the prestige press and the christmas bombing-martin f herz-1972-123pgs-pol

8/2/2019 The Prestige Press and the Christmas Bombing-Martin F Herz-1972-123pgs-POL

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The

P r e s t i g e P r e s s

and

Christmas

Bombing, 1 9 7 2



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The


d C h r i s t m a s

B o m b i n g , 1 9 7 2



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The


t he Christmas

Bombing 1972

I m a g e s a n d R e a l i t y i n V i e t n a m

Martin F . H e r z

A s s i s t e d b y L e s l i e R i d e r

E t h i c s a n d P u b l i c P o l i c y C e n t e r

Washington, D .C .



THE ETHICS AND PUBLIC POLICY CENTER, established in 1976,

conducts a program of research, writ ing, publications, and conferences to

encourage debate on domestic and foreign policy i ssues among religious,

educational, academic, business, political, and other leaders . A nonpartisan

effort, the Center is supported by contributions from foundations, corporations,

and indivi duals . The authors alone are responsible for the views expressed

in Center publications .

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Herz, Martin Florian, 1917-

The prestige press and the Chris tmas bombing,

1972 .

Includes index .

1 . Vietnamese C onflict, 1961 -1975 -Journalists .

2 . Vietnamese Conflict, 1961-1975 -Aerial operations,

American . 3 . Journalism -United States . I . Rider,

Leslie . I I . T i t l e .DS559 .46 .H47 959.704'38 8 0 - 2 6 2 4 1

ISBN 0-89633-039-7

$5 .00

© 1980 by the Ethics and Public Policy Center . All ri ghts reserved .

Printed in the United States of America .



1

2

3

4

5

Contents

Foreword by Ernest W. L e f e v e r vu

Vietnam War Chronology 1972 -73 x i

Events Leading to the Bombing 1

Martin F. H e r z

R e p o r t i n g b y t h e P r e s t i g e P r e s s15

Martin F. H e r z a n d L e s l i e R i d e r

Comment by the Prestige Press 4 4

Martin F. H e r z a n d L e s l i e R i d e r

What Really Happened 54

Martin F . H e r z

Images vs . R e a l i t y : Seven Conclusions 64

Martin F . H e r z

AppendixesA . K i s s i n g e r ' s S t a t e m e n t o n t h e P a r i s T a l k s 71

B . N o r t h V i e t n a m ' s S t a t e m e n t s o n t h e P a r i s T a l k s 81C. N o r t h V i e t n a m ' s S t a t e m e n t o n t h e B o m b i n g 86D . " T e r r o r F r o m t h e S k i e s " 88

New York TimesE . " T e r r o r B o m b i n g i n t h e N a m e o f P e a c e " 90

Washington Post

F . Commentary by Eric Sevareid 93CBS Evening NewsG. " About t he Bombing" 95

Wall Street JournalH. " T h e P e a c e T h a t W a s n ' t " 9 7

T h e E c o n om i s t (London)

Index of Names 101



F o r e w o r d

THE U. S . BOMBING OF THE Hanoi-Haiphong area of

N o r t h V i e t n a m t h a t b e g a n o n D e c e m b e r 1 8 , 1 9 7 2 , w a s a c l a s s i c

e x a m p l e o f a m i l i t a r y i n i t i a t i v e d e s i g n e d t o a c h i e v e a p o l i t i c a l

o b j e c t i v e . I t w a s a l s o o n e o f t h e m o s t p a s s i o n at e l y c r i t i c i z e d A m e r -

i c a n a c t i o n s i n t h a t c o n t r o v e r s i a l w a r . T h e v i e w s o f s u p p o r t e r s o f

t h e " C h r i s t m a s b o m b i n g , " a s i t c a m e t o b e k n o w n , w e r e r a r e l y

c a r r i e d i n t h e p r i n t o r e l e c t r o n i c m e d i a . I n s h a r p c o n t r a s t , t h e NewYork Times, t h e Washington Post, T ime, N ewsweek, a n d t h e t h r e e

c o m m e r c i a l T V n e t w o r k s - t h e " p r e s t i g e p r e s s " - b o t h l a v i s h l y

r e p o r t e d t h e o u t b u r s t o f o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e b o m b i n g a n d r e i n f o r c e d

i t w i t h c r i t i c a l a n d s o m e t i m e s s c a t h i n g e d i t o r i a l c o m m e nt . T h i s

c r i t i c i s m b y t h e p r e s t i g e m e d i a w a s a n e x t e n s i o n o f t h e i r s u s t a i n e d

h o s t i l i t y t o b o t h P r e s i d e n t N i x o n a n d t h e V i e t n a m W a r .

T h e P a r i s p e a c e t a l k s b e t w e e n N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y A d v i s e r H e n r y

K i s s i n g e r a n d H a n o i ' s L e D u c T h o h a d s u d d e n l y a c c e l e r a t e d i n

O c t o b e r 1 9 7 2 , w h e n i t a p p e a r e d t h a t a n a g r e e m e n t w a s i n s i g h t .

D i f f i c u l t i e s h a d t h e n ar i s e n i n S a i g o n , a n d t h e ne g o t i a t i o n s w e r e

r e s u m e d i n N o v e m b e r . T h e n , i n D e c e m be r , j u s t w h e n t h e A m e r i -

c a n s i d e f e l t t h a t a n a c c e p t a b l e a g r e e m e n t h a d b e e n h a m m e r e d

o u t , H a n o i h a r d e n e d i t s p o s i t i o n , a n d b y D e c e m b e r 1 3 t h e p e a c e

t a l k s h a d b e c o m e s t a l e m a t e d .

T o p e r s u a d e H a n oi t o n e g o t i a t e s e r i o u s l y , P r e s i d e n t N i x o n o n

D e c e m b e r 1 4 o r d e r e d t h e r e n e w e d m i n i n g o f H a i p h o n g h a r b o r

a n d t h e b o m bi n g o f m i l i t a r y t a r g e t s i n t h e H a n o i - H a i p h o n g a r e a .

F o u r d a y s l a t e r t h e b o m b i n g b e g a n . I t c o n t i n u e d d a i l y e x c e p t f o r

C h r i s t m a s u n t i l D e c e m b e r 2 9 , a t o t a l o f e l e v e n d a y s .

The U . S . p r e s t i g e p r e s s w a s o u t r a g e d . On December 20 the

Times s a i d t h a t " c i v i l i z e d m a n w i l l b e h or r i f i e d a t t h e r e n e w e d

s p e c t a c l e o f t h e w o r l d ' s m i g h t i e s t a i r f o r c e m e r c i l e s s l y p o u n d i n g a

s m a l l A s i a n n a t i o n i n a n a b u s e o f n a t i o n a l p o w e r a n d d i s r e g a r d o f

h u m a ni t a r i a n p r i n c i p l e s . " N o r t h V i e t n a m m i g h t y e t b e b o m b e d

" b a c k t o t h e s t o n e a g e , " i t s a i d , b u t p e r h a p s a t t h e p r i c e o f U . S .

r e v e r s i o n t o a " k i n d of s t o n e a g e b a r b a r i s m . "

v i i



V i i i ERNEST W. LEFEVER

T w o d a y s l a t e r t h e Times a s s e r t e d t h a t A m e r i c a n p l a n e s h a d

d r o p p e d an e s t i m a t e d 2 0 , 0 0 0 t o n s o f e x p l o s i v e s i n t h e f i r s t t w o

d a y s a l o n e - t h e " e q u i v a l e n t o f t h e H i r o s h i m a b o m b " - a n d a s k e d

i t s r e a d e r s t o i m a g i n e w h a t t h i s w o u l d d o t o " N e w Y o r k o r a n y

o t h e r A m e r i c a n c i t y . " T o s t o p t h i s " m a s s i v e , i n d i s c r i m i n a t e u s e o f

. . . o v e r w h e l m i ng a e r i a l m i g h t , " t h i s " t e r r o r i s m o n a n u n p r e c e -

d e n t e d s c a l e , " A m e r i c a n s m u s t " s p e a k o u t f o r s a n i t y i n W a s h i n g -

t o n a n d p e a c e i n I n d o c h i n a . " ( S e e A p pe n d i x D f o r t h e f u l l t e x t o f

t h i s e d i t o r i a l . )

Times c o l u m ni s t s v i g o r o u s l y s u p p or t e d t h e e d i t o r i a l p o s i t i o n .

