The Plains Natives

Plains Natives territoryThe territory of the Plains Natives in Canada ranged from the Rocky Mountains to the woodlands of Southeastern Manitoba. The Natives lived in what today is called the southern part of Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba.The Plains Natives who lived in the southern part of the prairie provinces marked the very northern limit of the plains Natives region. Most of their territory was further south in the United States. All of the Plains Natives had similarities, but not all of the plains Natives were the same. There were many different names like the Blackfoot , Cree and Sioux which all had different languages, customs and traditions. The three languages spoken in Canada were Algonquian, Athabascan and Siouan

Plains geographyThe great plains are dominated by flat ground covered with either low or high grass. Trees are uncommon in most of the area. Water can be scarce in the summer, although there are a few large rivers .(Assiniboine, Saskatchewan River, Red River etc.) and small lakes in this region.Weather in the great plains can be extremes. The winters are very cold with temperatures dropping to -40 degrees Celsius. The summers can be very hot with temperatures reaching 35 degrees Celsius. There are large herds of buffalo, deer, antelope, along with bears, cougars, coyotes. Many of these animals move around in the summer looking for food and water.The area has smaller animals like jack rabbits, prairie dogs, small herbivores, grouse, geese, ducks, cranes, and eagles.

Prairie animals

Prairie dog

Buffalo herd

deer

antelope

Plains Natives housingThe pine tipi (teepee) poles used to make the tipis were precious, because wood was scarce, since there were so few trees in the plains. The tipi poles were carefully protected and carried from place to place usually on a horse travois. A travois was a few poles on each side of the horse that other objects were attached to. The poles were simply dragged behind the horse.

The teepeeMost plains Natives were nomadic, so they needed a house that could be build and taken down and moved quickly. A teepee was a tall, cone-like structure made from animal hides. It was waterproof and very durable.The tipi was warm in winter and cool in summer. Light filtered in through the top to fill the interior. Fur line hides covered the ground, keeping it warm. The head of the family always sat opposite to the door flap. Triangular back rests made with willow and bound together with cord, made sitting more comfortable. The hearth fire was built just behind the centre of tipi, towards the back.

Women made, owned and built the tipis. Three or four foundation poles were tied together with a piece or rawhide and raised. Poles were placed to make the tipi slightly steeper at the back, making it sturdier, and more able to withstand strong wind. The last pole to go up was placed at the back. A carefully sewn buffalo hide cover was then carefully fitted over the poles. A hole to let the smoke was left at the top and could be regulated with two flaps attached to two long poles. The fire pit was in the centre of the tent, with the beds arranged around the walls of the tipi. The long end of the rawhide was staked to the ground to secure the foundation poles.

Stone tent rings

Stone tent rings

Heavy stones were gathered to hold down the bottom edge of the tent covering to prevent the tipi from being blown down by the wind. When a tipi was taken down the stones were rolled away and the people moved on. Stones were common and easy to find, so they didn’t need to be taken with the Natives.These heavy stones were always left behind. Today it is easy to find locations where plains Indian villages once stood. The tent rings of stones they left behind can be found on many hills or beside rivers all over the empty prairies of western Canada.

The Rising Sun: A tepee used a hide flap as a doorway. Weather permitting, the entrance faced east, towards the rising sun. If the weather was miserable or a storm was brewing, the people positioned the flap opening in whatever way would best serve the comfort of the occupants.Sometimes, the people arranged their tepees in a circle, with all the opening flaps facing the center open space created by the circle of tepees. The younger kids could play in this open space, under the watchful eyes of their mothers.

She’s the boss!Women were in charge of the teepees: It was up to the women where to place a tepee. The tepee was their castle, and they were in charge of anything to do with it, including building it and then breaking it down for transports. The woman was in charge of behavior inside the tepee, as well. If she said, "Go to sleep," everyone had to go to sleep or leave the tepee. If new furs were needed, the man had to supply new furs. It was her tepee.Painted Skins: Men were in charge of the outside of the tepee. It was up to them to bring back the skins necessary to cover the poles. It was up to them to either bring back horses or hides to trade for poles, or to make the poles themselves. The men often painted the outside of the tepee they called home. The painting was often symbolic of their achievements. Each tribe had their own style.

