which includes running speeds over 15 km/h and sprinting (>25

km/h), has therefore been suggested to be a better indicator of the physical stress

during a game. In a study by Mohr et al. (2008) it was shown that top international

female players covered an average of 1.7 km of HIR during a game. This differs from

elite male players who covered approximately 2-3 km in HIR during a game (Mohr

et al. 2003b). The amount of HIR performed by female soccer players is related to

the competition level and may range between 0.7-2.0 km during a game (Krustrup et

al. 2005; Mohr et al. 2008). It has also been reported that the same female player

covered a longer distance of HIR when playing an international game than when

playing a domestic league game (Andersson et al. 2010; Gabbett & Mulvey 2008).

Moreover, several studies show that the performance of players decreases towards

the end of a game (Gabbett & Mulvey 2008; Mohr et al. 2008; Mohr et al. 2003b).

For example, the distance in HIR during the second half is shorter compared to the

first half and this reduction in HIR occurs during the last 30 or 15 min of the game

(Andersson et al. 2010; Gabbett & Mulvey 2008; Mohr et al. 2003a; Mohr et al.

2008). Altogether, data on heart rate and movement pattern indicate the relatively

high workload of a female soccer game and the occurrence of fatigue by the end of

the games.

1.2.3 1.2.3 1.2.3 1.2.3 The effeThe effeThe effeThe effects of a soccer game on performance and neuromuscular fatigue cts of a soccer game on performance and neuromuscular fatigue cts of a soccer game on performance and neuromuscular fatigue cts of a soccer game on performance and neuromuscular fatigue

markersmarkersmarkersmarkers

Intensive game-activities affect the force-generating capacity of the neuromuscular

system. The evaluation of sprint capacity, jump ability and isokinetic knee strength

has been used to investigate neuromuscular fatigue (Raastad & Hallén 2000). There

is little information on neuromuscular fatigue and recovery following a soccer game,

especially in female soccer players. In males, it has been shown that sprint

performance, countermovement jump (CMJ), and isokinetic peak torque knee

extension and flexion are reduced after a single game and that these changes last up

to several days following a game (Ascensão et al. 2008; Fatouros et al. 2009;

Ispirlidis et al. 2008; Magalhães et al. 2010; Mohr et al. 2004; Raastad et al. 2002).

In female players, one report showed a decline in 30-m repeated sprint performance

but unchanged CMJ performance immediately after a single soccer game (Krustrup

et al. 2010). However, a second study on female players showed that CMJ

performance was reduced at 24 h but not immediately after a single soccer game

(Hoffman et al. 2003). Thus, few and inconsistent findings are available on changes


12

1.2 PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF FEMALE SOCCER

1.2.1 1.2.1 1.2.1 1.2.1 CCCCharacharacharacharacteristicsteristicsteristicsteristics of female soccer players of female soccer players of female soccer players of female soccer players

The general characteristics of female soccer players have been extensively described

in the literature (Davis & Brewer 1993; Jensen & Larsson 1992; Rhodes & Mosher

1992; Stølen et al. 2005; Tamer et al. 1997; Todd et al. 2002; Tumilty & Darby

1992). These studies showed that average range in height (158-170 cm), weight (55-

65 kg), 2

•

VO max (47-58 mL.min-1.kg-1), vertical jump performance (31- 44 cm) and

20-m sprint time (3.00-3.31 s) vary among players in the various levels of

competition and the different positions of players in the field (Krustrup et al. 2005;

Mohr et al. 2008; Polman et al. 2004; Siegler et al. 2003; Stølen et al. 2005; Tumilty

& Darby 1992).

1.2.2 1.2.2 1.2.2 1.2.2 Workload during gamesWorkload during gamesWorkload during gamesWorkload during games

Heart rate and blood lactate levels. The workload during a female soccer game is

relatively high, but includes variations between players. The evaluation of heart rate

during games shows that the mean heart rate represents ~85% of HRpeak (average

range 161-177 bpm) and that the players may reach near maximum values (~97%

HRpeak; average range 171-205 bpm) several times during a game (Andersson et al.

2010; Davis & Brewer 1993; Krustrup et al. 2005). A blood lactate value of

approximately 5 mmol·L-1 is usually reported by the end of a game (Davis & Brewer

1993; Krustrup et al. 2010). However, somewhat higher lactate values can be found

after an intense work period during games (Krustrup et al. 2006). Both the mean

heart rate and blood lactate levels reported in female players are within the same

ranges of values reported in males (Bangsbo 1994).

Movement pattern analysis during games. The first reports on the movement pattern

during female soccer games showed that players covered an average distance of

8.5±2.2 km (Davis & Brewer 1993). More recent studies report total distances

around 10 km per game (Gabbett & Mulvey 2008; Hewitt et al. 2007; Krustrup et

al. 2005; Mohr et al. 2008) which is similar to data on male players (Krustrup et al.

2005; Mohr et al. 2008; Mohr et al. 2003b). The total distance includes a large

amount of walking and jogging (>50%). The distance covered in high intensity

13

running (HIR), which includes running speeds over 15 km/h and sprinting (>25

km/h), has therefore been suggested to be a better indicator of the physical stress

during a game. In a study by Mohr et al. (2008) it was shown that top international

female players covered an average of 1.7 km of HIR during a game. This differs from

elite male players who covered approximately 2-3 km in HIR during a game (Mohr

et al. 2003b). The amount of HIR performed by female soccer players is related to

the competition level and may range between 0.7-2.0 km during a game (Krustrup et

al. 2005; Mohr et al. 2008). It has also been reported that the same female player

covered a longer distance of HIR when playing an international game than when

playing a domestic league game (Andersson et al. 2010; Gabbett & Mulvey 2008).

Moreover, several studies show that the performance of players decreases towards

the end of a game (Gabbett & Mulvey 2008; Mohr et al. 2008; Mohr et al. 2003b).

For example, the distance in HIR during the second half is shorter compared to the

first half and this reduction in HIR occurs during the last 30 or 15 min of the game

(Andersson et al. 2010; Gabbett & Mulvey 2008; Mohr et al. 2003a; Mohr et al.

2008). Altogether, data on heart rate and movement pattern indicate the relatively

high workload of a female soccer game and the occurrence of fatigue by the end of

the games.

1.2.3 1.2.3 1.2.3 1.2.3 The effeThe effeThe effeThe effects of a soccer game on performance and neuromuscular fatigue cts of a soccer game on performance and neuromuscular fatigue cts of a soccer game on performance and neuromuscular fatigue cts of a soccer game on performance and neuromuscular fatigue

markersmarkersmarkersmarkers

Intensive game-activities affect the force-generating capacity of the neuromuscular

system. The evaluation of sprint capacity, jump ability and isokinetic knee strength

has been used to investigate neuromuscular fatigue (Raastad & Hallén 2000). There

is little information on neuromuscular fatigue and recovery following a soccer game,

especially in female soccer players. In males, it has been shown that sprint

performance, countermovement jump (CMJ), and isokinetic peak torque knee

extension and flexion are reduced after a single game and that these changes last up

to several days following a game (Ascensão et al. 2008; Fatouros et al. 2009;

Ispirlidis et al. 2008; Magalhães et al. 2010; Mohr et al. 2004; Raastad et al. 2002).

In female players, one report showed a decline in 30-m repeated sprint performance

but unchanged CMJ performance immediately after a single soccer game (Krustrup

et al. 2010). However, a second study on female players showed that CMJ

performance was reduced at 24 h but not immediately after a single soccer game

(Hoffman et al. 2003). Thus, few and inconsistent findings are available on changes


14

in neuromuscular parameters following a female soccer game. Additionally,

knowledge of the effects of repeated soccer games on neuromuscular parameters is

also limited.

1.2.41.2.41.2.41.2.4 The effects of a soccer game on blood markers of physical stress The effects of a soccer game on blood markers of physical stress The effects of a soccer game on blood markers of physical stress The effects of a soccer game on blood markers of physical stress

Creatine kinase (CK), urea and uric acid (UA) are biochemical makers used for the

evaluation of the physiological stress imposed by exercise. Increases in serum

creatine kinase levels in response to strenuous exercise may be a consequence of both

metabolic and mechanical stress (Brancaccio et al. 2007). Uric acid and urea are

markers of both enhanced nucleotide cycle turnover and the breakdown of amino

acids (Viru & Viru 2001). It has recently been shown that CK, urea and uric acid

increased and remained elevated several days after a single soccer game in male

players (Ascensão et al. 2008; Bangsbo 1994; Ispirlidis et al. 2008; Rowsell et al.

2009). Such information is not available for female players.

1.3 EXERCISE, OXIDATIVE STRESS AND ANTIOXIDANTS

1.3.11.3.11.3.11.3.1 Oxidative stress Oxidative stress Oxidative stress Oxidative stress

During high-intensity exercise the production of free radicals is enhanced (Davies et

al. 1982). Disturbances in the balance of free-radical production and antioxidant

defences in favour of free-radical production may lead to so called oxidative stress

(Nikolaidis et al. 2008). Under conditions of oxidative stress, free radicals may

damage various tissues including muscle cells (Davies et al. 1982). Free radicals do,

however, participate in many biological processes and their presence is essential for

normal cell function. For example, it has been shown that in unfatigued skeletal

muscle, free radicals have positive effects on the excitation-contraction coupling and

are essential for optimal contractile function (Reid 2001). Exercise-induced increases

in free radicals have also been suggested to act as signals to enhance the production

of enzymes relevant to cell defence and the adaptation to exercise (Gomez-Cabrera et

al. 2008b; Jackson 2008).

A free radical is a molecule or just a single atom with an unpaired electron which

makes it highly reactive. Any free radical involving oxygen can be referred to as

reactive oxygen species (ROS). Oxygen-centred free radicals contain two unpaired

15

electrons in their outer shell. As the free radicals in biological systems are derived

from or associated with the presence of molecular oxygen, free radicals in biological

systems are mostly ROS. Examples of ROS are the superoxide anion (O2-), the

peroxyl radical (ROO-) and the hydroxyl (- OH) (Asmus & Bonifacic 2000). The free

radicals may also derive from reactive nitrogen species (RNS) that includes nitric

oxide (NO-) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2-). ROS and RNS have a strong tendency to

extract electrons to reach a chemically more stable state and may cause damage to

cellular components (Ji 2000). The oxidative damage to cellular targets is

characterised by a progressive change or degradation of biomolecules as lipids,

proteins and DNA (Blomhoff 2005). Lipid peroxidation can thus be used as a

marker for the occurrence of oxidative stress.

1.3.2 1.3.2 1.3.2 1.3.2 Antioxidant compoundsAntioxidant compoundsAntioxidant compoundsAntioxidant compounds

In normal physiological conditions, the production of ROS and RNS is in a finely-

tuned equilibrium with the antioxidant system. This makes it possible for the body

to sustain a balanced redox status (Djordjevi 2004). The antioxidant system

includes enzymatic and non-enzymatic endogenous and dietary antioxidant

compounds. The enzymatic superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and

glutathione peroxidase (GPx) are major parts of the endogenous antioxidant system

(Ji 2000). The non-enzymatic endogenous antioxidants such as uric acid and thiols

(including total glutathione, cysteine, homocysteine and cysteine-glycine) are

recognised as key physiological antioxidants that directly scavenge ROS and RNS

and also enhance the functional ability of other antioxidants (Hellsten et al. 1997;

Sen & Packer 2000). In addition, there are several potent antioxidants available in

the diet. Tocopherols (also known as vitamin E), for example, are efficient radical

scavengers that can convert superoxide, hydroxyl and lipid peroxyl radicals to less

reactive molecules (Powers et al. 2004). Ascorbic acid (AA) (also known as vitamin

C) is also an efficient antioxidant as it can directly scavenge ROS (Packer et al.