" H o w t e r r i b l e i t i s t o r e a l i z e t h i s C h r i s t m a s , " s a i d A n t h o n y L e w i s ,

" t h a t i n t h e e y e s o f m o s t o f t h e w o r l d t h e C h r i s t i a n p e a c e o f fe r e d

b y t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i s t h e p e a c e o f t h e I n q u i s i t i o n : c o n f o r m i t y o r

t o r m e n t e d d e a t h . " T o m W i c k e r a d d e d : " T h e r e i s s h a m e o n e a r t h ,

and American shame . . . . W h a t e v e r h a p p e n e d i n P a r i s , i t i s n o t

t h e y w h o i n w i l l f u l a n g e r a r e b l a s t i n g o u r c i t i e s a n d o u r p e o p l e . I t i s

w e w h o h a v e l o o s e d t h e h o l o c a u s t . "

The Washington Post o n D e c e m b e r 2 8 c a l l e d t h e b o m b i n g " t h e

m o s t s a v a g e a n d s e n s e l e s s a c t o f w a r e v e r v i s i t e d , o v e r a s c a n t t e n

d a y s , b y o n e s o v e r e i g n p e o p l e u p o n a n o t h e r . " I t c o nt i n u e d : " T o

p r e t e n d t h a t . . . w e a r e m a k i n g ` e n d u r i n g p e a c e ' b y c a r p e t -

b o m b i n g o u r w a y a c r o s s d o w n t o w n H a n o i w i t h B - 5 2 s . . . i s t o

p r a c t i c e y e t o n e m o r e c r u e l d e c e p t i o n u p o n a n A m e r i c a n p u b l i c

a l r e a d y c r u e ll y d e c e i v e d , " a n d " t o t a l k o f ` m i l i t a r y t a r g e t s ' w h e n

w h a t w e a r e h i t t i n g a r e r e s i d e n t i a l c e n t e r s a n d h o s p i t a ls a n d c o m -

m e r c i a l a i r p o r t s " s h o w s t h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s " c o n t i n u i n g r e a d i -

n e s s t o d i s s e m b l e . " ( T h i s Post e d i t o r i a l a p pe a r s a s A p p e n d i x E . )

A f t e r a t h o r o u g h e x a m i n a t i o n of b o t h t h e n e w s a n d t h e e d i t o -

r i a l s c a r r i e d b y t h e p r e s t i g e p r e s s , t h e a u t h o r s o f t h i s s t u d y s o b e r l y

r e p o r t w h a t r e a l l y h a p pe n e d o n b o t h t h e m i l i t a r y a n d t h e p o l i t i c a l

f r on t . T h e r e w a s n o " c a r p e t - b o m b i n g , " n o c i vi l i a n t a r g e t s w e r e

d e l i b e r a t e l y h i t , a n d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e o f f i c i a l N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e

c o u n t , 1 , 3 1 8 c i v i l i a n s w e r e k i l l e d i n t h e H a n o i a r e a a n d 3 0 5 i n t h e

H a i p h o n g a r e a . T h i s w a s a f a r c r y f r o m t h e s p e c t e r r a i s e d b y t h e

Times and the Post-Hiroshima (where nearly 70,000 were

k i l l e d ) , h o l oc a u s t , " t e r r o r i s m o n a n u np r e c e d e n t e d s c a l e . " U n l i k e



FOREWORD i X

H a n oi ' s m a n y d e li b e r a t e a t t a c k s a g a i n s t i n n o c e nt c i v i l i a n s , t h e

C h r i s t m a s b o m b i n g w a s c o n fi n e d t o m i l i t a r y t a r g e t s .

O n t h e p o l i t i c a l f r o n t , t h e b o m bi n g s e e m s t o h a v e a c h i e v e d i t s

p r i n c i p al o b j e c t i v e : H a n oi r e t u r n e d t o t h e n e g o t i a t i n g t a b l e o n

J a n u a r y 8 , 1 9 7 3 , a n d s i g n e d a n a g r e e m e n t t h a t l e d t o t h e c e a s e - f i r e

o f J a n u a r y 2 7 .

A l t h o ug h t h i s s t u d y e x a m i n e s b o t h t h e f a c t s o f t h e C h r i s t m a s

b o m bi n g a n d t h e r e s p o n s e o f t h e p r e s t i g e p r e s s , i t i s p r i m a r i l y

c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n t h e t w o . T h e a u t h o r s

d r a w s o m e p r o v o c a t i v e c o n c lu s i o n s a b o u t t h e i m a g e s e v o k e d b y

t h e m e d i a a n d t h e r e a l i t y i n V i e t n a m .

T h e s t o r y i s t o l d h e r e b y A m b a s s a d o r M a r t i n F . H e r z w i t h t h e

c a l m ob j e c t i v i t y t h a t h a s c h a r a c t e r i z e d h i s e a r l i e r w o r k s . A m b a s -

s a d o r H e r z c u r r e n t l y t e a c h e s a t t h e S c h o o l o f F or e i g n S e r v i c e o f

G e o r g e t o w n U n i v e r s i t y i n W a s h i n g t o n a nd d i r e c t s i t s I n s t i t u t e f o r

t h e S t u d y o f D i p l o m a c y . A c a r e e r F o r e i g n S e r v i c e o f f i c e r , h e h a s

been U . S . a m b a s s a d o r t o B u l g a r i a a n d f o r m e r l y s e r v e d i n C e n t r a l

a n d W e s t e r n E u r o p e , t h e M i d d l e E a s t , a n d t h e F a r E a s t . H e i s t h e

a u t h o r o f n u m e r o u s a r t i c l e s a n d m o n og r a p h s o n r e c e n t d i p l om a t i c

h i s t o r y . A m o n g h i s b o o k s a r e Beginnings of the Cold War ( 1 9 6 8 )

and How the Cold War Is Taught : Six Ameri can History TextbooksExamined ( 1 9 7 8 ) . H e i s t h e e d i t o r o f Decline of the West? George

Kennan and His Cr iti cs ( 1 9 7 8 ) . T h e l a t t e r t w o b o o k s w e r e p u b -

l i s h e d b y t h e E t h i c s a n d P u b l i c P o l i c y C e n t e r , w h e r e f o r f i f t e e n

m o n t h s A m b a s s a d o r H e r z w a s a s e n i o r r e s e a r c h f e l l o w .

A s s i s t i n g i n t h i s p r o j e c t w a s L e s l i e R i d e r , a n a l u m n a o f

G e o r g e t o w n ' s S c h o o l o f F o r e i g n S e r v i c e w h o i s n o w a g r a d u a t e

s t u d e n t a t C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y . S h e f o r m e r l y w a s o n t h e s t a f f o f

t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Re s c u e C o m m i t t e e i n W a s h i n g t o n .

T h i s s t u d y i s e n r i c h e d b y e i g h t a p p e n d i x e s . T h e f i r s t t h r e e a r eU. S . a n d N or t h V i e t n a m e s e s t a t e m e n t s o n t h e P a r i s t a l k s a n d t h e

C h r i s t m a s b o m b i n g . T h e s e a r e f o l l ow e d b y t h r e e c r i t i c a l c o m m e nt s

o n t h e b o m b i n g , f r o m t h e New York Times , t h e Washington Post,

a n d C B S N e w s , a n d b y t w o s u p p o r t i v e c o m m e n t s , f r o m t h e Wall

Street Journal and the London Economi st . A b r i e f c h r o n o l o g y

p r e c e d e s c h a p t e r 1 , a n d n a me s a r e i n d e x e d a f t e r t h e a p p e n di x e s .



X ERNEST W. LEFEVER

T h e C e n t e r i s p l e a s e d t o m a k e a v a i l a b l e t o s c h o l a r s a n d l a ym e n

a l i k e t h i s p a i n s t a k i n g l y p r e p a r e d c a s e s t u d y t h a t i l lu m i n a t e s t h e

c o m pl e x i t i e s o f w a r t i m e p o l i c y d e c i s i o n s , t h e i m p a c t o f p o p u l ar

p a s s i o n s , a n d t h e r o l e o f t h e m a s s m e d i a i n a d e m o c r a t i c s o c i e t y .

T h e a u t h o r s a l on e a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e v i e w s e x p r e s s e d .

ERNEST W. LEFEVER, P r e s i d e n t

E t h i c s a n d P u b l i c P o l i c y C e n t e r

W a s h i n g t o n , D . C .

November 1980



Vi et nam War

Chronology, 1 972-73

1972

March 30 N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e s p r i n g / s u m m e r o f f e n s i v e b e g i n s w i t h

m a s s i v e a t t a c k a c r o s s t h e D e m i l i t a r i z e d Z o n e .

A p r i l 6 American bombing of North Vietnam resumes .

May 8 U.S . m i n e s H a i p h o n g a n d ot h e r N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e

h a r b o r s .

May 23-29 Nixon-Brezhnev summit meeting in Moscow .

June N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e o f f e n s i v e p e t e r s o u t , a f t e r h e a v y

l o s s e s .

J u n e 1 3 B r e z h n e v s e n d s S o v i e t p r e s i d e n t P o d g o r n y t o H a n o i .

J u n e 2 2 B r e z h n e v r e p o r t s t o N i x o n a b o ut P o d g o r n y v i s i t t o

H a n o i , s u g g e s t s U . S . p r o p o s e a d a t e f o r r e s u m i n g

n e g o t i a t i o n s .

J u l y 1 9 S e c r e t K i s s i n g e r - L e D u c T h o t a lk s r e s u m e i n P a r i s .