Teepee rulesInside the Tepee: There was a small fire in the center for cooking and for warmth when needed. Tepees had an open space at the top, a little off center, to let the smoke out. When it rained or snowed, the men were sent outside to wrap an extra piece of hide around the top of the tepee. The men always left a little room for the smoke to get out. The Plains people used little furniture; They slept on buffalo skins on the floor of their homes. Tepee Manners If the entrance flap was open, it was an invitation to enter. If the flap was closed, you needed to announce yourself and wait for an invitation to enter a tepee, even if you lived there. A guest always sat to the left of the head of the family, who always sat the farthest from the door flap. These were rules that everyone knew and everyone followed.

Food

Prairie chicken

Indian turnip

Drying Saskatoon Berries

Saskatoon Berries

The Plains Natives had a wide variety of animals and plants to eat. The women collected berries that were eaten fresh or dried and saved for the winter months. The Saskatoon berry (similar to blueberries) was a favourite for most of the Plains Natives.The Plains Cree and Plains Ojibwa Natives fished since they lived near rivers and small lakes. Deer, moose and elk, along with wolves, coyotes, lynx, rabbits, gophers, and prairie chickens were hunted for food. The Natives also ate Bannock which was a type of bread cooked over the fire. The Indian Turnip was a common vegetable that was eaten.

Buffalo food.

Pemmican

By far the most common food eaten by the Plains Natives was the Bison (Buffalo). The Buffalo could be eaten raw (the liver), dried and made into Pemmican and soups, or cooked over an open fire. Cooked was the most common way. Pemmican was a common way to eat buffalo. The buffalo meat was dried and then pounded into thin strips. Hot buffalo fat was added along with some Saskatoon berries for flavour. Pine nuts could also be added. The mixture was poured into a leather bag and left to cool. Pemmican could last up to one year inside the bag without spoiling. It supplied the natives with a quick and high-energy meal. You can find Pemmican in stores today, but it is not the same. It is only dried meat.

Buffalo versatility

buffalo horns

Buffalo feet

buffalo tail

The buffalo was an important source of food, yet the Natives valued this animal because of the vast amount of every-day products that could be made from just one buffalo.

HAIR headdresses, saddle pad filler, pillows, rope, ornaments, halters, medicine balls.

TAILmedicine switch, fly swatter, teepee decorations, whips.

HOOF & FEET glue, rattles, hatchets used for butchering.

HORNScups, fire carriers, powder horn, spoons, ladles, headdresses, signals, toys , wedges to split wood, tips, hide scrapers with a blade inserted into them, parts of bows.MEAT (every part eaten) hump ribs eaten immediately .Liver was eaten immediately by the hunters, sprinkled with gall fluid and considered the trophy of the hunt.

SKIN OF HIND LEGmoccasins or boots RAWHIDE containers, clothing, headdress, food, medicine bags, shields, buckets, moccasin soles, rattles, drums, drumsticks, splints, cinches, ropes, belts, bullets, pouches, saddles, horse masks, lance cases, armbands, quirts, bull boats, knife cases, stirrups, thongs, horse ornaments.Elk, Deer or Antelope hides were preferred for dresses for women as they were lighter than the heavier Buffalo skins.TANNED HIDES Robes, tipi coverings, moccasins, loin clothes, wrappings for the dead, bedding, war deed records, winter counts, tipi flooring, various pouches, disguise for hunting more buffalo.BONES were used for tools, needles, awls (used to puncture the skins for sewing). Shoulder blades made digging hoes. Large leg bones were used as ground pegs. Bones were shaped as tools to flatten porcupine quills used in decoration. Skulls used in religious ceremonies.