1979). Some carotenoid compounds are also effective dietary antioxidants. The

antioxidant function of a carontenoid is dependent on its structure and on the

specific chemical formation of the oxidizing species (Young & Lowe 2001). For

example, lycopene is one of the most potent antioxidants of the carotenoid family as

it can directly quench singlet oxygen (Di Mascio et al. 1989), while -carotene is

very reactive to peroxyl radicals (Burton & Ingold 1984) and zeaxanthin can limit


16

the diffusion of oxygen into membranes (Subczynski et al. 1991). Together, the

endogenous and dietary antioxidant compounds act in concert in the antioxidant

system against ROS and RNS (Powers & Sen 2000).

1.3.31.3.31.3.31.3.3 The effectThe effectThe effectThe effectssss of of of of a a a a soccer game on oxidative stress and antioxidant soccer game on oxidative stress and antioxidant soccer game on oxidative stress and antioxidant soccer game on oxidative stress and antioxidant

cocococommmmpounds pounds pounds pounds

During high intensity exercise, whole-body oxygen consumption may rise up to 20-

fold (Saltin & Åstrand 1967), while oxygen consumption in active muscles may

reach 100 times the resting level (Davies et al. 1982). About 95-98% of the total

oxygen consumption is used to produce ATP while 2-5% may undergo one electron

reduction with the production of ROS and RNS. It has been shown that exhaustive

exercise produces an excessive amount of ROS and RNS leading to oxidative stress

(Sastre et al. 1992). It is also suggested that in well-trained athletes only limited

oxidative stress occurs (Bloomer et al. 2006) which could be explained by a well-

adapted antioxidant defence system in trained athletes (Bloomer et al. 2006; Brites et

al. 1999; Cazzola et al. 2003).

Most studies on oxidative stress and antioxidant status following exercise have

used endurance exercise protocols (Aguiló et al. 2005; Cases et al. 2006; Tauler et al.

2005). Because the physiological load of intermittent exercise, such as soccer, differs

from continuous steady-state exercise, an extrapolation of data from continuous

steady-state exercise to intermittent exercise should be made with caution (Nieman

& Bishop 2006). Information on oxidative stress and antioxidants in soccer is,

however, limited. Recently, four reports showed the occurrence of increased

oxidative stress (increased lipid peroxidation) together with increased blood

antioxidant compounds following a single game in male players (Ascensão et al.

2008; Fatouros et al. 2009; Ispirlidis et al. 2008; Magalhães et al. 2010). These

studies indicate that elevations in antioxidant compounds following the games were

not able to quench an excessive increase in ROS production, thereby causing

oxidative stress. In these studies, however, only a limited number of antioxidant

compounds was analysed (uric acid and total antioxidant capacity). In two studies,

lipid peroxidation increased immediately after the game but a significant increase in

uric acid occurred only at 24 h after the game (Fatouros et al. 2009; Ispirlidis et al.

2008). In the third and forth study, total antioxidant capacity and uric acid increased

immediately after the game in parallel with increased lipid peroxidation (Ascensão et

al. 2008; Magalhães et al. 2010). The normalisation of total antioxidant capacity

17

occurred within 24 h, while uric acid remained elevated for more than 72 h

(Ascensão et al. 2008). It is suggested that one single soccer game is associated with

increases in the level of oxidative stress and deterioration of muscle performance

throughout a 72 h recovery period (Ascensão et al. 2008; Fatouros et al. 2009).

Knowledge on the impact of a soccer game on the antioxidant system, including

several members of the endogenous and dietary defence systems remains, however,

limited. Moreover, available data include measurements conducted in response to

one single soccer game. There is no data on the effects of repeated soccer games on

oxidative stress markers and antioxidant levels.

It is also important to note that studies on soccer-associated changes in oxidative

stress markers and antioxidant levels have been performed on male players

(Ascensão et al. 2008; Fatouros et al. 2009; Ispirlidis et al. 2008, Magalhães et al.

2010). As oestrogens may have a protective function against ROS during exercise in

untrained females (Akova et al. 2001), the existence of sex differences in the soccer-

associated oxidative stress and antioxidant responses cannot be excluded.

1.4 THE INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE TO EXERCISE

Exercise initiates an inflammatory response that is similar to that observed after

trauma or sepsis. This response includes both a systemic and a local immune

response (Pedersen 2000). The systemic response, also known as the acute phase

response, involves mobilisation of leukocytes, particularly neutrophil cells, into the

circulation (Malm et al. 2004; Ostrowski et al. 1999; Peake et al. 2005a). In

addition, lymphocytes (including natural killer cells) are also mobilised, and the

production of cytokines is increased after exercise (Cox et al. 2007; Peake et al.

2005a; Peake et al. 2005b).

1.4.11.4.11.4.11.4.1 Cytokines and chemokinesCytokines and chemokinesCytokines and chemokinesCytokines and chemokines

Cytokines are a group of proteins produced by immune and non-immune cells.

Many cytokines may be broadly classified as either pro-inflammatory (e.g.,

interleukin (IL)-12, INF- and TNF-α) or anti-inflammatory (e.g., INF-α, IL-10, IL-

4, IL-1), while some cytokines are suggested to have both pro-and anti-

inflammatory functions (e.g., IL-6) (Moldoveanu et al. 2001). The majority of

studies investigating the cytokine response during exercise have been conducted


18

using continuous steady-state endurance exercise (Nieman et al. 2001; Ostrowski et

al. 1998b) or resistance exercise (Chan et al. 2003; Paulsen et al. 2005).

Chemokines (e.g., IL-8, MCP-1, GM-CSF, and MIG) have also been shown to be

up-regulated following endurance exercise (Åkerstrom et al. 2005; Ostrowski et al.

2001). Chemokines are chemotactic cytokines as they have the ability to induce

directed chemotaxis (Warren et al. 2004). The release of chemokines causes

leukocytes to adhere to vascular endothelium and subsequently to migrate into the

tissue spaces. Chemokines may also have broader functions including a role in

angiogenesis, collagen production and proliferation of hematopoietic precursor cells

(Kunkel 1999; Mantovani 1999). Some chemokines are considered pro-

inflammatory (e.g., IL-8) and induce the migration of leukocytes to an injured or

infected site (Laing & Secombes 2004).

1.4.1.4.1.4.1.4.2222 The effects of The effects of The effects of The effects of a soccer gamea soccer gamea soccer gamea soccer game on the inflammatory cell response on the inflammatory cell response on the inflammatory cell response on the inflammatory cell response

Few studies are available on the inflammatory cell response in soccer. Increases in

circulatory leukocyte cell count, mainly caused by increases in neutrophil cells, have

been reported in male players following soccer games (Ispirlidis et al. 2008; Malm et

al. 2004; Rowsell et al. 2009; Magalhães et al. 2010). There are currently three

studies available on the cytokine response in male players after soccer games. In one

study, IL-6 and IL-1b increased immediately after a single soccer game (Ispirlidis et

al. 2008). The authors did, however, report that IL-1b was below detection levels at

all other time points during the study period (Ispirlidis et al. 2008). A second study

reported increased levels of IL-6 and TNF- following a soccer specific intermittent

exercise protocol (Bishop et al. 2002). A third study revealed unchanged levels of IL-

6, IL-1b and IL-10 following four consecutive soccer games in youth players

(Rowsell et al. 2009). The cytokines in this study were measured more than 20 h

after the end of each game. Since alterations in cytokine levels can be brief and

rapidly normalised (Shephard 2002), the lack of soccer-associated changes in

cytokines in the study of Rowsell et al., (2009) can be due to the timing of blood

sample collection.

To our knowlegde there is no data on the response of a large number of

circulating pro-and anti-inflammatory cytokines following elite soccer, especially in

female players.

19

1.5 ACTIVE RECOVERY STRATEGIES IN SOCCER

The use of post-exercise recovery methods has gained more attention within sport

science research (Gill et al. 2006; King & Duffield 2009; Kinugasa & Kilding 2006;

Vaile et al. 2008a). Methods include contrast-water therapy (Cochrane 2004;

Kinugasa & Kilding 2006), active recovery training (Dawson et al. 2005; Gill et al.

2006) and cold-water immersion (Vaile et al. 2008b).

The scientific evidence supporting the effectiveness of such recovery strategies after

a soccer games is limited. In one study an active cool-down program performed

immediately after a single game had a positive effect on the recovery time for jump

and sprint performance as well as subjective muscle soreness (Reilly & Rigby 1999).

In male junior soccer players cold-water immersion performed immediately after

soccer games reduced the perception of general fatigue and leg soreness but had no

effect on a battery of physical performance tests, indices of muscle damage or

inflammatory markers (cytokines IL-1b, IL-6 and IL-10) (Rowsell et al. 2009).

Active recovery training performed one day after a soccer game is recommended in

order to achieve a faster return to a normal physical state (Barnett 2006; Reilly &

Ekblom 2005). To our knowledge, there are no studies evaluating the effectiveness of

active recovery training one day after a soccer game. The theoretical advantage of

active recovery training would be to accelerate the recovery time of neuromuscular

parameters and blood markers of physical stress and a quicker normalisation of the

redox status and immunological systems. It is hypothesized that this strategy is

necessary for optimal competitive performance and will help the players to cope with

high training and game loads (Barnett 2006; Reilly & Ekblom 2005). The

effectiveness of low-intensity training performed after a soccer game has not

previously been evaluated in elite players.

20

21

2 AIMS OF THE THESIS

The overall aim of this thesis was to investigate physiological and biochemical

changes occurring in response to elite soccer games and to establish the time course

of recovery for the neuromuscular and immunological systems, and the redox status.

The physiological effects of active recovery training conducted during

the period separating two repeated soccer games were investigated in a

population of elite female players.

The specific aims were:

i.) to study the acute changes imposed by one soccer game on neuromuscular

fatigue parameters, blood markers of physical stress, the redox status and the

inflammatory response in elite female players (Study I, II and III)

ii.) to study the recovery pattern of neuromuscular fatigue parameters, blood

markers of physical stress, the redox status and the inflammatory response in

elite female players during a period of 72 h following the first soccer game

(study I, III, and IV)

iii.) to investigate the effects of low-intensity recovery training on the recovery

pattern of neuromuscular fatigue parameters, blood markers of physical stress,

the redox status and the inflammatory response in elite female players (study I,

III, and IV)

iv.) to compare the acute changes in neuromuscular fatigue parameters, blood

markers of physical stress, the redox status, and the inflammatory response

occurring after the first and second games (study I, III, IV).

22 23

3 METHODS & MATERIALS

3.1 SUBJECTS

Twenty-two elite female soccer players (age 22±3 yrs; height 167±5 cm; weight 64±5

kg; VO2peak 55±3 ml.kg-1·min-1; HRpeak 198±6 beats·min-1) from two teams from

the highest divisions in Sweden and Norway played two international 90-min

friendly games separated by 72 h of active or passive recovery. Two defenders and

one midfielder were unable to take part in the testing sessions during the period

between the two games and were therefore not included in the data analyses. Because

the physical loading of goalkeepers differs from that of other players they were not

included in the analyses. Study I, on the neuromuscular fatigue and physical stress

changes associated with the soccer games included 17 players. Study II and IV, on

changes in oxidative stress markers and antioxidant levels included 16 players. Study

III, on inflammatory changes included 10 players due to financial restrictions.