J u l y 2 4 A m e n d m e n t c a l l i n g f o r w i t h d r a w a l f r o m V i e t n a m

p a s s e d b y f i v e v o t e s i n U . S . S e n a t e ( b u t b i l l t o w h i c h i t w a s

a t t a c h e d l a t e r f a i l e d t o p a s s ) .

Aug . 1 F i r s t s i g n s a p p e a r o f N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e f l e x i b i l i t y i n

s e c r e t P a r i s t a l k s .

S e p t . 1 5 S o u t h V i e t n a m e s e r e t a k e Q u a n g T r i n e a r t h e

D e m i l i t a r i z e d Z o n e , t h e o n l y p r ov i n c i a l c a p i t a l t h e N o r t h

V i e t n a m e s e h a d c a p t u r e d i n t h e i r o f f e n s i v e .

S e p t . 2 6 , 2 7 F u r t h e r c o n c e s s i o n s b y t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e i n P a r i s

t a l k s .

Oct . 2 N i x o n t e l ls S o v i e t f o r e i g n m i n i s t e r G r o m y k o t h a t U .S .

w i l l m a k e " f i n a l " p r o p o s a l s t o N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e

O c t o b e r 8 . I f r e j e c t e d , t h e r e w i l l b e n o f u r t h e r

n e g o t i at i o ns d u r i ng e l e ct i o n p e r i o d ; a f t e r w a r d s U . S . w i l l

r e t u r n t o " o t h e r m e t h o d s . "

x i



X i i CHRONOLOGYO c t . 4 Thieu objects to U . S . counter-proposals .

O c t . 8Fir st "breakthrough" in secret negotiations : Hanoi

makes forthcoming proposals, giving up i dea of coaliti on

government and accepting continuance of Thieu regime

after cease-fire .

O c t . 23 Kiss inger goes to Saigon ; f a i l s t o s e l l s e t t l e m e n t t o T h i e u ,

w ho d e m a n d s m a jo r c ha n g e s .

O c t . 26 Hanoi "goes public" wi th the draft settl ement and

demands t hat agreement be signed by Oct ober 31 .

O c t . 26 Kissi nger issues " we believe peace is at hand" statem ent,

confirmi ng essential accuracy of text r eleased by Hanoi

b u t s t a t i n g t h e c l a r i f i c a t i o n s s t i l l r e q u i r e d .

Nov . 7 U. S . presidential elections : Ni xon reelected with 60 .7 per

cent of vote, to 37 .5 per cent for McGovern . However,

Senate has larger anti-war majorit y .

Nov . 20 Kissinger-Le Duc Tho talks resume in Paris . Some

progress .

Dec . 4 Le Duc Tho hardens stand, withdraws som e concessions,

and introduces new changes . Meetings December 6, 7,

11, and 13 show pattern of North Vietnamese

"insolence, guile, and stalling ." Le Duc Tho says he must

retur n to Hanoi for consultati ons .

Dec . 1 1 Thieu appears t o reject peace plan in speech to South

V i e t n am e s e N a t i o n al A s s e m b ly .

Dec. 14 Ni xon orders mi ning of Haiphong and bombing of

mil itar y targets in the Hanoi-Haiphong complex .

Dec . 1 6 Kissinger press conference accuses North Vietnam of

stalling t he peace talks .

Dec . 1 7 North Vietnamese deny Kissinger's s tatement about

negotiations .

Dec . 1 8 Bombing of Hanoi-Haiphong area (and of other tar gets

north of the twentieth parallel ) and renewed mini ng

begin .

Dec . 2 6 Nort h Vietnames e send "si gnal" about resum ption of

negotiati ons .

Dec . 2 9 End ("suspension") of bombing . Agreement to meet

January 8 .



1973

J a n . 8 R e s u m p t i o n o f K i s s i n g e r - L e D u c T h o n e g o t i a t i o n s .

J a n . 9 " M a j o r b r e a k t h r o u g h " s c o r e d . T h o a c c e p t s d r a f t a s i t

h a d s t o o d N o v e m b e r 2 3 , w i t h d r a w s d e m a n d s t h a t h e h a d

m a d e s u b s e q u e n t l y , a n d a c c e p t s A m e r i c a n c o m p r o m i s e

l a n g u a g e o n D M Z t h a t h e h a d r e j e c t e d i n D e c e m b e r .

J a n . 1 2 N e g o t i a t i o n s c o n c l u d e d .

J a n . 1 5 T e r m i n a t i o n o f a l l b o m b i n g a n d m i n i n g a c t i v i t y i n N o r t h

Vietnam .

J a n . 16 G e n e r a l H a i g m e e t s w i t h T h i e u , e x p l a i n s t e r m s , c o n v e y s

N i x o n m e s s a g e g u a r a n t e e i n g " s t r o n g [ U . S . ] r e a c t i o n " i n

c a s e o f N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e v i o l a t i o n s , t h r e a t e n s t h a t i f

n e c e s s a r y U . S . will s i gn alone .

J a n . 2 0 T h i e u a c c e p t s t h e a g r e e m e n t .

J a n . 2 3 A g r e e m e n t i n i t i a l e d b y K i s s i n g e r a n d L e D u c T h o .

J a n . 27 A g r e e m e n t s i g n e d b y N o r t h V i e t n a m , t h e V i e t C o n g

( P R G ) " g o v e r n m e n t , " S o u t h V i e t n a m , a n d t h e U n i t e d

S t a t e s .

J a n . 2 7 C e a s e - f i r e g o e s i n t o e f f e c t .

CHRONOLOGY X i i l



CHAPTER ONE

Events Leading to

t he Bombing

Martin F . Herz

WHEN I WAS OFFERED t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o e x a m i n e t h e

p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e p r e s t i g e m e d i a i n r e p o r t i n g a n d c o m m e n t i n g

o n t h e C h r i s t m a s b o m b i n g i n N o r t h V i e t n a m i n 1 9 7 2 , I j u m p e d a t

t h e i n v i t a t i o n b e c a u s e I t h o u g h t t h e t o p i c i m p o r t a n t , i n t e r e s t i n g ,

a n d r e s e a r c h a b l e . I h a d s e r v e d i n V i e t n a m ( f r o m 1 9 6 8 t o 1 9 7 0 )

a nd h av e a c on t i nu i ng i n t e r e s t i n t h e s u bj e c t . I i m m e d i at e l y i m -

m e r s e d m y s e l f i n t h e a v a i l ab l e m a t e r i a l o n t h e m i l i t a r y s i t u a t i o n ,

t h e P a r i s n e g o t i a t i o n s , a nd t h e A m e r i c a n m e d i a r e s p o n s e t o t h e

bombings . B u t t h e n a s t r a n g e l e t h a r g y s e t i n , w h i c h l a s t e d f o r

months . I c o m p l a i n e d t o m y w i f e t h a t I d i d n ' t s e e m a b l e t o g e t a

h a n d l e o n t h e p r o b l e m . O n t h e c o n s c i o u s l e v e l I w a n t e d t o g e t o n

w i t h t h e j o b . O n t h e u n c o n s c i o u s l e v e l s o m e t h i n g w a s h o l d i n g m e

b a c k .

F i n a l l y t h e c a u s e o f m y f r u s t r a t i o n b e c a m e c l e a r t o m e . I h a d

c o m e t o t h i n k t h a t t h e e v i d e n c e " p r o v e d " c e r t a i n t h i n g s , b u t

g r a d u a l l y - i m p e r c e p t i b l y a t f i r s t , t h e n a l m os t w i t h a r u s h - i t w a s

b o r n e i n o n m e t h a t t h e s e t h i n g s a r e , f o r t h e m o s t p a r t , q u i t e

i m p o s s i b l e t o p r o v e i n a n y s c i e n t i f i c s e n s e : ( 1 ) t h a t t h e b o m bi n g ,

f a r f r o m c r e a t i n g a n e w a n d m a j o r o b s t a c l e t o c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e

V i e t n a m p e a c e a g r e e m e n t , a c t u a l l y f a c i l i t a t e d i t ; ( 2 ) t h a t t h e

U n i t e d S t a t e s w a s " u n f a i r l y" a c c u s e d o f w h o l e s a le s l a u g h t e r o f

c i v i l i a n s i n t h e H a n o i - H a i p h o n g a r e a , w h e r e a s t h e b o m b i n g w a s

l a r g e l y c o n f i n e d t o m i l i t a r y t a r g e t s a n d w a s q u i t e a c c u r a t e ; ( 3 ) t h a t

t h e A m e r i c a n p r e s t i g e m e d i a - i . e . , t h e New York Times, t h e

1



2 MARTIN F . H ERZ

Washington Post, Time, N ewsweek, and the three major TV

n e t w o r k s - g a v e " u n f a i r , " o n e - s i d e d a t t e n t i o n t o c r i t i c s o f t h e

b o m b i n g , f a i l i n g t o p r e s e n t a d e q u a t e l y t h e o t h e r s i d e o f a n i m p o r -

t a n t c o n t r o v e r s y ; a n d ( 4 ) t h a t i n w h a t w a s s a i d a b o u t t h e n e g o t i a t -

i n g s i t u a t i o n , t h o s e m e d i a t e n d e d t o g i v e m o r e c r e d e n c e t o t h e

s t a t e m e n t s o f t h e e n e m y t h a n t o t h e s t a t e m e n t s o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t

o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .

W h i l e t h e r e i s c o n s i d e r a b l e e v i d e n c e t o s u p p o r t a l l t h e s e p r o p o -

s i t i o n s , I n o w r e a l i z e t h a t o n l y t h e l as t o n e i s s u s c e p t i b l e o f p r o o f .

T h e f i r s t t h r e e r u n i n t o p r o bl e m s c o n c e r n i ng t h e n a t u r e o f t h e

i n f o r m a t i o n a v a i l a b l e a t t h e t i m e , t h e s p e c u l a t i v e c h a r a c t e r o f

a s s u m p t i o n s a b ou t N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e m o t i v a t i o n , a n d t h e l o g i c a l

p i t f a l l o f m u l t i p l e c a u s a t i o n , a m o n g o t h e r s , t h a t m a k e i t a l m o s t

i m p os s i b l e t o dr a w c o nc l us i o n s c at e g o r i c al ly . I n m y o p i n i o n , w h e n

o n e c o n s i d e r s t h e e v i d e n c e o f m i s r e p o r t i n g a n d m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n

o f t h e b o m b i n g a n d i t s c o n s e q u e n c e s , o n e h a s t o b e a w a r e t h a t :

1 . B e f o r e t h e C h r i s t m a s b o m b i n g , H a n o i w a s n o t p r e p a r e d t o

s i g n t h e a g r e e m e n t n e g o t i a t e d w i t h W a s h i n g t o n i n O c t o b e r 1 9 7 2

a n d i m p r o v e d d u r i n g n e g o t i a t i o n s i n N o v e m b e r . I t d i d s i g n t h e

N o v e m b e r d r a f t , w i t h f u r t h e r i m p r o v e m e n t s ( f r o m t h e S o u t h V i e t -

n a m e s e p o i n t o f v i e w ) , s h o r t l y a f t e r t h e b o m b i n g , i n J a n u a r y 1 9 7 3 .

N o o n e c a n s a y w i t h a s s u r a n c e , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e b o m b i n g c a u s e d

H a n o i ' s c h a n g e o f m i n d . T h e f a c t t h a t B h a p p e n s a f t e r A d o e s n ' t

p r o v e t h a t B w a s caused by A . * I h a p p e n t o t h i n k t h a t t h e b o m b i n g

s p e e d e d c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e t r e a t y , b e c a u s e I f o u n d c o n v i n c i n g t h e

statements about Nort h Vietnamese obstruction given by Dr .

H e n r y K i s s i n g e r i n D e c e m b e r 1 9 7 2 , b e f o r e t h e b o m b i n g b e g a n .

B u t u n l e s s a m e m b e r o f t h e V i e t n a m e s e P o l i t b u r o d e f e c t s a n d

r e p o r t s t h a t t h e b o m b i n g h e l p e d t h a t b o d y m a k e u p i t s m i n d , t h e

p r o p o s i t i o n i s i n h e r e n t l y u n p r o v a b l e . T h i s i s s o e v e n t h o u g h s u b -

s e q u e n t e v e n t s h a v e s h o w n t h a t t h o s e w h o p r e d i c t e d t h a t t h e

*Neither, of course, can one reasonably conclude, as Tad Szulc concluded in

Foreign Policy, S u m m e r 1 9 7 4 ( p . 67) , and in his book The Illusion of Peace (p .

654), that because the agreement signed in January 197 3 was only incrementally

better than the agreement negotiated in October 197 2, therefore the bombing had

been unnecess ary. The argument begs the question . N o one can say with any

assurance what, if anything, the North Vietnamese were prepared to sign inDecember .



EVENTS LEADING TO THE BOMBING 3

b o m bi n g w o u l d c a u s e t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e t o d i g i n t h e i r h e e l s

a n d h a r d e n t h e i r s t a n d , o r t h a t i t w o u l d j e o p a r d i z e d e t e n t e w i t h

C h i n a o r R u s s i a o r b ot h , w e r e m i s t a k e n .

2 . T h e b o m b i n g w a s l a r g e l y d o n e b y B - 5 2 b o m b e r s , w h i c h h a d

n e v e r b e f o r e b e e n u s e d a g a i n s t t a r g e t s i n o r n e a r l a r g e p o p u la t i o n

c e n t e r s . T h e B - 5 2 i s w i d e l y b e l i e v e d t o b e a n a i r c r a f t t h a t d e l i v e r s i t s

l o a d n o t o n a p i n p o i n t e d t a r g e t b u t o v e r a n a r e a , a s o - c a l l e d b o x

m e a s u r i n g a b o u t h a l f a m i l e b y a m i l e a n d a h a lf . T h i s i s t h e w a y i t h a d

b e e n u s e d o n a r e a t a r g e t s e a r l i e r i n t h e w a r . I t w a s t h e r e f o r e n o t

u n r e a s o n a b l e f o r c r i t i c s o f t h e b o m b i n g t o s p e a k o f " c a r p e t -

b o m b i n g , " w h i c h c a l l e d t o m i n d t h e d e v a s t a t i o n c a u s e d b y U . S . a n d

B r i t i s h b o m bi n g o f s u c h t a r g e t s a s H a m b u r g , D r e s d e n , a n d T o k y o

d u r i n g W o r l d W a r I I . A s i t t u r n e d o u t , t h e c r i t i c s w e r e m i s t a k e n . T h e

b o m b i n g s , f o r r e a s o n s t o b e e x p l a i n e d , w e r e q u i t e a c c u r a t e , a n d t h e

l o s s o f c i v i l i a n l i v e s s u r p r i s i n g l y s m a l l . B u t i t i s h a r d t o f a u l t t h e c r i t i c s

f o r t h i n k i n g o t h e r w i s e a t t h e t i m e .

3 . W h e n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w a s b o m b i n g w i t h B - 5 2 s , w h i c h w a s

d o n e l a r g e l y a t n i g h t a n d t h r o u g h c l o u d c o v e r d u r i n g t h e m o n s o o n

s e a s o n , t h e p r e c i s e e x t e n t o f t h e d a m a g e c o u l d b e a c c u r a t e l y

assess ed by U . S . a u t h o r i t i e s o n l y s o m e t i m e a f t e r t h e e v e n t .

U n t i l e x t e n s i v e p h o t o - r e c o n n a i s s a n c e c o u l d b e u n d e r t a k e n , o n l y

the N orth Vietnamese knew preci sely what had happened on

t h e g r o u n d . T h e y , o f c o u r s e , h a d n o r e a s o n t o p a y t r i b u t e t o t h e

a c c u r a c y o f t h e a t t a c k e r s a n d a m pl e r e a s o n t o e x a g g e r a t e t h e

e f f e c t s o n t h e c i v i l i a n p o p u la t i o n . ( T h e h a n d f u l o f A m e r i c a n a n t i -

w a r a c t i v i s t s i n H a n o i a t t h e t i m e o f t h e b o m b i n g c o u l d r e p o r t o n l y

w h a t t h e y w e r e s h o w n o r a l l o w e d t o s e e , a n d t h e i r r e p o r t i n g t u r n e d

o u t t o b e a l m o s t a s m i s l e a d i n g a s t h a t o f t h e i r h o s t s . ) F u r t h e r m o r e , i n

t h e c o v e r a g e o f r e a c t i o n s t o t h e b o m bi n g i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d

a b r o a d , t h e r e s i m p l y w a s n o t m u c h a p p r o v i n g c o m m e n t t o r e p o r t . I n

f r e e c o u n t r i e s , p e o p l e d o n o t p u bl i c l y d e m o ns t r a t e t h e i r s u p p o r t o f

a n u np l e a s a nt m i l i t a r y d e c i s i o n t a k e n b y t h e i r g o v e r n m e n t . T h e

n e w s w a s l a r g e l y g e n e r a t e d b y o p p o n e n t s , a n d t h e U . S . p r e s t i g e

m e d i a c o p i o u s ly r e p o r t e d a s n e w s ( w i t h f u l l a t t r i b u t i o n ) t h e p r o p -

a g a n d a g i v e n o u t b y t h e e n e m y a n d h i s a l l i e s . H e n c e , b a l a n c e d

r e p o r t i n g a b o u t t h e b o m bi n g w a s d i f f i c u l t t o a c h i e v e . ( D i f f i c u l t ,

h o w e v e r , d o e s n o t m e a n i m p o s s i b l e . )



4 MARTIN F . HERZ

4 . T h e n e g o t i a t i n g s i t u a t i o n a t t h e t i m e t h e t a l k s b r o k e d o w n i n