Buffalo dung

Buffalo dung

BUFFALO DUNGDried, it was collected and used for fuel in fires to cook and provide heat. Finely powdered dung was used as a prevention of diaper rash.STOMACH.Water containers, Cooking, Boiling water, storage.BLADDER tobacco pouches, water containers.INTESTINES Water bags, storage containers, sausage making.BRAINStanning hidesHEART eaten but the outer lining was used as a bagTALLOW (boiled down fat)Healing wounds, weaning children, sealing tobacco into pipes, mixing paints, sealing food into containers, mixed with jerky to make pemmican.GRISTLE Glue, teething babies chewed it SINEW Ropes, cords, binding, small tool handles, attaching arrowheads, bow strings and backing, sewing thread, glue manufacture.

Buffalo huntingBuffalo hunting techniques can be divided into two basic categories; stalking by a few individuals and communal hunting by large groups. Stalking required a careful approach from downwind to avoid being scented by the buffalo. Two or three Natives would slowly and carefully sneak up to where buffalo were feeding. In summer, a wolf skin might be worn as a disguise since the buffalo would allow wolves to approach closely. In winter, a white blanket hid the hunter as he stalked the herd. When the Natives were close enough, they would use spears or bow and arrows to kill the buffalo.

Communal buffalo huntCommunal hunting was more common and usually had much greater rewards. In this method, often hundreds of buffalo were killed at one time. This system was used when large herds of buffalo were found.The first communal technique was called the Buffalo Pound. A buffalo pound was a corral, usually made within a grove of trees. A circular area was cleared and the trees were piled around the clearing to make a fence. Buffalo were chased and scared into the general area while other hunters closed the area into an even smaller region. Eventually, the buffalo were forced into the corral where they were killed.

Buffalo jumpThe most extreme and dangerous method was the buffalo jump. In this style of hunting, a large herd were directed towards a cliff or steep bank over which the animals were driven to their deaths. This technique could only be used if a suitable ledge or cliff was found on the generally flat prairie. One famous location in Canada is called Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump near Fort Macleod, Alberta. This technique was the most dangerous for two individuals. Two fast running natives would be draped in buffalo skins and placed in front of the running buffalo. These two ran towards the cliff while the poor sighted buffalo followed. The Natives would grab ropes, jump off of the cliff and swing onto a landing below. If they were too slow, the buffalo might catch them and trample them. To fast, and the buffalo might stop before the ledge. Timing was everything.

The ChaseThe Spanish brought horses to North America in 1519. Shortly after that, the Plains Natives adopted this animal as their own. It became almost as important to them as the buffalo. The final method of communal buffalo hunting was called The Chase. This is the method most seen in Hollywood movies and written about by historical writers. The chase began with a line of hunters on horse back who approached the herd at a walk until the buffalo began to move away. Then the hunters charged into the herd, selected the fattest animals, and killed them with a spear, arrow or bullet. The hunt continued until the horses were exhausted. Accidental wounding and Natives falling off their horses were common, but the chase was regarded as a great sport and a sign of bravery between the hunters.

TransportationOriginally, the Plains people travelled everywhere on foot. During the winter, snowshoes made walking on deep snow easier. Like the Inuit, the Plains Natives had dogs. Sleds were pulled by the dogs, which greatly helped transport items in the winter. As well as sleds, Travois were placed on dogs and used for transportation. A travois is a structure made of two poles which crossed at the top and attached to some netting or a wooden frame. A dog could pull only a limited amount.

Horse TransportationThe introduction of the horse to the Plains Natives greatly changed their transportation.A horse could carry five times as much as a dog.With a horse travois, they could carry a lot more gear than before. They could carry larger tent poles which could make larger teepees than before. Now, everyone could keep far more possessions since everything was now easier to carry. Food was often brought back to the camp by horse which meant that the Native camps did not need to move as often. The swift horse made hunting easier (as we have seen with buffalo hunting), and travelling further distances was a reality.