3.2 STUDY DESIGN

The two games were played during a period of four days and were separated by two

days of either active or passive recovery. The same players in both teams participated

in both games and occupied the same field position. A randomised blocked design

was used to assign the players into an active recovery group (n=8) or a passive

recovery group (n=9). The players were matched for age, height, weight, maximal

oxygen consumption and field playing position. The active recovery training

consisted of a low-intensity training program (sub-maximal cycling at 60% of

HRpeak and low-intensity resistance training <50% 1 repetition max (RM))

performed at 22 h and 46 h after the first game. On game day, baseline values for

the performance parameters were obtained 3 h prior to the game. Subsequent

performance tests were carried out immediately, 5 h, 21 h, 27 h, 45 h, 51 h and 69 h

after the first game and immediately after the second game. Blood samples were

taken 3 h before, immediately after (within 15-20 min), 21 h, 45 h, 69 h after the

first game and immediately after the second game (Fig 1). Two days before the

commencement of the study, all subjects performed a maximal oxygen consumption


24

running test on a treadmill. One day before the start of the study, the players were

familiarised with all testing procedures.

Figure 1. Schematic view of the study set-up. indicates performance parameter tests;

indicates blood sampling.

The study was designed to mirror an actual competitive situation for female

players participating in an international tournament, where two days of recovery

between the games are allowed. The total time for the study period was seven days

including travelling. In order to standardise the physical activity and nutritional

intake during the study period the players stayed in the same hotel and ate every

meal together. The games were conducted in the middle of the season (during the

summer break) when the players were accustomed to high training and game loads.

The first game in the study was played four days after the last game in the domestic

leagues. Therefore, all players had rested at least three days from games and two

days from soccer training prior to the first game.

3.3 ACTIVE RECOVERY TRAINING

The active recovery training consisted of a low-intensity training program lasting one

hour. The training consisted of 20 min sub-maximal cycling (60% of HFpeak,

approximately 45% of 2

•

VO peak) and 30 min low-intensity resistance training

(<50% 1 RM), and 10 min sub-maximal cycling (60% of HFpeak) (Fig. 2). The low-

intensity resistance training included exercises for both the upper and lower body.

The exercise intensity during the cycling was monitored using a heart-rate monitor

25

(S610i, Polar Electro OY, Kempele, Finland). The rationale for using cycling as the

low-aerobic training was that it increases blood flow in the leg muscles whilst

minimising the load on the muscles which is proposed to be beneficial for recovery

(Reilly & Ekblom 2005). The performance of low-intensity resistance weight

training may enhance the protein metabolism in the exercised muscle, which would

also be beneficial for recovery. The session was designed to mirror the recovery

training used by many Nordic soccer teams. During the active recovery sessions the

subjects drank 1 L of a sports drink that provided a carbohydrate load of 30-60 g

per hour. During the one-hour period when the active recovery group performed the

low-intensity exercise, the control group was instructed to rest.

Figure 2. Participants performing the active recovery training.

3.4 DIET

The food intake was standardised for all players during the study period, starting on

the evening before the first game. All players were given a meal plan formulated by a

nutritionist and the players ate each meal together. The composition of the meals

was developed using a national food database ("Food on data" 4.3 LKH, Norway).

Intake of carbohydrate (CHO), protein and fat were adjusted to each player’s body

weight (55/60/65/70 kg respectively) to meet the recommendations for daily recovery

in players participating in moderate training (intake of ≥ 6 g/kg body mass CHO,

and ≥ 1.2 g/kg body mass protein) (Maughan et al. 2004). The food was chosen to

replicate the player’s normal diet as much as possible and did not contain any food

items with known high-antioxidant levels. The meal plan included a variation of

bread, cereals, milk/yoghurts, meat, pasta/rice, fruit and vegetables to ensure


26

adequate intake of macro- and micronutrients. In addition, the players were

instructed to drink a sports drink during the games providing approximately 30-60g

CHO/h (Maxim EnergyTM, Ishøj, Denmark). The sports drink did not contain

vitamin C. After the blood sample was taken at the end of each game, each player

consumed a CHO intake of 1 g/kg body weight within 30 min to ensure optimal

recovery (banana, yoghurt, and sports drink) (Maughan et al. 2004).

3.5 EVALUATION OF WORKLOAD DURING THE GAMES

In order to compare the workload of the games, each player’s heart rate was

recorded during the games. The players wore heart-rate monitors around their chests

(Polar Team System, Polar Electro OY, Kempele, Finland) and data were

continuously collected every 5 s. In addition to heart-rate measurements the players’

movement pattern and fluid loss were also recorded during the games. The

movement pattern, including total distance covered and distance covered in high-

intensity running (HIR) was collected from a total of ten players who played in

different field positions (four defenders, three midfielders and three forwards). These

ten players gave a representation of the movement pattern during the games. Each of

these ten players was filmed in close-up by a digital camera (Canon DM-MV 600,

Canon Inc., Tokyo, Japan) during the entire first and second games. The cameras

were positioned at the side of the field, at the level of the midfield line, at a height of

about 15 m above the field and at a distance of 30-40 m from the side line. The

videotapes were later replayed on a monitor for computerized coding of the activity

pattern. The locomotor speed ranges for high-intensity running were chosen

according to Krustrup et al., (2005). These speeds were: moderate-speed running

(15-17 km·h-1), high-speed running (18-24 km·h-1) and sprinting (> 25 km·h-1). The

distance covered for each activity within each interval was determined as the product

of the total time and mean speed for that activity. All game recordings were analysed

by the same experienced observer with a coefficient of variation (CV) for test-retest

analysis of <3% for total distance covered and <5% for distance covered in high-

intensity running.

The players‘ body mass was measured before and immediately after the games

using a digital scale (Seca 708, Seca Ltd, Birmingham, United Kingdom). The

27

players’ fluid intake was recorded during the games and the total fluid loss was

calculated by the formula: Fluid loss = ∆ Body Weight + fluid intake.

3.6 BLOOD SAMPLING

First in the testing procedure, blood was collected from an antecubital vein into 4-ml

EDTA vacutainers and a 9 ml vacutainer tube. The blood in the 9-ml vacutainer tube

coagulated at room temperature for 30-45 min. Serum was pipetted off and stored in

Eppendorf tubes at -80 °C until analysis. One of the EDTA tubes was centrifuged at

1500 g at 4 °C for 15 min to get the required plasma. Plasma was further centrifuged

for 5 min at 11 000 g at 4 °C; the supernatant was stored at – 80 °C until analysis.

3.7 NEUROMUSCULAR FATIGUE AND BLOOD MARKERS OF PHYSICAL

STRESS

3.7.13.7.13.7.13.7.1 SSSSprint, CMJ and isokinetic strength testsprint, CMJ and isokinetic strength testsprint, CMJ and isokinetic strength testsprint, CMJ and isokinetic strength tests

Prior to the sprint, CMJ and isokinetic knee strength tests, the players performed a

standardised warm-up consisting of five min low-intensity running (using the YOYO

intermittent endurance test level 1) (Krustrup et al. 2003). After the warm-up the

players performed three maximal 20-m sprints: the best result was used in the data

analysis. The players were instructed to stand with one foot on a marker and the

time was started when the subjects touched a mechanical switch (placed 88 cm from

the marker) in the first step. Sprint time was thereafter measured with photocells

every 10-m (CV<1%). The photocells were placed at a height of 133 cm.

CMJ was performed on a force plate (SG 9, Advanced Mechanical Technology Inc.,

Newton, MA, USA) and low-pass filtered at 1050 Hz. The CMJ started from a

standing position with the hands fixed to the hips. Jump-height was calculated from

the vertical reaction force impulse during take-off. At each test the players performed

three jumps with the best used in the data analysis (CV<5%).

Isokinetic concentric knee extensions and flexions (Fig. 3) were performed using

two instruments, the Cybex 6000 dynamometer (Lumex, Ronkonfoma, NY, USA)


26

adequate intake of macro- and micronutrients. In addition, the players were

instructed to drink a sports drink during the games providing approximately 30-60g

CHO/h (Maxim EnergyTM, Ishøj, Denmark). The sports drink did not contain

vitamin C. After the blood sample was taken at the end of each game, each player

consumed a CHO intake of 1 g/kg body weight within 30 min to ensure optimal

recovery (banana, yoghurt, and sports drink) (Maughan et al. 2004).

3.5 EVALUATION OF WORKLOAD DURING THE GAMES

In order to compare the workload of the games, each player’s heart rate was

recorded during the games. The players wore heart-rate monitors around their chests

(Polar Team System, Polar Electro OY, Kempele, Finland) and data were

continuously collected every 5 s. In addition to heart-rate measurements the players’

movement pattern and fluid loss were also recorded during the games. The

movement pattern, including total distance covered and distance covered in high-

intensity running (HIR) was collected from a total of ten players who played in

different field positions (four defenders, three midfielders and three forwards). These

ten players gave a representation of the movement pattern during the games. Each of

these ten players was filmed in close-up by a digital camera (Canon DM-MV 600,

Canon Inc., Tokyo, Japan) during the entire first and second games. The cameras

were positioned at the side of the field, at the level of the midfield line, at a height of

about 15 m above the field and at a distance of 30-40 m from the side line. The

videotapes were later replayed on a monitor for computerized coding of the activity

pattern. The locomotor speed ranges for high-intensity running were chosen

according to Krustrup et al., (2005). These speeds were: moderate-speed running

(15-17 km·h-1), high-speed running (18-24 km·h-1) and sprinting (> 25 km·h-1). The

distance covered for each activity within each interval was determined as the product

of the total time and mean speed for that activity. All game recordings were analysed

by the same experienced observer with a coefficient of variation (CV) for test-retest

analysis of <3% for total distance covered and <5% for distance covered in high-

intensity running.

The players‘ body mass was measured before and immediately after the games

using a digital scale (Seca 708, Seca Ltd, Birmingham, United Kingdom). The

27

players’ fluid intake was recorded during the games and the total fluid loss was

calculated by the formula: Fluid loss = ∆ Body Weight + fluid intake.

3.6 BLOOD SAMPLING

First in the testing procedure, blood was collected from an antecubital vein into 4-ml

EDTA vacutainers and a 9 ml vacutainer tube. The blood in the 9-ml vacutainer tube

coagulated at room temperature for 30-45 min. Serum was pipetted off and stored in

Eppendorf tubes at -80 °C until analysis. One of the EDTA tubes was centrifuged at

1500 g at 4 °C for 15 min to get the required plasma. Plasma was further centrifuged

for 5 min at 11 000 g at 4 °C; the supernatant was stored at – 80 °C until analysis.


STRESS

3.7.13.7.13.7.13.7.1 SSSSprint, CMJ and isokinetic strength testsprint, CMJ and isokinetic strength testsprint, CMJ and isokinetic strength testsprint, CMJ and isokinetic strength tests

Prior to the sprint, CMJ and isokinetic knee strength tests, the players performed a

standardised warm-up consisting of five min low-intensity running (using the YOYO

intermittent endurance test level 1) (Krustrup et al. 2003). After the warm-up the

players performed three maximal 20-m sprints: the best result was used in the data

analysis. The players were instructed to stand with one foot on a marker and the

time was started when the subjects touched a mechanical switch (placed 88 cm from

the marker) in the first step. Sprint time was thereafter measured with photocells

every 10-m (CV<1%). The photocells were placed at a height of 133 cm.

CMJ was performed on a force plate (SG 9, Advanced Mechanical Technology Inc.,

Newton, MA, USA) and low-pass filtered at 1050 Hz. The CMJ started from a

standing position with the hands fixed to the hips. Jump-height was calculated from

the vertical reaction force impulse during take-off. At each test the players performed

three jumps with the best used in the data analysis (CV<5%).