D e c e m b e r 1 9 7 2 ( a n d w h e t h e r t h e y a c t u a l l y b r o k e d o w n i s i t s e l f i n

d i s p u t e ) w a s e x c e e d i n g l y c o m p l i c a t e d . A m e r i c a n o f f i c i a l s h a d

r a i s e d , l a r g e l y pro forma, v a r i o u s p o i n t s t h a t P r e s i d e n t T h i e u o f

S o u t h V i e t n a m w a n t e d t h e m t o r a i s e , p o i n t s t h a t t h e y k n e w t h e

Nort h Vietnamese would consider non-negotiable . The North

V i e t n a m e s e h a d e x c e l l e n t r e a s o n s t o h e s i t a t e a n d p e r h a p s t o d r a w

b a c k f r o m s i g n i n g t h e a g r e e m e n t t h a t h a d b e e n n e g o t i a t e d i n O c t o -

b e r 1 9 7 2 a n d c la r i f i e d a n d m a r g i n a l l y i m p r o v e d ( f r o m t h e S o u t h

V i e t n a m e s e p o i n t o f v i e w ) i n N o v e m b e r a n d e a r l y D e c e m b e r ; b u t

t h e y w e r e n ' t t a l k i n g a b o u t t h o s e r e a s o n s . T h e A m e r i c a n p e o p l e ,

w h o r e m e m b e r e d t h a t H e n r y K i s s i n g e r h a d i n O c t o b e r 1 9 7 2 d e -

c l a r e d t h a t " w e b e l i e v e p e a c e i s a t h a n d " a n d w h o n ow s a w t h e

h o s t i l i t i e s b e i n g r e n e w e d w i t h a v e n g e a n c e , c a n b e f o r g i v e n f o r

w o n d e r i n g i f t h e y h a d b e e n m i s l e d b y t h e i r g o v e r n m e n t .

The Purpose of This Study

T h i s a n a l y s i s o f m e d i a p e r f o r m a n c e i s b a s e d o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n

t h a t m a s s c o m m u n i c a t o r s i n a d e m o c r a c y h a v e a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o

p r o v i d e a r e a s o n a b l y f u ll a n d f a i r p i c t u r e o f m a j o r p o l i t i c a l a n d

m i l i t a r y d e v e l o p m e n t s . T h e y h a v e a n e q u a l o b l i g a t i o n t o r e f l e c t t h e

v a r i e t y o f v i e w s a b ou t t h e s e d e v e l o pm e n t s s o t h a t t h e p e o p l e a s

c i t i z e n s c a n p a s s j u d g m e n t w i s e l y o n t h e i r g o v e r n m e n t ' s d e c i s i o n s .

T h o s e d u t i e s a r e a c k n o w l e d g e d i n t h e c o d e s o f t h e p r i n t a n d e l e c -

t r o n i c m e d i a . T h e C o d e o f B r o a d c a s t N e w s E t h i c s , f o r e x a m p le ,

s t a t e s t h a t " b r o a d c a s t n e w s p r e s e n t a t i o n s s h a l l b e de s i g n e d n o t o n ly

t o o f f e r t i m e l y a n d a c c u r a t e i n f o r m a t i o n , b u t a l s o t o p r e s e n t i t i n t h e

l i g h t o f r e l e v a n t c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h a t g i v e i t m e a n i n g a n d p e r s p e c -

t i v e . "

T h e f a i r n e s s r e q u i r e m e n t i s m o r e s t r i n g e n t f o r t h e e l e c t r o n i c

m e d i a t h a n f o r t h e p r i n t m e d i a b e c a u s e t h e f o r m e r m u s t s h a r e a

l i m i t e d n u m b e r o f f r e q u e n c i e s a n d c h a n n e l s a n d a r e t h e r e f o r e

r e g u l a t e d b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t . U n d e r t h e F e d e r a l C o m m u n i c a t i o n s

C o m m i s s i o n ' s F a i r n e s s D o c t r i n e , b u t t r e s s e d b y l a w a n d u p h e l d b y

*Code of Broadcast News Ethics, Radio Television News Directors Associa-

tion, adopted January 2, 1966, and amended October 13, 1973, Ar ticle Two .




t h e S u p r e m e C o u r t , a l l b r o ad c a s t e r s a r e r e q u i r e d t o s e r v e " t h e

p u b l i c i n t e r e s t " i n t h e i r p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a ll p u b li c i s s u e s . T h i s

d o c t r i n e i s r o o t e d i n " t h e p a r a m o u nt r i g h t o f t h e p u bl i c i n a f r e e

s o c i e t y t o b e i n f o r m e d a n d t o h a v e p r e s e n t e d t o i t f o r a c c e p t a n c e o r

r e j e c t i o n " t h e d i f f e r e n t v i e w p o i n t s o n " c o n t r o v e r s i a l i s s u e s . " * T h e

b r o a d c a s t e r i s r e q u i r e d t o p r o v i d e a c c u r a t e n e w s i n a m e a n i n g f u l

c o nt e x t a n d h a s a n " a f f i r m a t i v e d u t y " t o s e e k o u t s p o k e s m e n f o r

c o n t r a s t i n g o p i n i o n s a n d pe r s p e c t i v e s . W h e n p r e s e n t i n g o p p o s i n g

v i e w s , t h e b r o a d c a s t e r m u s t p r o v i d e a " r e a s o n a b l e o p po r t u n i t y "

f o r e a c h t o b e h e a r d . A n y r a d i o o r T V s t a t i o n - a n d b y i m p l i c at i o n

a n e t w o r k - h a s a r i g h t t o a d v o c a t e p a r t i c u l a r v i e w s , b u t i t h a s a

c o r r e s p o n d i n g o b li g a t i o n t o p r e s e n t c o n t r a s t i n g o n e s .

W h i l e t h e F a i r n e s s D o c t r i n e a p p li e s t o a s t a t i o n ' s o r n e t w o r k ' s

t o t a l p u b li c - a f f a i r s p r o g r a m m i n g ( n e w s , d o c u m e n t a r i e s , a n d p a n e l

s h o w s ) , t h e A B C , C B S , a n d N B C e v e n i n g n e w s p r o g r a m s w i t h

t h e i r v a s t a u d i e n c e a n d i n f l u e n c e h a v e a s p e c i a l r e s p o ns i b i l i t y t o

o b s e r v e t h e s p i r i t o f b a l a n c e a n d f a i r p l a y e m b r a c e d i n t h e d o c t r i n e .

T o a c o n s i d e r a bl e e x t e n t , I t h i n k , t h e s a m e a p p li e s t o t h e N e w Y o r k

Times a n d t h e Washington Post, w h i c h , a s n e w s p a p e r s o f r e c o r d ,

o c c u p y a s p e c i a l po s i t i o n o f t r u s t a n d i n f l u e n c e .

T h i s s t u d y t a k e s i n t o a c c ou n t t h e i m p o r t a n t d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n

n e w s r e p o r t i n g , w h i c h s h o u l d b e a s a c c u r a t e a n d o b j e c t i v e a s

p o s s i b l e , a n d c om m e n t a r y o r e d i t o r i a l s , w h i c h , w h e n t h e y a r e s o

l a b e l e d , m a y b e p a r t i s a n a n d o p i n i o n - l a d e n . M y p u r p o s e i s n o t t o

a s s e m b l e a b i l l of p a r t i c u l ar s a g a i n s t t h e p r e s t i g e m e d i a f o r m i s -

r e p o r t i n g a n d m i s i n t e r p r e t i n g a s i g n i f i c a n t e v e n t i n o ur r e c e n t

h i s t o r y . I t i s r a t h e r t o p r e s e n t t h e e v i d e n c e , t o t e l l t h e s t o r y o f h o w

t o p j o u r n a l i s t s r e p o r t e d a n d c o m me n t e d o n t h e C h r i s t m a s b o m b -

i n g . I n t h e f i n a l c h a pt e r I d r a w s o m e c o nc l us i o n s . T h e p r i n c i pa l o ne

c a n b e s t a t e d h e r e , r i g h t a t t h e b e g i n n i n g : M a n y m i s t a k e s w e r e

m a d e i n c o m m u n i c a t i n g t h e f a c t s a n d m e a n i n g o f t h e C h r i s t m a s

b o m b i n g t o t h e A m e r i c a n p e o p l e a n d t h e r e s t o f t h e w o r l d . T h e

*FCC 74 -702 (18425), released July 12, 197 4 . A brief history and interpreta-

tion of the Fairness Doctri ne, which had been evolving for more than four

decades, can be found in TV and National Defense: An Analysis of CBS News,

1 9 7 2 - 1 9 7 3 , by Ernest W. Lefever (Boston, Virginia : Institute for American

Strategy Press, 1974 ), pp . 4 - 9 .



6 MARTIN F . H ERZ

p r e s t i g e m e d i a w e r e n o t t h e on l y o ne s a t f a u l t ; t he U . S . g o v e r n -

m e n t h a d a s i g n i f i c a nt s h a r e i n t h e s e m i s t a k e s .