Seasonal migrationIn the winter, tribes would settle in wooded valley areas where they were sheltered from the harsh weather. The Plains Natives did not wander without direction, but moved their camps to the same areas each year, where they knew they could find food. They buffalo often migrated in yearly and repeated patterns, so the Natives often returned to the same camp sights year after year. They thought of the seasonal migration pattern as a circle, so the circle became a sacred symbol, signifying life and renewal. In spring, they would follow the Buffalo back to the prairies. The tribes only came together in the summer when the Buffalo herds were mostly in one area, and together, the tribes could perform a Buffalo jump.

Every day clothing

Native breastplate

The Plain Indians would wear clothing to meet the purpose of providing warmth, protection and religious ceremony. The women prepared the hides and sewed the clothing or moccasins. The hides were sometimes only tanned on one side and the hair on the other side was left for warmth. Men wore shirts, breechcloths and full-length leggings. Ponchos were worn over shoulders for added warmth. All clothing was hand-made from skins of animals, especially buffalo, antelope and deer hides. Warriors wore breastplates made from shells or bones and shields made from buffalo hides (skin) to protect from spears and arrows. Of course, they liked being pretty too, girls in particular! They would add beads and fringes to their buffalo hide. After the Natives made contact with the Europeans, buffalo hides were often traded for coloured beads, coloured thread and small needles all for the sake of fashion!

More clothingMoose hide was used for soft-soled moccasins. Dried grass provided the moccasin with extra insulation. Sinew, or bone awl and a needle were used to sew up moccasins. Women wore dresses and short leggings. Plains women’s snug-fitting leggings reached from the ankles to just below her knees, were made of two pieces of buckskin, and were wider at the top than at the bottom. They laced up with leather ties. The slip was the most common style of dress; it tied up around the neck and under the arms. Two sides were laced together with sinew.

Those of high status would wear grizzly bear claw necklace. Others would decorate their clothes using feathers.War bonnets or headdresses were worn by honored Plains Native men. In the past they were sometimes worn into battle, but most often worn during ceremonies or special occasions. They are seen as items of great spiritual and magical importance. The eagle is considered by Plains tribes as the greatest and most powerful of all birds, and so the finest war bonnets were made out of its feathers.

The War BonnetThe bonnet had to be earned through brave deeds in battle. Each feather represented one brave deed. The feathers were very hard to get. Some warriors might earn only two or three honour feathers in their whole lifetime. The bonnet was also a mark of highest respect because it could only be earned with the agreement of the leaders of the tribe. A high honor was received by the warrior who was the first to touch an enemy fallen in battle, for this meant the warrior was at the very front of fighting. Feathers were notched and decorated to represent an event and each one told an individual story such as killing, capturing an enemy's weapon and shield, and whether the deed had been done on horseback or on foot.

Religion

The Thunderbird

The Plain Indians believed in many gods. They believed that gods showed themselves as the sun, the moon and the stars. They also believed that all animals were controlled by underwater spirits and the upper world was ruled by the thunderbirds. The two animals they saw as spiritual animals were the eagle and the buffalos. To most tribes, the eagle is referred to as the thunderbird in stories. It was believed that when eagles open and close their eyes, they cause lightning. They also saw the eagle as their god's messenger.

The Sun Dance

The Plain Indians performed many ceremonies. The sun dance was a special religious ceremony. It was aimed at asking the sun (a god) for strength and to help their tribe prosper. Each tribe had its own version of the Sun Dance but most of the ceremonies had great similarities. The Sun Dance usually took place in summer and lasted for 4 days. The performer would have their face painted and others would blow through the eagle bone and play the drums to call on the Thunderbird (the god). For all 4 days (except the last day), none of the Natives performing the Sun Dance would take any food or water.