Isokinetic concentric knee extensions and flexions (Fig. 3) were performed using

two instruments, the Cybex 6000 dynamometer (Lumex, Ronkonfoma, NY, USA)


28

and the Technogym REV 9000 (Gambettola, Italy). This combination of equipment

was chosen in order to enable testing of all subjects to be completed in the shortest

possible period of time. Although controlled studies revealed that there were no

differences in performance measured using the two instruments, the same subject

was always tested on the same machine. The range of motion was set from a knee

angle of 90° to 20° from full extension and the angular velocity of contraction of the

isokinetic dynamometer rotating lever arm was set at 60°·s-1. The subjects performed

four warm-up contractions followed by three maximal contractions. Peak torque

was analysed (CV<5%) and one leg was tested (dominant leg). The tight testing time

schedule prevented isokinetic maximal strength at 45 h and sprint performance at 51

h after the first game from being measured.

Figure 3. A player performing the isokinetic knee-strength test.

3.7.23.7.23.7.23.7.2 Perceived muscle soreness Perceived muscle soreness Perceived muscle soreness Perceived muscle soreness

Perceived muscle soreness was assessed using a 7-point Likert scale (Morgan et al.

1988). It is designed to measure the level of muscle soreness in the lower body. The

scale consisted of the following verbal anchors: 1 = very, very good; 2 = very good; 3

= good; 4 = tender but not sore; 5 = sore; 6 = very sore; and 7 = very, very sore.

Scores were recorded to the nearest 0.5 decimal point.

29

3.7.33.7.33.7.33.7.3 Blood marBlood marBlood marBlood markers of physical stress; CK, urea, uric acid and glucosekers of physical stress; CK, urea, uric acid and glucosekers of physical stress; CK, urea, uric acid and glucosekers of physical stress; CK, urea, uric acid and glucose

CK, urea, uric acid and glucose were measured in plasma and were analysed with

standard routine measurements in a Modular P® Analyzer (Hitachi, Tokyo, Japan).

CVs for all variables were <5%.

3.8 OXIDATIVE STRESS MARKERS AND ANTIOXIDANT COMPOUNDS

3.8.13.8.13.8.13.8.1 Oxidative stress markersOxidative stress markersOxidative stress markersOxidative stress markers

The Diacrons reactive oxygen metabolites (d-ROMs) test was used to assess lipid

peroxidation and was performed according to the manufacturer’s instructions

(Diacron International, Grossetto, Italy). The analysis was fully automated, using a

Technicon RA 1000 system (Technicon Instruments Corporation, NY, USA). The d-

ROMs test monitors a rather persistent radical cation formed in the reaction of

alkoxy and peroxy radicals derived from the hydroperoxides with a suitable additive

N, N, diethyl-para-phenylendiamine (DEPPD). Thus, the d-ROMs level is

proportional to the serum hydroperoxide concentration in plasma (Alberti et al.

2000). Hydroperoxides are products of the peroxidation of proteins, peptides, amino

acids, lipids, and fatty acids (Nakayama et al. 2007). The test was carried out in the

kinetic mode. Results are expressed in arbitrary units (CARR Units) (Cesarone et al.

1999) with a CV <10%. According to the manufacturer’s instructions a normal

value for d-ROMs is between 250 and 300 CARR U in healthy individuals. In

trained individuals lower basal values have been reported (< 250 CARR U) (Banfi et

al. 2006). A value between 301 and 320 CARR U indicates a borderline condition of

oxidative stress status, while a value above 320 CARR U indicates oxidative stress

(Diacron International, Grossetto, Italy).

Quantification of oxidized glutathione (GSSG) and reduced glutathione (GSH)

was performed using a two-dimensional chromatographic system with parallel

Hypercarb columns coupled with dual fluorescence detectors (FLD). After sample

preparation as previously described (Sakhi et al. 2006), 10 μL of the supernatant was

injected into the chromatographic system. Derivatisation of GSSG was performed

using monobromobimane (MBB) and ortho-phthalaldehyde (OPA). The CV for the

method was below 7%. The ratio of GSH:GSSG was calculated by dividing GSH

with GSSG. We analysed glutathione in plasma. In comparison to whole blood


30

glutathione, plasma contains less than 1% glutathione (Ji 2000). Plasma glutathione

can, however, be used as a model for intracellular glutathione, as it is assumed that

plasma glutathione reflects intracellular whole blood glutathione. Reduced plasma

glutathione (GSH) constitutes about 50-70% of total plasma glutathione while

GSSG constitutes about 5-10% of GSH. Moreover, the fraction of TGSH in our

study includes other components other than pure glutathione, such as adducts of

plasma proteins, while GSH and GSSG are free plasma glutathione. Hence, the

observed value of TGSH is higher compared to GSH and GSSG.

3.8.23.8.23.8.23.8.2 Antioxidant compounds Antioxidant compounds Antioxidant compounds Antioxidant compounds

For the determination of the dietary antioxidant ascorbic acid, heparin plasma was

immediately acidified using an equal volume of 10% meta-phoshoric acid (MPA)

and stored at -70 °C until analysis within 3 months. Samples were analysed by high

performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) (Karlsen et al. 2005, 2007) with a CV

below 5%. Plasma calibrators quantified against the NIST 970 SRM served as

standards.

For the determination of the tocopherols by HPLC, proteins were precipitated by

the addition of 3 volumes of isopropanol, followed by centrifugation at 3000 g at 4

°C for 15 min. The internal standard tocol was added with the isopropanol and 5 µL

of the clear supernatant were used for analysis (Richheimer et al. 1994). A

fluorescence detector operated at 295 nm (ex) and 330 nm (em) was used for

detection with a CV below 5%. Standards prepared in 1% bovine serum albumin in

phosphate buffered saline were used for quantification. Total tocoperhols is the sum

of -, -, -, and – tocopherols.

For analysis of the dietary antioxidants total polyphenols, 50 µL heparin plasma

were mixed with 150 µL ethanol for 2 min, before centrifugation at 3000 g at 4 °C

for 15 min. Fifty microliters of the clear supernatant were used for the Folin-

Ciocalteu method as previously described (Maskarinec et al. 1999). Quercetin

prepared in ethanol served as standard solution, and the results are given as µmol/L

quercetin equivalents (QE) with a CV below 10%.

The total carotenoids is the sum of lutein, zeaxanthin, β-krytpoxanthin, α-

carotene, β-carotene and lycopene. These dietary antioxidants were determined in

plasma by HPLC. Proteins were precipitated and removed by the addition of a 4.5

volume of isopropanol followed by centrifugation at 3000 g at 4 °C for 15 min. The

internal standard astaxanthin was added in the isopropanol. Twenty-five microliters

31

of the clear supernatant were used for analysis. The mobile phases consisted of A:

20% water and 24% acetone in ethanol and B: acetone. The gradient conditions

were as follows: from 2 to 100% B within 20 min, followed by 100% B for 15 min.

Detection was performed at 453 nm using a variable wavelength detector. Plasma

calibrators quantified against the NIST 968c SRM were used as standards and the

CV for the method was below 5%.

The non-enzymatic endogenous antioxidants thiols (including total glutathione

(TGSH), cysteine, homocysteine and cysteine-glycine) were analysed in plasma with

the use of chemical reduction and according the “homocysteine by HPLC” kit

provided by Biorad Laboratories GmbH (Munich, Germany). Standard solutions

prepared in PBS served as calibrators with a CV <5%. Ferric reducing/antioxidant

power assay (FRAP) was determined in plasma as described elsewhere (Benzie &

Strain 1999).

3.9 INFLAMMATORY CELLS AND CYTOKINE RESPONSE

3.9.13.9.13.9.13.9.1 Leukocyte Leukocyte Leukocyte Leukocyte cellcellcellcell count count count count

Leukocyte cell numbers were analysed with a Sysmex K-1000 (TOA Medical

Electronics Co., Ltd., Kobe, Japan). Coefficient of variation for neutrophil and

lymphocyte cell counts are <4%. Leukocytes in EDTA whole blood were counted as

total number of leukocytes (white blood cells), neutrophils, lymphocytes and mixed

cells. Mixed cells are monocytes, basophils, eosinophils and granolucytes.

3.9.23.9.23.9.23.9.2 Cytokine analysCytokine analysCytokine analysCytokine analysiiiissss

IL-1, IL-1Ra, IL-2, IL -2R, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-7, INF-, INF-α, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12,

IL-13, IL-15, IL-17, TNF-α, GM-CSF, IP-10, MIP-1α,β, MCP-1, MIG, Eotaxin and

RANTES were measured in plasma by a validated sandwich immunoassay based

protein array system commercial kit (Biosource International, kit no. LHC009,

Camarillo, CA, USA). Cytokine detection was performed according to the

manufacturer's instruction, with assay diluents as blank. Calibration standards were

prepared in the assay buffer. In brief: antibody-coupled microspheres specific for the

different cytokines were incubated with plasma. Antigen binding was then detected

after incubation with biotinylated detector antibodies. Detection was performed with


32

the use of a flow-based dual laser detector with real-time digital signal. The Luminex

100 IS instrument (Biosource, Nivelles, Belgium) with the Star Station acquisition

program (v2 Applied Cytometry Systems, Sheffield, UK) were used to process the

data. According to the manufacturer, both intra-assay variations and inter-assay

variations for all antigens measured by the multiplex system are below 10%.

Furthermore, the sensitivity of multiplex Bead Array assays for the detection of

soluble cytokines from various manufacturers has been compared (Khan et al. 2004).

First, Bead Array and ELISA values appeared to be comparable between the

manufacturers (Khan et al. 2004). Second, the minimal detection range for the kit

used in our study (Biosource kit) was comparable and even several-fold higher than

that of other kits (Khan et al. 2004). Third, the sensitivity limits are equivalent to

those of most ELISA’s (Martins et al. 2002). All samples were run in double samples

according to the manufacturer's recommendations.

3.10 STATISTICAL ANALYSES

Data are presented as means and standard deviation (SD), or standard error of the

mean (SE). All data were tested for their normal distribution prior to statistical

calculations. The statistical significance of the differences between groups and time

points was determined using a two-way (group x time) repeated-measures ANOVA

using absolute values. Where appropriate, Dunnett’s post hoc test and Tukey’s post

hoc test were applied. In addition to describing the changes that occurred from

baseline values, we also analysed the gradient of change from immediately before

and after the first and second games (Study I, III, IV). In study II, the d-ROMs data

were not normally distributed and were log-10 transformed prior to ANOVA. In

study III, not normally distributed data were analysed using Friedman’s non-

parametric related samples test with a Dunn’s post hoc test. Selected bivariate

relationships were examined with the Pearson’s product-moment correlation

coefficient test for normally distributed data, whereas the Spearman rank correlation

coefficient test was used to analyse data that did not meet the assumption of

normality. P values below 0.05 were considered statistically significant. The

Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS Inc, version 12.0) and Statistica

(StatSoft Inc, version 7.0) were used for the analyses.

33

3.11 ETHICAL APPROVAL

The players were informed of the experimental procedures and possible discomforts

associated with the study and gave their written informed consent to participate. The

study was conducted according to the policy statement set forth in the Declaration of

Helsinki and approved by the Regional Ethics Committee of Uppsala, Sweden (Dnr

2004: M-364).

34 35

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 WORKLOAD DURING THE GAMES

4.1.14.1.14.1.14.1.1 Main findings Main findings Main findings Main findings

Heart rate. No significant differences were observed in heart-rate values between the

active recovery and passive groups during the games. The mean heart rate was

relatively high in both games (> 160 bpm). The HR ranged between 144–173 bpm in

the first game and 152-180 bpm in the second game, showing individual differences.