I t n e e d h a r d l y b e r e c a l l e d t h a t b y 1 9 7 2 U . S . i n v o l v e m e n t i n t h e

V i e t n a m W ar w a s n o t p o p u la r w i t h t h e p r e s t i g e p r e s s a n d t h e T V

news anchormen. I n t h e e y e s o f t h e m e d i a , t h e c r e d i b i l i t y o f t h e

N i x o n a dm i n i s t r a t i o n w a s l ow , e v e n ( a n d p e r h a p s e s p e c i a l l y ) a f t e r

t h e P r e s i d e n t w a s r e - e l e c t e d i n 1 9 7 2 b y a s ub s t a n t i al m a j o r i t y . Th e

s e c r e t i v e n e s s o f t h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , w h i c h i n t h e c a s e o f t h e P a r i s

p e a c e t a l k s w a s n e c e s s a r y , d i d n o t m a k e f o r e a s y a c c e p t a n c e o f i t s

p u b li c s t a t e m e n t s .

The Chris tmas Bombing

O n D e c e m b e r 1 8 , 1 9 7 2 , a l t h o u g h n o t h i n g i n t h e m i l i t a r y s i t u a -

t i o n i n Vi e t n a m w a r r a n t e d i t , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s s u d d e n l y r e s u m e d

h e a v y b o m b i n g o f N o r t h V i e t n a m n o r t h o f t h e t w e n t i e t h p a r a l l e l .

T h e a t t a c k c o n c e n t r a t e d o n t a r g e t s i n t h e H a n o i a n d H a i p h o n g

a r e a s ; c o n c u r r e n t l y m i n e s w e r e d r o p p e d i n t o N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e

h a r b o r s . T h e n e x t d a y W h i t e H o u s e p r e s s s e c r e t a r y R on a l d Z i e g l e r

c i t e d a s a r e a s o n f o r t h e b o m bi n g s o m e s i g n s o f p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r

a n o t h e r N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e o f f e n s i v e a g a i n s t S o u t h V i e t n a m ; b u t

t h e r e h a d b e e n n o m e n t i o n o f s u c h p r e p a r a t i o n s b e f o r e , a n d

Z i e g l e r ' s s t a t e m e n t h a d li t t l e c r e d i b i l i t y . O ther government

s o u r c e s m a d e i t c l e a r t h a t t h e p u r p o s e o f t h e b o m b i n g a n d m i n i n g

w a s t o f o r c e N o r t h V i e t n a m i n t o a m o r e t r a c t a b l e p o s i t i o n a t t h e

a r m i s t i c e t a l k s i n P a r i s , w h i c h h a d b e e n s u s p e n d e d i n d i s a g r e e m e n t

f i v e d a y s b e f o r e .

T h i s w a s n o t t h e f i r s t t i m e d u r i n g t h e w a r t h a t b o m b i n g h a d b e e n

u s e d f o r p r i m a r i l y p o l i t i c a l pu r p o s e s , b u t t h e o c c a s i o n w a s d i f f e r e n t

f r o m p r e v i o u s o ne s i n s e v e r a l r e s p e c t s . F i r s t , i t h a d b e e n t h e

g e n e r a l i m p r e s s i o n p r i o r t o t h e D e c e m b e r 1 3 s u s p e n s i o n o f t h e

t a l k s b e t w e e n H e n r y K i s s i n g e r a n d L e D u c T h o t h a t N o r t h V i e t -

n a m a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w o u l d c o n c l u d e a n a g r e e m e n t t o e n d

t h e w a r b e f o r e C h r i s t m a s . T w o m on t h s b e f or e , H e n r y K i s s i n g e r ,

P r e s i d e n t N i x o n ' s n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y a d v i s e r , h a d a n no u n c e d t h a t

" w e b e l i e v e p e a c e i s a t h a n d " a f t e r t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e h a d

p u bl i c i z e d t h e t e x t o f t h e a g r e e m e n t - p r e m a t u r e l y , t o f o r c e t h e




American hand ; a t t h a t t i m e , a c c o r d i n g t o K i s s i n g e r , o n l y m i n o r

d e t a i l s s t i l l r e m a i n e d t o b e s e t t l e d . T h e m a s s i v e b o m b i n g w i t h o u t

m i l i t a r y p r o v o c a t i o n w a s s e e n b y m a n y a s a d a n g e r o u s e s c a l a t i o n

t h a t c o u ld e m b r o i l t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w i t h C h i n a , t h e S o v i e t U n i o n ,

o r b o t h ; a n d t h e r e w a s w i d e s p r e a d d i s a p po i n t m e nt t h a t , i n s t e a d o f

p e a c e , t h e C h r i s t m a s s e a s o n w a s s e e i n g a n i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e

h o s t i li t i e s f r o m w h i c h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w i s h e d t o w i t h d r a w .

B a c k g r o u n d o f t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s D e c i s i o n

T o v i e w t h e b o m b i n g i n p e r s p e c t i v e w e m u s t l o o k b a c k a t t h e

c o u r s e o f t h e w a r d u r i n g t h e e a r l i e r m o n t h s o f t h a t y e a r . T h e s p r i n g

a n d s u m m e r o f 1 9 7 2 h a d s e e n t h e b i g g e s t N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e

o f f e n s i v e o f t h e w a r - i n f a c t , t h e f i r s t t h a t p i t t e d t w o w e l l -

e q u i p p e d V i e t n a m e s e a r m i e s a g a i n s t e a c h o t h e r i n " s e t p i e c e "

b a t t l e s . ( T h e g u e r r i l l a c om p o n e n t o f t h e w a r , w h i c h c o n t i n u e d , h a d

b e e n a t a r e l a t i v e l y l ow l e v e l e v e r s i n c e t h e " T e t " o f f e n s i v e i n e a r l y

1968 ; a s u b s t a n t i a l p o r t i o n o f t h e V i e t C o n g i n f r a s t r u c t u r e h a d

b e e n d e s t r o y e d , b o t h d u r i n g t h e T e t o f f e n s i v e , w h e n t h e V i e t C o n g

u n s u c c e s s f u l l y a t t a c k e d t h e c i t i e s o f S o u t h V i e t n a m , a n d d u r i n g i t s

a f t e r m a t h , w h e n t h e S o u t h V i e t n a m e s e g o v e r n m e n t c o n d u c t e d i t s

" a c c e l e r a t e d p a c i f i c a t i o n c a m p a i g n , " 1 9 6 8 - 7 0 . ) T h e C o m m u n i s t

s p r i n g o f f e n s i v e i n 1 9 7 2 i n v o l v e d f o u r t e e n r e g u l a r N o r t h V i e t -

n a m e s e d i v i s i o n s a n d t w e n t y - s i x i n d e p e n d e n t r e g i m e n t s p l u s , s u p -

p o r t i n g t r o o p s , i n c l u d i n g a r m o r a n d h e a v y a r t i l l e r y . I t l a s t e d ,

t h r o u g h s e v e r a l s t a g e s , i n t o t h e s u m m e r .

T h i s o f f e n s i v e b r o u g h t t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e o n l y l i m i t e d s u c -

c e s s e s . A l t h o u g h t h e y o v e r r a n t h e n o r t h e r n m o s t c i t y o f S o u t h

V i e t n a m , Q u a n g T r i , w h i c h w a s a b a n d o n e d i n pa n i c b y i t s d e f e n -

d e r s a n d a g o o d p a r t o f i t s p o p u l a t i o n, t h a t c i t y w a s e v e n t u a l l y

r e t a k e n b y S o u t h V i e t n a m e s e m a r i n e s i n a n e i g h t y - d a y b a t t l e t h a t

e n d e d i n S e p t e m b e r . T h e m o s t l a s t i n g s u c c e s s f o r t h e N o r t h V i e t -

n a m e s e w a s a w i d e n i n g o f t h e i r c o n t r o l o v e r t h e w e s t e r n p a r t o f t h e

C e n t r a l H i g h l a n ds , w h i c h a l l o w e d t h e m t o e s t a b l i s h n e w l o g i s t i c

c o m p l e x e s a l o n g t h e C a m b o d i a n b o r d e r t h a t w o u l d b e u s e f u l i n

f u t ur e op e r a t i o ns . I n t h e s o u t h e r n p o r t i o n o f S o u t h V i e t n a m ,

d e s p i t e o v e r w h e l m i n g s u p e r i o r i t y i n a r m o r a n d a r t i l l e r y , t h r e e



8 MARTIN F . H ERZ

N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e d i v i s i o n s f a i l e d t o t a k e A n L o c , w h o s e d e f e n -

d e r s s h o w e d a s t o n i s h i n g h e r o i s m .