Sun DanceDay One – on the first day of the sun dance ceremony, a tree had to be selected. The Natives preferred the cottonwood tree which they thought was sacred. Some tribes created the sun dance circle around the tree where it grew while other native groups cut the tree down and brought it to an already established sun dance circle. The tree was secured into the ground.Day Two – The entire second day was spent dancing and praying in the sun dance circle. The dancers would become very hot and thirsty since they could not take any water and also very tired since they could not take any food.

Sun DanceDay Three – On the third day of the ceremony, the piercing took place.The medicine men would go to each person and cut their chest to put a peg through the skin. The peg is then attached to a rope which is connected to the sacred tree. The men would then dance, moving back and forth against the rope until they yanked the peg out. Another variation of this ceremony was to hang by the nipple until the peg broke through the skin. Whatever the variation, the Plains Indians believed that the more pain the person could stand, the more likely that the spirits would cause their tribe to prosper.

The end of the ceremonyDay four – the final day of the sun dance ceremony was a big feast for everyone, both those who were involved in the ceremony and those who were watching. The wounds of the sun dance participants were treated, including stitching the skin that had ripped.For the participants, this meal may be the best ever since they had not eaten for four days.

The end of the sun danceThe traditional sun dance ceremony continues today, but it is much different. The body piercing part of the ceremony was outlawed by the Canadian government in 1895. The government felt this act was too severe and savage, especially since many white Europeans were moving into the area and would definitely not understand what was going on.Unlike the potlatch ceremony practiced by the Haida, which was completely banned by the Canadian government, the sun dance ceremony was allowed to continue exactly as it was except for the body piercing. The Plains Natives continued to practice the ceremony, and it is still practiced today.

Vision Quest

Small sweat lodge frame

Another ceremony of the Plains Natives was the Vision Quest. This ceremony was only for the boys who were turning into men. The purpose of this ceremony was to seek a spirit who would protect him throughout his life.In this ceremony, the young man would built a sweat lodge. This was a small wooden room that the boy could enter. Inside the sweat lodge, rocks were heated up and water was poured on top, making lots of steam. The Natives believed that the steam would purify the young man. Only after he was purified was he ready to seek his spirit.After the sweat, the boy jumped into a pool of cold water. He was then led into the forest where he fasted for a few days, while seeking a vision that was given by his spirit. Then members of the tribe retrieved him, and the boy visited a shaman with his vision. After, the whole village had a feast to celebrate.

The PowwowThe term "powwow" comes from an Algonquin word for "medicine man" or "he who dreams." A powwow gathers people together to celebrate life. It does this through song and dance, ceremonies, and rituals. This ceremony was more like a party with all Natives showing great hospitality and manners.The ceremony had no fixed time – it could last for a few hours or a few days. It could involve a few tribes or many tribes.Singing, dancing and eating were the main event of the powwow. During the dance, all dancers were in a circle with singers around the outside of the circle beating on a large drum.The celebration was also a chance to show off your newest clothes!

The powwow todayThe powwow has become the largest and most popular celebration of the Plains Natives. There are hundreds of powwows across the Great Plains every year. Saskatchewan has the most powwows of any province in Canada or State in the United States.Today, there are two main types of powwows. One is for show and the other is a competition. In the competition, dancers, drummers and musicians compete for large prize money in today’s ceremonies.Another reason the powwow is popular today is that it is open to both Natives and non Natives. Tens of thousands of non Natives from around the world visit powwows in Canada every year.

ArtThe Plains Natives made lots of art, yet all of it was to adorn the everyday objects that they used. They never made a piece of art simply to have a piece of art!Their art decorated teepees, a animal skin containers, and their clothing. Paintings on teepees often showed scenes of this world, like animals and hunting as well as the spiritual world with paintings of the stars and their interpretation of the spirits.Some of their wooden items, like pipes, spoons and bowls were carved with careful detail so they almost looked like art, yet they were still functional. The war bonnets were also artistic and required great skill to make. These Natives also practiced tattooing.