The mean heart rate and time spent above 85% and 90% of HRpeak were slightly,

but significantly, higher during the second game (Table 1).

Table 1. Heart rate in beats.min-1, % HRpeak and time spent above 85% and 90%

of HRpeak during the games for the active recovery and passive groups.

Game 1 Game 2

Active group (n=8) 1st

half 2nd

half Total game 1st

half 2nd

half Total game

HR (beats.min

-1)

165±3

162±3

163±3

173±3 *

169±3 *

171±3 *

% of HRpeak (%)

83±1

82±1

82±1

87±1*

85±1*

86±1*

> 85% HRpeak (min)

23±3

18±3

41±6

29±5

28±3

57±5*

> 90% HRpeak (min)

9±3

6±2

15±5

14±4

10±3*

24±4*

Passive group (n=9) HR (beats.min

-1)

162±2

160±2

161±2

172±3 *

165±2 *

168±2 *

% of HRpeak (%)

82±1

81±1

81±1

86±1*

83±1*

85±1*

> 85% HRpeak (min)

22±2

17±3

38±5

26±5

23±3

49±6*

> 90% HRpeak (min)

9±2

5±2

14±4

15±4

8±2*

23±5*

Values are in means ± SE. * denotes significantly higher (p<0.05) compared to the

first game.


34 35

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 WORKLOAD DURING THE GAMES


Heart rate. No significant differences were observed in heart-rate values between the

active recovery and passive groups during the games. The mean heart rate was

relatively high in both games (> 160 bpm). The HR ranged between 144–173 bpm in

the first game and 152-180 bpm in the second game, showing individual differences.

The mean heart rate and time spent above 85% and 90% of HRpeak were slightly,

but significantly, higher during the second game (Table 1).

Table 1. Heart rate in beats.min-1, % HRpeak and time spent above 85% and 90%

of HRpeak during the games for the active recovery and passive groups.

Game 1 Game 2

Active group (n=8) 1st

half 2nd

half Total game 1st

half 2nd

half Total game

HR (beats.min

-1)

165±3

162±3

163±3

173±3 *

169±3 *

171±3 *

% of HRpeak (%)

83±1

82±1

82±1

87±1*

85±1*

86±1*

> 85% HRpeak (min)

23±3

18±3

41±6

29±5

28±3

57±5*

> 90% HRpeak (min)

9±3

6±2

15±5

14±4

10±3*

24±4*

Passive group (n=9) HR (beats.min

-1)

162±2

160±2

161±2

172±3 *

165±2 *

168±2 *

% of HRpeak (%)

82±1

81±1

81±1

86±1*

83±1*

85±1*

> 85% HRpeak (min)

22±2

17±3

38±5

26±5

23±3

49±6*

> 90% HRpeak (min)

9±2

5±2

14±4

15±4

8±2*

23±5*

Values are in means ± SE. * denotes significantly higher (p<0.05) compared to the

first game.


36

Movement pattern analysis. The game duration was similar (90±0 min) in both

games. The ten players analysed in the movement pattern analysis during games

covered similar total distance (9.4 ± 0.8 km vs 9.9 ± 0.6 km respectively; NS) and

high intensity running distances (1.09 ± 0.47 km vs 1.10 ± 0.43 km respectively; NS)

in both games. The HIR distance ranged between 0.42 -1.98 km in the first game

and 0.61-1.75 km in the second game, showing individual differences in the amount

of work performed during the games. When analysing the HIR distance in 15-min

periods during the games, the distances in the last 30 min of both games were

significantly lower (~24%, p<0.05) compared to the first 15-min period of the

games. The distance covered in HIR in the last 30-min of both games was also ~17%

lower compared to the last 15-min period of the first half (30-45 min) (Fig. 4).

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

0- 15 15- 30 30- 45 45- 60 60- 75 75- 90

Time (min)

Hig

h in

ten

sit

y r

un

nin

g d

ista

nce (m

)

* #

* #

Figure 4. High-intensity running distance in each 15-min period during the games (n=10).

= game 1, = game 2. * denotes significantly lower compared with period 0-15 for both

games. # denotes significantly lower compared with period 30-45 min for both games.

4.1.2 4.1.2 4.1.2 4.1.2 Discussion.Discussion.Discussion.Discussion.

Based on the mean heart-rate values it can be concluded that the aerobic system was

highly taxed during both games. The mean heart rate in both games was similar to

that previously reported in competitive elite female soccer games (Andersson et al.

37

2010; Davis & Brewer 1993; Krustrup et al. 2005). The mean heart rate differed

between the first and second game. Such small inter-match variability (~ 4%) could

be expected between games.

The high mean heart rate, time spent > 85% of HRpeak and HIR distance imply

that the players were able to work at a high intensity in both games. Importantly, the

work intensity (measured as HR) in the second game did not differ between the

active and passive recovery groups. This finding indicates that the active recovery

training did not influence the game performance of players in the second game.

The distance covered in HIR during both games was also similar to what has been

previously reported in high-level competitive female soccer players (Andersson et al.

2010; Gabbett & Mulvey 2008; Krustrup et al. 2005; Mohr et al. 2008), which

confirms that the work performed during the games was high. The reduction of HIR

towards the end of the games may indicate the occurrence of fatigue (Andersson et

al. 2010; Mohr et al. 2008). The facts that the distance in HIR was reduced by the

same extent at the end of both games and that the reduction occurred at a similar

time point (Fig. 4) during the games imply that the players’ performance in the

second game was not affected by the physical stress imposed by the first game.


STRESS AFTER ELITE FEMALE SOCCER GAMES (PAPER I)

4.2.1 Main findings 4.2.1 Main findings 4.2.1 Main findings 4.2.1 Main findings

The effects of active recovery training. At baseline, there were no significant

differences in absolute values for sprint, CMJ, isokinetic strength, blood CK, urea

and uric acid and perceived muscle soreness between the active and passive recovery

groups. At all time points, we also found no significant differences between the two

groups in the recovery pattern of any of the neuromuscular fatigue and blood

physical stress markers. There was, however, a significant time effect on the

neuromuscular fatigue and blood physical stress markers. As a consequence changes

in these parameters are presented as a mean of both groups.

Neuromuscular fatigue. Sprint performance and knee extensor or flexor strength

decreased immediately after both games with the amplitude of change being

comparable after both games. Sprint performance returned to baseline 5 h after the

first game while peak torque in knee extension and knee flexion returned to baseline


36

Movement pattern analysis. The game duration was similar (90±0 min) in both

games. The ten players analysed in the movement pattern analysis during games

covered similar total distance (9.4 ± 0.8 km vs 9.9 ± 0.6 km respectively; NS) and

high intensity running distances (1.09 ± 0.47 km vs 1.10 ± 0.43 km respectively; NS)

in both games. The HIR distance ranged between 0.42 -1.98 km in the first game

and 0.61-1.75 km in the second game, showing individual differences in the amount

of work performed during the games. When analysing the HIR distance in 15-min

periods during the games, the distances in the last 30 min of both games were

significantly lower (~24%, p<0.05) compared to the first 15-min period of the

games. The distance covered in HIR in the last 30-min of both games was also ~17%

lower compared to the last 15-min period of the first half (30-45 min) (Fig. 4).

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

0- 15 15- 30 30- 45 45- 60 60- 75 75- 90

Time (min)

Hig

h in

ten

sit

y r

un

nin

g d

ista

nce (m

)

* #

* #

Figure 4. High-intensity running distance in each 15-min period during the games (n=10).

= game 1, = game 2. * denotes significantly lower compared with period 0-15 for both

games. # denotes significantly lower compared with period 30-45 min for both games.

4.1.2 4.1.2 4.1.2 4.1.2 Discussion.Discussion.Discussion.Discussion.

Based on the mean heart-rate values it can be concluded that the aerobic system was

highly taxed during both games. The mean heart rate in both games was similar to

that previously reported in competitive elite female soccer games (Andersson et al.

37

2010; Davis & Brewer 1993; Krustrup et al. 2005). The mean heart rate differed

between the first and second game. Such small inter-match variability (~ 4%) could

be expected between games.

The high mean heart rate, time spent > 85% of HRpeak and HIR distance imply

that the players were able to work at a high intensity in both games. Importantly, the

work intensity (measured as HR) in the second game did not differ between the

active and passive recovery groups. This finding indicates that the active recovery

training did not influence the game performance of players in the second game.

The distance covered in HIR during both games was also similar to what has been

previously reported in high-level competitive female soccer players (Andersson et al.

2010; Gabbett & Mulvey 2008; Krustrup et al. 2005; Mohr et al. 2008), which

confirms that the work performed during the games was high. The reduction of HIR

towards the end of the games may indicate the occurrence of fatigue (Andersson et

al. 2010; Mohr et al. 2008). The facts that the distance in HIR was reduced by the

same extent at the end of both games and that the reduction occurred at a similar

time point (Fig. 4) during the games imply that the players’ performance in the

second game was not affected by the physical stress imposed by the first game.


STRESS AFTER ELITE FEMALE SOCCER GAMES (PAPER I)


The effects of active recovery training. At baseline, there were no significant

differences in absolute values for sprint, CMJ, isokinetic strength, blood CK, urea

and uric acid and perceived muscle soreness between the active and passive recovery

groups. At all time points, we also found no significant differences between the two

groups in the recovery pattern of any of the neuromuscular fatigue and blood

physical stress markers. There was, however, a significant time effect on the

neuromuscular fatigue and blood physical stress markers. As a consequence changes

in these parameters are presented as a mean of both groups.

Neuromuscular fatigue. Sprint performance and knee extensor or flexor strength

decreased immediately after both games with the amplitude of change being

comparable after both games. Sprint performance returned to baseline 5 h after the

first game while peak torque in knee extension and knee flexion returned to baseline


38

at 27 h and 51 h after the first game, respectively. CMJ performance decreased

immediately after the first game and remained significantly reduced throughout the

study period. The pre-second game levels for sprint and isokinetic strength, but not

CMJ, had therefore returned to baseline levels before the start of the second game.

As a consequence of the already reduced CMJ levels at the start of the second game,

CMJ did not decline further immediately after the second game.

Blood markers of physical stress. Creatine Kinase, urea and uric acid significantly

increased with similar magnitude after both the first and second games. The peak

value for CK (451±59 U·L-1) was observed 21 h after the game and returned to

baseline levels 69 h after the first game. The peak values for urea and uric acid were

observed immediately after the games and returned to baseline levels 21 h after the

first game. Additionally, changes in perceived muscle soreness followed the same

patterns as CK.

Relationship between blood markers of physical stress and game performance

parameters. The increase in CK levels after the games was significantly related to the

distance covered in HIR during both games (R2= 0.58, r = 0.76, p<0.05) (Fig. 5).

Figure 5 also shows the occurrence of inter-individual differences in the amplitude of

changes in blood physical stress and game performance markers.

100

200

300

400

500

0 500 1000 1500 2000

HIR distance (m)

C

K (

U·L

¹)

R² = 0.58

r = 0.76

Figure 5. Relationship between the distance covered in HIR and acute change in CK

following the first (◊) and second ( games.