O n t h e w h o l e , t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e f o u g h t w i t h t h e i r c u s t o m -

a r y t e n a c i t y a n d d i s r e g a r d f o r h u m a n l i f e ; b u t t h e i r l o s s e s w e r e s o

h e a v y t h a t a t t h e e n d o f t h e o f f e n s i v e t h e S o u t h V i e t n a m e s e ,

d e s p i t e t h e i r s m a l le r p o p u l at i o n b a s e , e n j o y e d n u m e r i c a l s u p e r i o r -

i t y o v e r t h e at t a c k e r s . F o r t h e f i r s t t i m e t h e r e w e r e a ls o s u b s t an t i a l

( t h o u g h s t i l l s m a l l ) n u m b e r s o f N o r t h V i e t n a me s e d e s e r t e r s , a n d i n

s o m e r e t r e a t s t h e a t t a c k e r s l e f t v a l u ab l e e q u i p m e n t b e h i n d .

I n t h e s e d e f e n s i v e b a t t l e s i n S o u t h V i e t n a m d u r i n g t h e s p r i n g

a n d s u m m e r o f 1 9 7 2 , S a i g o n ' s f o r c e s c o u l d n o l o n g e r c o u n t o n

A m e r i c a n s u p p o r t o n t h e g r o u n d , s i n c e m o s t A m e r i c a n t r o o p s h a d

b e e n w i t h d r a w n . H o w e v e r , t h e y r e c e i v e d m a s s i v e a n d v e r y e f f e c -

t i v e s u p p o r t f r o m t h e a i r , i n c l u d i n g s t r i k e s b y t h e g i a n t B - 5 2

bombers . F o r t h e f i r s t t i m e t h e r e w e r e c l e a r b a t t l e l i n e s , a nd t h e s e

h e a v y b o m b e r s c o u l d b e u s e d w i t h g o o d e f f e c t . F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e y

w e r e s u f f i c i e n t l y a c cu r a t e t o b e u s e d a g a i n s t t h e a t t a c k e r s o f A n

L o c w i t h o u t h u r t i n g t h e d e f e n d e r s .

The American bombing of North Vietnam, which had beenh a l t e d , w a s r e s u m e d o n A p r i l 6 . A t t a c k s o n m i l i t a r y t a r g e t s i n t h e

N o r t h b e c a m e s i g n i f i c a n t l y m o r e a c c u r a t e i n 1 9 7 2 b e c a u s e o f t h e

i n t r o d u c t i o n o f " s m a r t " - T V - a n d l a s e r - g u i d e d - b o m b s . F o r i n -

s t a n c e , t h e T h a n h H o a b r i d g e , w h i c h h a d n o t b e e n h i t d e s p i t e 8 0 0

t o 1 , 0 0 0 s o r t i e s d u r i n g p r e v i o u s b o m b i n g o f f e n s i v e s , w a s d e -

s t r o y e d i n t h e f i r s t a t t a c k . T h e B - 5 2 o p e r a t i o n s , h o w e v e r , w e r e n o t

c o n d u ct e d w i t h " s m a r t " b o m bs b u t i n v o l ve d t a r g e t s d e f i n e d w i t h i n

a " b o x " o f c o o r d i n a t e s .

T o s h o w i t s d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o f oi l t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e e f f o r t ,

t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n M a y 1 9 7 2 f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e d r o p p e d m i n e s i n t o

H a i p h o n g h a r b o r a n d o t h e r N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e h a r b o r s . P r e s i d e n t

N i x o n d r e w c o n s i d e r a b l e c r i t i c i s m f o r t h a t a c t i o n a nd f o r t h e

r e s u m e d b o m b i n g o f N o r t h V i e t n a m ( w h i c h i n c l u d e d b o m b i n g o f

t h e H a n o i a r e a ) . I t w a s w i d e l y p r e d i c t e d t h a t t h o s e a t t a c k s w o u ld

l e a d t o r e t a l i a t i o n b y t h e S o v i e t U n i o n o r C h i n a or b o t h . A t t h e

v e r y l e a s t , t h e c r i t i c s s a i d , t h e s t e p p e d - u p a t t a c k s w o u ld j e o p a r di z e

N i x o n ' s p l a n n e d M a y s u m m i t m e e t i n g w i t h S o v i e t l e a d e r L e o n i d

Brezhnev in Moscow . B u t a s i t t u r n e d o u t t h e r e w a s n o s u c h




c o u n t e r a c t i o n , a n d t h e M o s c o w s u m m i t t o o k p l a c e a s p l a n ne d .

A c c o r d i n g t o v a r i o u s r e p o r t s b a s e d o n a ll e g e d l e a k s , i n d i s c r e -

t i o n s , o r u n a t t r i b u t e d i n t e r v i e w s , t h e N i x o n - B r e z h n e v m e e t i n g i n

M a y 1 9 7 2 p la y e d a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n a d v a n c i n g t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s

b e t w e e n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d N o r t h V i e t n a m . ( T h e r e i s n o m e n -

t i o n of t h i s i n e i t h e r N i x o n ' s o r K i s s i ng e r ' s m e m oi r s . ) I n t h e "p ub -

l i c " n e g o t i a t i o n s i n P a r i s , t h e d e l e g a t i o n o f t h e P r o v i s i o n al G o v -

e r n m e n t o f S o u t h V i e t n a m ( t h e V i e t C o ng , i n e f f e c t s p e a k i n g f o r

t h e i r N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e m a s t e r s ) h a d p r o po s e d a t r i p a r t i t e " g o v -

e r n m e n t o f n a t i o n a l c o n co r d " i n w h i c h t h e C o m m u n i s t s , t h e a n t i -

C o m m u n i s t g o v e r n m e n t o f S o u t h V i e t n a m , a n d a n u n i d e n t i f i e d

n e u t r a li s t " t h i r d f o r c e " w o u l d be r e p r e s e n t e d . T h i s p r o p os a l h a d

b e e n c a t e g o r i c a l l y r e j e c t e d b y t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d S o u t h V i e t -

nam . A t t h e M o s c o w s u m m i t , K i s s i n g e r i s s u p p o s e d t o h av e l e t i t b e

k n o w n t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w o u l d no t b e o p po s e d t o a t r i p a r t i t e

b o d y pr o v i d e d i t s f u n c t i o n s w e r e l i m i t e d t o t h e h o ld i n g o f f r e e

e l e c t i o n s a f t e r a n a g r e e d c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e h o s t i l i t i e s . K i s s i n g e r ' s

o f f i c e h a s d e n i e d t o m e t h a t h e r a i s e d t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y i n M o s c o w .

W h e t h e r o r n o t o n e f i n d s t h e d e n i a l c o nv i n c i n g , i t i s a f a c t t h a t t h e

i d e a o f a t r i p a r t i t e e l e c t o r a l c o m m i s s i o n p l a y e d a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e

i n t h e s e t t l e m e n t t h a t w a s e v e n t u a l l y w o r k e d o u t b e t w e e n t h e

U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d N o r t h V i e t n a m .

T h e n e g o t i a t i o n s , w h i c h c o n t i n u e d i n c o nc l u s i v e l y t h r o u g h t h e

s u m m e r a n d e a r l y f a l l , br o u g h t n o p r o g r e s s u n t i l l a t e S e p t e m b e r ,

w h e n t h e r e w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e s i n t h e p o s i t i o n s o f t h e t w o

s i d e s . S i n c e t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e h a d f a i l e d i n t h e i r l a r g e s t m i l i -

t a r y e f f o r t t o d a t e , du r i n g w h i c h a n e s t i m a t e d 1 3 0 , 0 0 0 o f t h e i r m e n

h a d b e e n k i l l e d o r d i s a b l e d a nd v a s t q u a n t i t i e s o f t h e i r m i l i t a r y

s u p p li e s h a d b e e n d e s t r o y e d , t h e y w e r e i n n o p o s i t i o n t o r e s u m e

l a r g e - s c a l e h o s t i l i t i e s f o r s o m e t i m e , p a r t i c u l a r l y s i n c e r e s u p p l y

h a d be e n g r e a t l y ha m p e r e d by t h e m i ni n g o f t h e i r p o r t s . O n t h e

S o u t h V i e t n a m e s e s i d e , t h e s u c c e s s f u l d e f e ns e h a d r a i s e d t h e s t o c k

o f P r e s i d e n t T h i e u - a s w e l l a s h i s d e t e r m i n at i o n t o r e s i s t A m e r i -

c a n c o n c e s s i o n s t o h i s C o m mu n i s t e n e m i e s . W i t h S e n a t o r G e o r g e

M c G o v e r n a s t h e D e m o c r a t i c c a n d i d a t e i n t h e f o r t h c o m i n g e l e c -

t i o n s , t h e p o l l s s h o w e d a n i n c r e a s i n g l i k e l i h o o d t h a t N i x o n w o ul d

b e r e - e l e c t e d . I f N i x o n c o ul d t a k e t h e c on s i d e r a b le r i s k o f m i n i n g



1 0 MARTIN F . H ERZ

H a i p h o ng s i x m o n t h s b e f o r e t h e e l e c t i o n , t h e r e w a s n o p r e d i c t i n g

w h a t h e m i g h t d o a f t e r h e w o n r e - e l e c t i o n .