QuillworkQuillwork was the oldest form of embroidery. Porcupine quills were usually dyed with berry juices. Then, they were folded, twisted, wrapped, plaited and sewn into designs for clothing, moccasins, bags, baskets, handles and pipe stems. To collect the quills, women threw a blanket over a porcupine, and as a defense mechanism, the porcupine raised its quills into the blanket. The porcupine’s quills were different depending on what part of the body they were taken from. Quills from the porcupine’s tail were good for wrapping handles, or for fringes. Quills from the porcupine’s back were good for loomwork. Quills from the neck were used for embroidery. The thinnest quills from the belly were good for delicate lines. Quills could be flattened by pulling them through the teeth.

The Family Structure

Buffalo Bull’s Back FatSitting Bull

Crazy Horse statue

Crowfoot

Geronimo

Geronimo

While men hunted for food, women would do the cooking, sew the clothing, and make tools while taking care of the children. The women were also in charge of constructing the teepees and gathering wood and water for the campsite. Children – Babies were the responsibility of the mother, yet all children were raised by all of the adults in the group. Each person took this responsibility very seriously. The naming of children was also a very serious responsibility. A child might be named after a great warrior, or an animal or something seen in a dream. Some famous Plains Natives leaders were: Sitting Bull, Geronimo, Red Cloud, Lone Wolf, Buffalo Bull’s Back Fat, and Crowfoot and Crazy Horse.

Sitting Bull

George Custer

Battle of Little Bighorn

Sitting Bull was one of the most famous Indian Chiefs of the Plains Culture. He was a Sioux leader in the area that is now known as South Dakota. He lived from l83l-l890. During this time gold was discovered on the land that Sitting Bull's tribe lived on. The government tried to force the Sioux Indians to move off their land. Sitting Bull and his tribe would not peacefully move. In June, l876, a major battle occurred between Sitting Bull and U.S. soldiers led by General George Custer. Custer's groups of soldiers had 260 men. Custer was told to wait for more soldiers to arrive. Instead of waiting, he decided to go forward with just the men he had. Sitting Bull's group of warriors numbered between 2,500 -4,000 men. The warriors surrounded Custer's soldiers and attacked. Custer and most of his soldiers were killed. This became known as the Battle of Little Bighorn or Custer’s Last Stand.

More about kids

Cradle board

Moss bag

Children kept in a moss bag along side the mother while she worked. It was made from hide or cloth and filled with dry moss and crumbled wood that absorbed a baby’s waste, and was changed after being dirtied. Cradle Boards - A Cradle Board was a U-shaped piece of board that a child in a moss bag was lashed to, and placed on the mother's back, allowing her to continue with work.

Friends and EnemiesThere were no boundaries, such as the one that now exists between Canada and the United States. But each tribe recognized the traditional hunting areas of other tribes. Tribes recognized some others as allies (or friends), and others as enemies. The Blackfoot tribes maintained friendships by intermarrying within the other’s tribe. The Blackfoot Confederacy tribes were known friends and fought against others like the Assiniboine, the Cree, the Sioux, the Crow, the Shoshoni and the Kootenay tribes to the North. The Assiniboine and the Cree were friends and helped each other fight tribes from the Blackfoot Confederacy.

Native WarsMedicine bundles

Tribes would send a limited amount of warriors to surprise a tribe, and ravage their village. A ceremony always preceded the raid and the warriors always left believing they would not return. Spiritually important items were kept in a pouch called a medicine bundle, and carried by the warrior for protection and strength. Horses also changed warfare on the plains. Young warriors found it great sport to sneak into a rival tribe's camp and steal horses. This led to many skirmishes and flare-ups between the tribes. Then the Chiefs had to make peace pacts, which might only last until the next raid a few months later. First Nations of the plains had plenty of experience in making alliances, pacts, and treaties.