39

4.2.3 4.2.3 4.2.3 4.2.3 Discussion Discussion Discussion Discussion

The acute reductions in the performance parameters (sprint, isokinetic knee strength

and CMJ) observed in our study are of similar magnitude to data reported after a

single soccer game or soccer specific running protocol in male players (Ascensão et

al. 2008; Balsom et al. 1993; Krustrup et al. 2006; Oliver et al. 2008). The acute

reductions in CMJ and sprint performance together with the decline in isokinetic

strength indicate that different aspects of the force-generating capacity are

compromised in response to a female soccer game. The reduction in the force-

generating capacity may be caused by structural disruptions within myofibers

(Gibala et al. 1995; Raastad & Hallén 2000), increased inorganic phosphate (Pi),

alterations in the excitation-contraction process (involving alteration in Ca2+ release

and low muscle pH due to lactic acid accumulation) (Warren et al. 2001; Westerblad

et al. 2002), selective glycogen depletion (Krustrup et al. 2006) and impairment of

the stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) (Avela & Komi 1998).

We also observed differences in the recovery time after the game for the different

neuromuscular parameters. Sprint performance was the first physical capacity to

return to baseline after the game (5 h) and was followed by knee extension peak

torque (27 h) and flexion (51 h). CMJ did not recover throughout the remaining

time points of the study. Although strong correlations have been shown between

maximal strength and the performance in sprint and vertical jump (Wisløff et al.

2004) our results suggest differences in the recovery pattern between these physical

qualities. The differences in recovery pattern can be explained by the existence of

differences in the amount of muscle work and in the inter-muscular coordination

between sprint, jump and isokinetic knee flexion and extension (Iossifidou et al.

2005; Jacobs et al. 1996; Jacobs & Schenau 1992).

The long-lasting reductions in jump performance (>72 h) and isokinetic strength

(>45 h) indicate some slow recovering processes within the muscle. Myofibrillar

disruptions have been observed after heavy-strength training and downhill running

(Friden et al. 1981; Gibala et al. 1995). This may have contributed to the long-

lasting reductions in the force-generating capacity though these ideas have not been

directly examined after soccer games.

The increase in blood CK indicates an increased permeability in muscle cell

membranes during the games. The observed increases in uric acid and urea suggest

that soccer games also result in an increase in AMP levels with a subsequent increase

in the formation of ammonia (NH3) as well as the enhancement of protein


40

breakdown. The moderate increase in CK and urea indicates alterations in muscle

membranes and in protein metabolism.

The existence of a relationship between changes in CK and distance in HIR

indicates that the work performed in high speeds during a game is a good indicator

of the stress put on leg muscles during a soccer game (Fig. 5). Moreover, the inter-

individual variability in the amplitude of changes in performance parameters and

physical stress markers after the games may be related to the amount of work

performed by each player in the field and also to the physical fitness status of the

player.

The active recovery training used in this study is widely used by teams in many

countries and is believed to accelerate the recovery after a soccer game. Our results

clearly show that the time course of the recovery of performance parameters and the

blood physical stress markers were not significantly improved by the active recovery

training. Our results are in favour of previous studies in elite athletes suggesting the

lack of evidence supporting the use of active recovery strategies (Barnett 2006; Gill et

al. 2006). Nevertheless, it should be emphasised that low-intensity training did not

have any detrimental effects on recovery.

In conclusion, our data clearly demonstrate the existence of differences in the

recovery pattern of various neuromuscular parameters and physical stress markers in

response to female soccer games. We can conclude that the majority of the

performance parameters (with the exception of CMJ) and physical stress markers

had recovered before the start of the second game. Our data also show that the

recovery time for neuromuscular fatigue and physical stress markers are not

accelerated by active recovery training.

4.3 OXIDATIVE STRESS MARKERS AND ANTIOXIDANT COMPOUNDS AFTER

ELITE FEMALE SOCCER GAMES (PAPER II AND IV).


The effects of active recovery training. The active recovery training did not have an

effect on the oxidative stress markers and antioxidant compounds at any time points

during the study. There was, however, a significant time effect in the oxidative stress

markers and antioxidant compounds. For this reason, changes in these parameters

are presented as a mean for both groups.

41

Oxidative stress markers. The analyses of acute changes occurring immediately

after the first and second games revealed a significant increase in GSSG whereas

GSH remained unchanged. As a result of the increased GSSG and unchanged GSH

the GSH:GSSG ratio decreased immediately after both games. The decrease in the

GSH:GSSG ratio was statistically significant only after the first game, however. The

increase in GSSG after the first game was brief as GSSG levels returned to baseline

within 21 h. During the period separating the two games, GSH significantly

decreased at 45 h and 69 h after the first game and thus the pre-second game GSH

levels were lower than the levels prior to the first game. Lipid peroxidation measured

by d-ROMs was not acutely changed after both games and remained unchanged at

all time points except at 69 h when it slightly, but significantly, decreased from

baseline levels.

Endogenous (non-enzymatic) antioxidant compounds. The general response

pattern of the endogenous antioxidants was characterised by a robust increase in

blood immediately after both games. More specifically, both TGSH, UA and FRAP

increased with a similar magnitude after both games. The endogenous antioxidants

cysteine, cysteine-glycine and total thiols also increased after both games. Although

these compounds increased following both games, changes in cysteine, cysteine-

glycine and total thiols were statistically significant only in response to the second

game.

Dietary antioxidant compounds. The response patterns in the dietary antioxidants

showed either a rapid and persistent increase (-tocopherol, total tocopherols and

AA) or a delayed rise (total carotenoids) in blood after the first game (Fig. 6a-d).

Alpha-tocopherol, total tocopherols and AA increased immediately after the first

game and remained elevated at all time points except for a temporary normalisation

of AA at 21 h (Fig. 6c). Consequently, the pre-second game dietary antioxidant levels

of -tocopherol, total tocopherols and AA were higher than the levels prior to the

first game. Immediately after the second game, there were no significant increases in

total tocopherols (Fig. 6a) and AA, whereas -tocopherol slightly decreased. There

were no immediate changes in carotenoids after both the first and the second games

(Fig. 6b). The carotenoids did, however, slowly increase after the first game (starting

at 21 h) and stayed elevated at all further time points. Consequently, the pre-second

game levels of several carotenoids (lutein, -crytpoxanthin, α-carotene, lycopene,

and total carotenoids) were higher than the levels prior to the first game. Finally,

total polyphenols significantly decreased immediately after the first game, remained


42

reduced until 69 h after the first game and were then unchanged after the second

game (Fig. 6d). Finally, as shown in figure 6 a-d, the amplitude of changes in

oxidative stress markers and antioxidant compounds after the games varied between

players.

Figure 6 a-d. Changes in dietary antioxidant compounds in female elite soccer players

during two games separated by 72-h recovery. Values are relative changes (%) from

baseline and each curve represents an individual player: a) total tocopherols b) total

carotenoids c) AA and d) total polyphenols. IP = immediately post games. * denotes

significant changes compared to baseline (P<0.05).

4.3.2 4.3.2 4.3.2 4.3.2 DiscDiscDiscDiscussion ussion ussion ussion

The significant increase in blood GSSG observed immediately after the games

indicates increased ROS production. Considering that 2-5% of total 2

•

VO results in

6

43

the formation of ROS (Jackson 1998), and that the players worked at an intensity

level of ~85% of HRpeak (approximately 67% of 2

•

VO peak) (Table 1), an increased

production of ROS during the soccer game was expected. The increase in GSSG led

to a decreased GSH:GSSG ratio after both games (statistically significant only after

the first game). Prior to the second game the GSH:GSSG ratio was already reduced

compared to baseline. This may explain why the decrease in GSH:GSSG ratio was

statistically significant only after the first game and not after the second game.

Interestingly, our study showed no significant changes in the level of d-ROMs after

both games. Previous studies in male players showed increased lipid peroxidation

(measured by malondialdehyde, MDA and thioburbiuric acid-reactive substances,

TBARS) in plasma following a single soccer game (Ascensão et al. 2008; Ispirlidis et

al. 2008). The opposite results between our study performed on elite female players

and those from Ascensão et al. (2008) and Ispirlidis et al. (2008) performed on non

elite male players may be explained by an improved protection against oxidative

insults in well-trained athletes (Brites et al. 1999; Cazzola et al. 2003) or by the

protective effects of oestrogens (Kendall & Eston 2002). It has been shown that

trained women have lower resting MDA levels that those of to trained men (Bloomer

& Fisher-Wellman 2008). This indicates that sex differences in the response of

oxidative stress markers and antioxidant levels may exist in soccer players.

Increases in ROS may modulate a variety of cellular processes that may cause

structural changes in the muscle fibres and reduction of muscle contractile function

(Peake et al. 2007). For example, increased ROS can affect sarcolemmal function

(Dudley et al. 2006), calcium regulation (Abramson & Salama 1989), myofilament

interaction (Callahan et al. 2001), and mitochondrial metabolism (Hauser et al.

1995; Pruijn & Schoonen 1992). It is therefore possible that the increased GSSG

observed after the games may have contributed to the decline in force-generating

capacities (reduced performance parameters). However, no significant correlations

were observed between the neuromuscular fatigue parameters and GSSG levels after

the games.

Our study showed for the first time the occurrence of a strong soccer-game-

induced endogenous antioxidant response in female players. TGSH, UA and FRAP

increased with similar amplitude after both games. Although the endogenous

antioxidants cysteine, cysteine-glycine and total thiols also increased after both

games, changes in the level of these antioxidants reached a statistically significant

level only after the second game. Our data therefore indicate that endogenous


44

antioxidants may play an important role in the antioxidant defence during the acute

phase following intermittent exercise. Generally, the workload induced by a soccer

game is able to stimulate a strong acute endogenous antioxidant response which

seems to be maintained during repeated soccer games.

The acute increase in blood levels of the dietary antioxidants tocopherols and AA

and decrease of polyphenols after the first game indicate a role of some dietary

antioxidants in the early line of defence against increased ROS production. Contrary

to the rapid normalisation of the endogenous antioxidants, however, there was a

persistent elevation of AA and tocopherols and reduction of polyphenols after the

first game. The long-lasting changes of these dietary antioxidant compounds suggest

that they are involved in the stabilisation and maintenance of homeostasis in the

redox-balance several days following the first soccer game. As the response of these

dietary antioxidants was long-lasting, they did not further increase immediately after

the second game, thereby suggesting sufficient levels of available dietary antioxidants

in the circulation during the second soccer game.

There were no acute changes in the carotenoids following the games suggesting

that carotenoids are not involved in the acute response to increased ROS after

exercise. We did, however, observe a delayed and persistent increase of carotenoids

starting 21 h after the first game. This recruitment pattern suggests that carotenoids

are slowly mobilised from their storage sites (such as the adipose tissue) possibly to

strengthen the blood antioxidant capacity in response to the soccer game.

The active recovery training had no influence on the restoration of oxidative stress

markers and antioxidant levels during repeated soccer games in elite female players.

Furthermore, increases in GSSG are associated with exercise intensity (Ji et al. 1992)

and the low-intensity recovery training in the time period after the first game did not

cause increased GSSG.

Similarly to the game-performance parameters (e.g., HR and HIR), inter-

individual differences were observed in the amplitude of changes in oxidative stress

markers and antioxidant levels after the games. The increase in free-radical

production and antioxidants is related to the increase in oxygen consumption that

occurs during exercise. Therefore, the inter-individual variability in oxidative stress

markers and antioxidants can be related to the amount of aerobic work performed

by the players during the games. However, we failed to show a relationship between

the workload (measured as HR) during the games and increases in GSSG or

antioxidants after the games.

45

Figure 7. Interaction between oxidative stress markers and endogenous and dietary

antioxidants following a soccer game in well-trained female soccer players.

In conclusion, our results suggest a model in which the concomitant increase in

endogenous and dietary antioxidants in response to the transient increase in GSSG

prevented the occurrence of lipid peroxidation measured by d-ROMs in well-trained

female players (Fig. 7). The robust but brief increases in the endogenous antioxidants

after the games indicate their involvement in the acute response to increased free-

radical production. The dietary antioxidant response seems to be related to both the

acute defence against increased free-radical production and to the maintenance of a

prolonged balanced redox after a female soccer game. Finally, the use of active

recovery training in the period between two elite female soccer games had no impact

on the oxidative stress and antioxidant systems.

GSSG GSH:GSSG

SOCCER GAME FOR ELITE FEMALE PLAYERS

Unchanged d-ROMs

ANTI-OXIDANTS PRO-OXIDANTS

POLYPHENOLS

ENDOGENOUS & DIETARY ANTIOXIDANTS

?


46

4.4 INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE AFTER ELITE FEMALE SOCCER GAMES

(PAPER III)


The effects of active recovery training. There were no differences in the cytokine

response between the passive and the active recovery groups at any of the time

points. Importantly, there was a significant time effect on the inflammatory cytokine

response. For this reason, changes in plasma cytokines and leukocyte cell count at

different time points in the experiments are presented as a mean for both groups.

Leukocyte cell count. Total leukocyte and neutrophil cell counts increased

similarly following both games and returned to baseline levels within 21 h after the

first game.

Cytokine response. Immediately after the first game significant elevations in

plasma concentration of twelve cytokines (IL-12, TNF-α, INF-, IL-6, IL-2R, IL-4,

IL-5, IL-7, IL-10, IL-13, IL-17, and INF-α) and three chemokines (IL-8, MIG, and

MCP-1) were observed (Fig. 8a-d). All cytokines and chemokines returned to

baseline levels within 21 h after the first game and remained at baseline levels until

the beginning of the second game. The cytokine response following the second game

differed from that of the first game. Only two cytokines, IL-12 and IL-6, and the

same chemokines IL-8, MIG and MCP-1 increased significantly after the second

game. The amplitude of changes of these cytokines and chemokines after the second

game was of similar amplitude to that seen after the first game (Fig. 8b-d).

47

Figure 8. Plasma inflammatory cytokine response in female elite soccer players during two

games separated by 72-h recovery. Values are absolute changes (mean ± SE) from baseline:

a) anti-inflammatory cytokines, b) IL-6, c) pro-inflammatory cytokines and d) chemokines:

IP = immediately post games: * denotes significantly higher than baseline (P<0.05).

4.4.24.4.24.4.24.4.2 Discussion Discussion Discussion Discussion

It has been shown that neutrophil cell counts increase progressively with exercise

intensity (Sureda et al. 2009). Here we show that neutrophil cell counts increased

similarly following both games. This is in accordance with the fact that both games

in the present study were of a comparable intensity. The amplitude of the increase of

cell counts and the time to return to baseline levels are in agreement with data

reported in male players (Ascensão et al. 2008; Ispirlidis et al. 2008). This would

suggest the absence of sex differences in the leukocyte response after soccer games. It


48

can also be concluded that leukocyte mobilisation is similar during repeated soccer

games that are separated by 72 h.

Our study clearly showed a robust, but transient, increase in several pro- and anti-

inflammatory cytokines and chemokines after the first game. It can be hypothesized

that the cytokine release following the games might have been triggered by increases

in catecholamines and cortisol, changes in metabolic activity, the occurrence of

membrane disruptions in muscle cells, and increased free-radical production

(Nieman et al. 2005; Steensberg et al. 2003; Suzuki et al. 2000). The large cytokine

response after the first soccer game may also be explained by interactions between

cytokines. All pro-and anti-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines had returned to

baseline within 21 h and thus were within normal baseline ranges at the start of the

second game.

Another main finding was the unexpectedly dampened cytokine response after the

second game. There are several possible hypotheses behind this phenomenon. First, it

has been shown that the cytokine response during exercise is dependent on the

exercise intensity and duration (Pedersen 2000). Our results indicate that the

intensity in both games was comparable or even slightly higher in the second game.

The dampened cytokine response can therefore not be explained by a lower game

intensity in the second game. It has also been reported that carbohydrate (CHO)

loading attenuates the cytokine response following exercise (Bishop et al. 2002;

Chan et al. 2003) and that CHO availability may influence the magnitude of the

post-exercise disturbance in markers of immune function (Cox et al. 2008). In the

present study, diet was carefully supervised several days before the second game but

for only two meals before the first game. Thus, there is a possibility that the muscle

CHO levels before the second game were higher than those before the first game. A

third possible explanation is that a second bout of exercise would cause a dampening

of the inflammatory response (Pizza et al. 2001). This concept is called the “repeated

bout effect” (McHugh 2003). This phenomenon is, however, reported to occur

mostly in untrained subjects (Nikolaidis et al. 2007; Pizza et al. 2001). As the players

in our study were well-trained, it seems unlikely that the dampened cytokine

response was due to the repeated bout effect. The dampened cytokine response may

also be the result of a fast suppressive counter-regulation (Weinstock et al. 1997).

The second game was played 72 h after the first game and whether a fast systemic

counter-regulation following the first game might occur and influence the cytokine

response in a second game played 72 h later is unknown. Finally, it has been

49

suggested that high levels of antioxidants (using antioxidant supplements) attenuates

cytokine production (Fischer et al. 2004; Vassilakopoulos et al. 2003). In our study,

several dietary antioxidants were significantly elevated both prior to and directly

after the second game. The dampened cytokine response may therefore be connected

to the high blood antioxidant levels observed before and after the second game.

The active recovery training performed 22 and 46 h after the first game did not

affect the inflammatory mediators in elite female players. This finding is similar to

data reported in previous studies where strategies as active recovery or cold-water

immersion did not accelerate the recovery of several neuromuscular or physical stress

markers (Gill et al. 2006; Kinugasa & Kilding 2009; Tessitore; 2008) and cytokine

response (Rowsell et al. 2009) following intermittent exercise.

It is suggested that the structural changes occurring in the muscle fibre during

exercise elicit a repair response when the mechanical disruption of myofibers initiates

local and systemic production of cytokines (Pedersen & Hoffman-Goetz 2000).

Consequently, increased cytokine levels have mainly been associated to eccentric

muscle actions and it has been suggested that muscle damage (indicated by elevated

CK) is associated with increases in cytokines, such as IL-6 (Bruunsgaard et al. 1997;

Nieman et al. 2005). However, other studies have failed to find a correlation

between IL-6 and muscle damage (Croisier et al. 1999; Ostrowski et al. 1998a;

Ostrowski et al. 2000). It has therefore been suggested that exercise-induced muscle

damage is not the major cause of increased plasma IL-6 concentrations following

eccentric exercise (Peake et al. 2005c). In the present study we did not find any

correlation between changes in CK and IL-6 or any of the other cytokines. Our

results do not support the existence of a relationship between muscle damage

markers and changes in cytokines.

The production of cytokines following exercise has also been closely associated

with increases in neutrophil cell counts (Suzuki et al. 1999). We did not however

find a relationship between the amplitude of plasma cytokine changes and the

amplitude of neutrophil cell count changes.

In conclusion, this study shows that one single elite female soccer game leads to an

immediate mobilisation of immune cells and a robust, but transient, increase in

plasma concentration of both pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines. Our data show

that when a second game is played 72 h after the first game a dampened cytokine

response occurs. The mechanisms and the practical implications of the dampened

cytokine response are unknown. Our findings indicate that active recovery training


50

does not influence the recovery pattern of inflammatory parameters in elite female

soccer players. This is in accordance with the lack of effects of this recovery strategy

on neuromuscular and physical stress parameters, oxidative stress markers and

antioxidant levels.

51

5 CONCLUSIONS

Female soccer is one of the fastest growing sports in the world. There are, however,

limited scientific data on how elite female players respond to the physical stress

imposed by a soccer game. Additionally, knowledge about the recovery processes

following a game is also limited. Efficient recovery following a game in international

tournaments is important since there are few recovery days between games. The

present thesis was designed to mirror an actual competitive situation for elite female

players in order to study the physiological impact of soccer on female players and to

better understand the recovery of several physiological systems during two repeated

soccer games.

5.1 MAIN FINDINGS OF THE THESIS

i ) Immediately after one soccer game in elite female players a reduction in

performance parameters was observed indicating the occurrence of

neuromuscular fatigue. Increases in blood markers of physical stress and

perceived muscle soreness also occurred immediately after a game. The first game

resulted in the enhancement of free-radical production and the concomitant

recruitment of endogenous and some dietary antioxidant compounds, which

maintained the redox balance. A balanced recruitment of several pro-and anti-

inflammatory cytokines also occurred.

ii) During the 72-h recovery following the first game, marked differences occurred

in the recovery pattern of the various performance and blood physical stress

markers. In general, the majority of the neuromuscular fatigue parameters (with

the exception of CMJ) and physical stress markers had returned to baseline levels

before the start of the second game. The changes that occurred in blood oxidative

stress markers and endogenous antioxidants after the first game were brief and

had returned to baseline levels within 21 h. The changes in blood levels of dietary

antioxidants were, however, more long-lasting. The soccer-game-induced

increases in the inflammatory cytokines were brief and had returned to baseline

levels within 21 h after the first game.


52

iii) The low-intensity recovery training performed between two games did not

influence the recovery time of the performance parameters, blood physical stress

markers, the restoration of the redox balance or the inflammatory parameters in

elite female players.

iv) Two repeated elite female soccer games induced similar acute changes in the

neuromuscular fatigue parameters (with the exception of CMJ), elevation in

blood physical stress markers and perceived muscle soreness. Similar acute

oxidative stress reactions and recruitment of endogenous antioxidants occurred

after both games. The dietary antioxidants (with the exception of carotenoids),

however, had dissimilar acute recruitment patterns after both games. Dissimilar

inflammatory responses also occurred after the two games, with a marked

damped cytokine response after the second game.

5.2 IMPLICATIONS

In general, the recovery patterns of the soccer-induced changes in neuromuscular

fatigue parameters, physical stress markers, the redox status and inflammatory

parameters indicate that 72 h between two games is an adequate recovery period in

elite female soccer players. An inter-individual variability in the amplitude of soccer-

induced changes in the physiological variables occured and may be related to the

amount of work performed by each player in the field. It is important to highlight

the fact that the game performance (HIR distance and HR) in the second game was

also not affected by the physiological changes imposed by the first game. However,

the fact that CMJ did not recover during the 72-h period after the first game

indicates that a particular attention should be devoted to the training of explosive

force.

Since the amount of HIR distance during the game was correlated to changes in

CK, HIR may be a useful indicator of the stress put on leg muscles during a game

and may help to individualise the recovery period in soccer players.

Low-intensive recovery training performed at 22 and 45 h after the first game did

not accelerate the recovery of neuromuscular fatigue and physical stress markers, the

redox-balance or the inflammatory response in elite female players. The potential

benefits behind the use of this post-game recovery strategy are not supported by our

53

data. Nevertheless, because of the lack of both positive and negative effects on

recovery, it is suggested that low-intensity exercise can be performed in the recovery

period between soccer games without risks of deteriorating performance in

upcoming games.

This thesis demonstrated the effectiveness of the antioxidant systems in elite

female soccer players. Based on our findings, the regular use of antioxidant

supplements in well-trained female athletes may be questionable. It has been shown

that supplementation with vitamin C may inhibit cellular adaptations to exercise

because it prevents the expression of key transcription factors involved in

mitochondrial biogenesis (Gomez-Cabrera et al. 2008a). The use of supplementation

in elite female players may interfere with soccer-induced training adaptations and

should not be recommended.

The strong pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine response observed after one single

soccer game in the female players might be an important factor involved in the

adaptation to regular training. The use of anti-inflammatory drugs may therefore

interfere with training adaptations. In this respect, it has been suggested that the use

of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) attenuates the exercise-induced

increase in satellite cell numbers and thereby hampers skeletal muscle adaptation to

exercise (Mackey et al. 2007). Interestingly, the second game played 72 h after the

first one was associated with a dampened inflammatory reaction and a more

pronounced pro-inflammatory cytokine response. The implications of this

phenomenon during repeated soccer games deserve further attention.

5.3 STUDY STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS

The originality of this thesis is the characterisation of physiological changes that

occur in elite female players following two 90-min soccer games conducted as

competitive games. The study was performed during the game season and both

games included well-trained players who had a demanding training and game

schedule. The strength of this study was that the experiment was conducted in an

actual competitive situation mirroring the real physiological and environmental

factors associated with elite female soccer. Additionally, the ability to monitor the

elite players during a period of five days and to standardise several important factors


54

during the study period further strengthens the conclusions associated with this

work.

Paradoxically, the strength of this thesis may also be regarded as its weakness.

Due to the limited number of players taking part in a soccer game (22 players), there

were relatively few players per recovery group (active, passive). The scientific

literature in the field does, however, highlight the need for data generated during

experiments conducted in real competitive situations. Moreover, our findings are in

line with data generated by other studies reporting the lack of beneficial effects of

active recovery training (Barnett 2006; Gill et al. 2006; Rowsell et al. 2009).

Furthermore, the game performance (measured as mean HR and time >85%

HRpeak) was similar in both games and did not differ between the players in the

active or passive recovery groups. Regardless of the recovery regime, the players

were, thus, able to perform at a high intensity during the second game. This further

supports the finding that active recovery training has no effect on various

physiological systems. Nonetheless, the relative small sample size should be taken

into account when interpreting the data on the effects of recovery training on the

physiological variables measured in this thesis. Moreover, despite that the effects of

active recovery training was evaluated using a large battery of physiological

parameters, the possibility that this recovery strategy might have affected other

parameters not evaluated in this study cannot be excluded.

It is also important to highlight the difficulty of measuring oxidative stress in

plasma. It is rather difficult to detect reactive intermediates directly in vivo because

of their short half-lives and therefore most studies evaluate various stress markers in

plasma, blood or urine (Urso & Clarkson 2003). In general, every assay has its

advantages and disadvantages and no single measurement can adequately describe

oxidative damage (Nikolaidis et al. 2008). It is suggested, therefore, that the use of a

battery of measurements is important to reliably monitor changes in the redox

system (Halliwell & Whiteman 2004). In the present study, the use of several

biomarkers allowed us to highlight the fact that despite lack of change in lipid

peroxidation measured by d-ROMs, the increased in GSSG, the decreased

GSSG:GSH ratio and increased in antioxidant levels all occurred in response to

exercise.

55

5.4 FUTURE DIRECTIONS

In the present thesis several aspects related to changes in neuromuscular fatigue

markers, the redox-status and inflammatory parameters were revealed for the first

time in elite female soccer players. This provides a platform for future experiments

aimed at further understanding the physiological changes associated with elite female

soccer. International soccer tournaments may include up to six consecutive games.

The implications of our findings in such a situation, where several consecutive games

are separated by only short recovery periods, remain to be elucidated. The context of

international tournaments may also include other important parameters that may

affect the recovery process after a game, including warm and humid climates,

nutritional aspects and psychological factors. The influence of these aspects on

recovery deserves further attention.

Interestingly, CMJ did not recover during the 72-h recovery period after the first

game. There are only a few studies that have investigated the recovery pattern of

performance parameters following soccer games. Furthermore, there are conflicting

results regarding the recovery of CMJ. The understanding of the mechanisms behind

the slow recovery of CMJ in elite female players merits further investigations.

The dampened cytokine response observed following the second game also merits

further attention. It has previously been shown that several immunological

parameters were suppressed for several days after two consecutive games in young

male players (Malm et al. 2004). The implications of the dampened cytokine

response when athletes play multiple soccer games in tournaments are unknown.

Future investigations should also determine whether other forms of recovery

strategies are able to accelerate the recovery of neuromuscular fatigue and blood

physical stress markers, the redox-status and the inflammatory response in elite

soccer players.

56 57

6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This thesis was performed at the School of Health and Medical Sciences, Örebro

University, Sweden. Collaborating centers included the Norwegian School of Sport

Sciences, Oslo; the Department of Nutrition, Institute of Medical Sciences, University

of Oslo; and Olympiatoppen, Oslo, Norway. The studies were funded by the

Swedish National Centre for Research in Sports.

I wish to express my warmest gratitude to all those who contributed to the studies

and made this thesis possible. I would especially like to thank:

Fawzi Kadi, my supervisor, for making my journey as a Ph.D. student a great

learning experience. I am astonished by your knowledge, work capacity, tremendous

patience and humble personality. I admire your courage for taking me on as a

student without knowing me. I am deeply grateful for the expertise, support and

encouragement you have given me during this time, wherever in the world I have

been. I am appreciative to have learnt the research process from the best!

Truls Raastad, my co-supervisor, for the tremendous support and excellent

knowledge. I am especially thankful for your help and hard work with the study set-

up and the data collection; it was a fun week with a lot of hard work. I am also

grateful for your support during difficult times; you always calm me down in stormy

weather!

Karin Söderlund, my co-supervisor, for giving me great advice not only on research

but about life in general. I admire your knowledge and love for science.

My colleagues in Norway for their tremendous help and hard work: Gøran Paulsen,

Anette Karsten, Siv Kjølsrud Bøhn, Rune Blomhoff, Johnny Nilsson, Nils Helge

Kvamme, Einar Sigmundson and Kenneth Wilsgård.

My colleagues who inspired me to commence research in football: Peter Krustrup

and Magni Mohr for believing in me and my ideas and for being good friends; Jens

Bangsbo for great inspiration; H-C Holmberg for pushing me in the right direction;

Paul Balsom for believing in me, encouraging me and guiding me to where I am

today; Barry Drust and Marcus Svensson for great support and good friendship.


58

My role models, Pia Sundhage and Marika Domanski-Lyfors, who have encouraged

me to continue my Ph.D. even in tough times. I am amazed by your strength and

love for the game. I am forever grateful to you, Pia, for making my passion and

knowledge in soccer even greater; and to you Marika for teaching me never to give

up, no matter what happens. Thank you both for giving me the opportunity to work

with you and experience memories for life. You guys are awesome!

The work colleagues and Ph.D. students in Sport Science at Örebro University for

their support and friendship. Special thanks to Henrik Gustavsson and Mattias

Johansson for many kilometers in the running track and late nights in the

“appendix” discussing life; to Sören Hjälm, John Jouper, Helena Ragnarsson, Anette

Oskarsson and Anita Cierzniewski for making my life easier by being such good

friends.

My friends, Terese Petrone, Charlotte Stichter, Karin Berntsson, Anna Ericsson,

Jovin Lew, Kristina Nygren, Cecilia Pettersson, Erica Lång and Ann-Sofie Flodin for

your great friendship and for taking me out enjoying life between times of hard work.

The players who participated in the study for your patience during the study and for

many good laughs together. I admire your love for the game and the number of

hours you spend training and playing. You made this study possible!

My brother Tomas for tremendous support together with his family Therese, Nils,

Otto and Axel for many joyful times - reminding me that there are other things in

life than work.

My mother and father, Berit and Gunnar, for giving me the assurance I have needed

and for always supporting my choices in life. Your love and support are invaluable.

59

SVENSK SAMMANFATTNING

INTRODUKTION: Damfotboll har blivit mer populär och mer professionell

runtom i världen. Det finns emellertid lite vetenskaplig data om hur

matchbelastningen påverkar fysiologiska parametrar för elitdamfotbollspelare. I

internationella turneringar är det dessutom få dagar mellan matcher och effektiv

återhämtning är viktig för spelarna. Syftet med denna avhandling var därför att

studera fysiologiska förändringar som sker efter matcher i en så verklig situation som

möjligt för elitspelare. Akuta och efterföljande fysiologiska förändringar undersöktes

i samband med två fotbollsmatcher, liksom effekten av aktiv återhämtningsträning

eller passiv vila på återhämtningsförmågan i perioden mellan matcherna.

METOD: Två elitdamfotbollslag spelade två 90-min matcher med 72 tim mellanrum

och som innehöll aktiv återhämtningsträning eller passiv vila. Den aktiva

återhämtningsträningen (cykling 60% av HRpeak och lågintensiv styrketräning på

<50% 1RM) varade i en tim och utfördes dagarna mellan matcherna. De fysiska

mätningarna, countermovementhopp (CMJ), 20–m sprint, maximal isokinetisk knä-

flexionen och extension, mättes före, direkt efter och 5, 21, 45, 51 och 69 tim efter

den första matchen och direkt efter den andra matchen. I blodet mättes fysiska

stressmarkörer (t ex. CK, urea), oxidativa stressmarkörer (t ex. GSSG,

lipidperoxidation), endogena (t ex. urinsyra, thiols) och dietära antioxidanter (t ex.

tocopheroler, karotenoider) samt ett stort batteri av cytokiner (inklusive IL-6 och

TNF-).

RESULTAT: Inga signifikanta skillnader observerades mellan den aktiva och passiva

återhämtningsgruppen i de olika parametrarna. Direkt efter båda matcherna

observerades försämringar med liknande amplitud i sprintförmåga, maximal

isokinetisk knäextension och flexion. CMJ försämrades direkt efter den första

matchen och var reducerad under hela undersökningsperioden. Direkt efter båda

matcherna observerades ökningar med liknande amplitud i plasma CK, urea, uric

syra, FRAP, GSSG, TGSH, leukocyter och neutrophiler samt oförändrad lipid

peroxidation. De dietära antioxidanterna visade antingen en akut och långvarig

förändring (tocopheroler, AA och polyphenoler) eller en fördröjd ökning

(karotenoider) efter den första matchen. En signifikant, men snabbt övergående

ökning av flera pro-inflammatoriska (IL-12, INF-, IL-17, MCP-1, IL-8 och MIG),

anti-inflammatoriska (IL-2R, IL-4, IL-5, IL-7, IL-10, IL-13, INF-) cytokiner och IL-


60

6 observerades efter den första matchen. En klart minskad cytokinrespons

observerades dock efter den andra matchen.

SAMMANFATTNING: Två elitdamfotbollsmatcher ledde till liknande akuta

förändringar i flera fysiologiska parametrar. Den långvariga reduceringen i

hoppförmåga antyder att damfotbollspelare bör träna explosiv styrka. Ökningen av

antioxidanterna i respons till den ökade produktionen av fria radikaler verkar ha

medfört bibehållen redox-balans efter matcherna. Detta antyder att

elitdamfotbollspelare har ett effektivt antioxidantförsvarssystem under matcher. Den

ökade produktionen av både pro- och anti-inflammatoriska cytokiner efter den

första matchen antyder att spelare har en balanserad pro- och anti-inflammatorisk

respons efter en fotbollsmatch. Konsekvenserna av den reducerade cytokinresponsen

efter upprepade matcher är dock okända. Majoriteten av parametrarna i denna

studie var fullt återhämtade innan den andra matchen och spelarnas arbetskapacitet i

den andra matchen påverkades inte av de fysiologiska förändringarna observerade

efter den första matchen. Slutligen, aktiv återhämtningsträning, som genomfördes

dagarna efter en match, påskyndade inte återhämtningsprocessen för

elitdamfotbollspelarna.

61

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