I n t h i s s i t u a t i o n , t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e m a d e s o m e p r o m i s i n g

p r o p o s a ls i n e a r l y O c t o b e r - w i t h t h e d e m a n d t h a t t h e a g r e e m e n t

b e s i g n e d o n O c t o b e r 3 1 , j u s t b e f o r e t h e A m e r i c a n e l e c t i o n . T h e r e

w a s e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y r a pi d b a r g a i n i n g i n P a r i s , a n d t h e c o n c e s s i o n s

m a d e b y t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e w e r e a p p a r e n t f r o m t h e s e f e a t u r e s

o f t h e d r a f t a c c o r d t h e y a n n o u nc e d o n O c t o b e r 2 6 : t h e y a c ce p t e d a

c e a s e - f i r e i n p l a c e , w hi c h t h e y h ad h i t h e r t o o pp o s e d ; t h e y a g r e e d

f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e t o a s e p a r a t i o n be t w e e n t h e c e a s e - f i r e a n d a

p o l i t i c a l s e t t l e m e n t , t h u s l e a v i n g t h e T h i e u g o v e r n m e n t i n p o w e r ;

t h e y a g r e e d t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l ly s u p e r v i s e d e l e c t i o n s , w h i c h t h e y h a d

r e p e a t e d l y r e j e c t e d i n t h e p a s t ; a n d t h e y w o r k e d o u t w i t h t h e U . S .

n e g o t i a t o r s t h e c o n c e p t o f a " N a t i o n a l C ou n c i l o f N a t i o n a l R e c o n-

c i l i a t i o n a nd C o n c or d " t o i m p l e m e n t t h e a g r e e m e n t a n d t o o r g a -

n i z e e l e c t i o n s w i t h t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e T h i e u g o v e r n m e n t - a

p a l e s h a d o w o f t h e i r p r e v i o u s i n s i s t e n c e o n a c o a l i t i o n g o v e r n m e n t .

A l s o , t h e y a g r e e d t h a t t h e S o u t h V i e t n a m e s e g o v e r n m e n t c o u l d

c o nt i n u e t o r e c e i v e A m e r i c a n e c o n om i c a n d m i l i t a r y a i d , t h e l a t t e r

o n l y on a r e p l a c e m e n t b a s i s , w h e r e a s p r e v i o u s l y t h e y h a d d e -

m a n d e d t h a t t h e A m e r i c a n w i t h d r a w a l b e f o l l ow e d b y a c e s s a t i o n

o f a l l A m e r i c a n a i d t o S o u t h V i e t n a m . T h e r e w e r e a l s o o t h e r

p r o v i s i o n s t h a t n e e d n o t b e l i s t e d i n t h i s s u m m a r y .

The Paris Negotiations Bog Down

M e a n w h i l e , h o w e v e r , t h e S o u t h V i e t n a m e s e g o v e r n m e n t o f

P r e s i d e n t T h i e u , c a u g h t b y s u r p r i s e b y t h e r a p i d p r o g r e s s i n t h e

n e g o t i a t i o n s , w a s n o t r e a d y t o s e t t l e . I t o b j e c t e d t o a n y s o l u t i o n

t h a t w o u l d p e r m i t t h e c o n t i n u e d p r e s e n c e o f N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e

t r o o p s o n S o u t h V i e t n a m e s e t e r r i t o r y ( e v e n t h o u g h t h i s h a d b e e n

i m p l i e d i n a l l j o i n t U . S . - S o u t h V i e t n a m e s e c e a s e - f i r e p r o p o s al s

s i n c e O c t o b e r 1 9 7 0 ) . T h e S o u t h V i e t n a m e s e w e r e a l s o i n t e n s e l y

s u s p i c i o u s o f t h e i d e a o f a t r i p a r t i t e e l e c t o r a l c o m m i s s i o n .

T o a l la y T h i e u ' s f e a r s t h a t a f t e r a n a r m i s t i c e t h e N o r t h V i e t -

n a m e s e w o u l d r e s u m e t h e i r m i l i t a r y b u i l du p i n S o u t h V i e t n a m i n

d e f i a n c e of t h e t e r m s o f t h e a g r e e m e n t , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s b e g a n t o



EVENTS LEADING TO THE BOMBING 1 1

t r a n s f e r m i l i t a r y e q u i p m e n t t o S o u t h V i e t n a m t h a t m o r e t h a n

m a d e u p i t s b a t t l e l o s s e s ( " O p e r a t i o n E n h a n c e " ) . T h i s b u i l d u p

b e g a n i n t h e e a r l y f a l l a n d w a s a c c e l e r a t e d i n O c t o b e r . T o w a r d t h e

e n d o f O c t o b e r , h o w e v e r , i t b e c a m e a p p a r e n t t h a t d e s p i t e m a j o r

A m e r i c a n p r e s s u r e a n d d e s p i t e t h e a d d i t i o n al a r m s , S o u t h V i e t -

n a m w o u ld r e f u s e t o s i g n t h e a g r e e m e n t o n t h e p r e s c r i b e d d a t e o f

O c t o b e r 3 1 . W o r s e , a n e m b ar r a s s e d K i s s i n g e r l e a r n e d t h a t t h e

V i e t n a m e s e - l a n g u a g e v e r s i o n o f t h e d r a f t a g r e e m e n t h e had

n e g o t i a t e d d i f f e r e d i n i m p o r t a n t r e s p e c t s f r o m t h e E n g l i s h v e r s i o n .

T h e s i t u a t i o n w a s e x a c e r b a t e d b y N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e p r o p a g a n d a

d e s c r i b i n g t h e ( p o w e r l e s s ) t r i p a r t i t e c o u n c i l a s a n i n t e r i m g o v e r n -

ment .

W h e n i t b e c a m e c l e a r t h a t t h e A m e r i c a n s c o u l d n ot p e r s u a d e t h e

S o u t h V i e t n a m e s e t o s i g n , H a n oi p u b l i c ly r e l e a s e d t h e t e r m s o f t h e

a g r e e m e n t o v e r R a d i o H a n o i i n t h e e a r l y m o r n i n g o f O c t o b e r 2 6 .

O n t h e s a m e d a y ( i n h i s " w e b e l i e v e p e a c e i s a t h a n d " s t a t e m e n t )

K i s s i n g e r a c k n o w l e d g e d t h e e s s e n t i a l a c c u r a c y o f H a n o i ' s a c c o u nt

b u t p o i n t e d o ut t h a t s o m e d e t a i l s r e m a i n e d t o b e s e t t l e d .

Between October 26 and December 13 three developments

u n e x p e c t e d b y t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e m a d e t h e s i t u a t i o n i n S o u t h

V i e t n a m l e s s f a v o r a b l e t o t h e m . F i r s t , m a n y V i e t C o n g u n i t s i n

S o u t h V i e t n a m , h a v i n g b e e n l e d t o e x p e c t t h a t a c e a s e - f i r e i n p l a c e

w o u l d b e a n n o u n c e d o n O c t o b e r 3 1 , r e v e a l e d t h e m s e l v e s p r e m a -

t u r e l y b y s e i z i n g o r a t t e m p t i n g t o s e i z e v i l l ag e s a n d t o w n s t h a t t h e y

h o p e d t o c l a i m - o n l y t o b e c a pt u r e d o r k i l l e d b y t h e S o u t h V i e t -

namese . S e c o n d , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , i n a f u r t h e r e f f o r t t o c o n c i li a t e

T h i e u , s t e p p e d u p i t s " O p e r a t i o n E n h a n c e " i n t o a n e v e n l a r g e r

s u p p l y o pe r a t i o n d u b b e d " E n h a n c e - P l u s " ( i n v o lv i n g , f o r i n s t a n c e ,

t h e h u r r i e d t r a n s f e r o f A m e r i c a n w a r p l a ne s f r o m t h e i n v e n t o r i e s o f

T a i w a n , S o u t h K o r e a , a n d I r a n , a t W a s h i ng t o n ' s u r g e n t r e q u e s t ) .

A l t o g e t h e r , t h e S o u t h V i e t n a m e s e r e c e i v e d a b o u t $ 2 b i l li o n w o r t h

o f a r m s a n d s u p p l i e s i n l e s s t h a n t w o m o n t h s . T h i r d , w h e n t h e

s e c r e t n e g o t i a t i o n s w e r e r e s u m e d i n P a r i s o n N o v e m be r 2 0 , K i s -

s i n g e r r a i s e d a l a r g e n u m b e r o f p o i n t s t h a t h e h a d pr o m i s e d T h i e u

t o r a i s e , s o m e o f t h e m q u i t e f u n d a m e n t a l . A l t h o u g h t h e N o r t h

V i e t n a m e s e r e j e c t e d m o s t o f t h e s e p o i n t s , t h e y i n i t i a l l y ac c e p t e d a

f e w , i n c l ud i n g o n e a b ou t r e s p e c t f o r t h e D M Z ( t h e d e m i l i t a r i z e d



1 2 MARTIN F . H ERZ

z o n e b e t w e e n N o r t h a n d S o u t h V i e t n a m ) , w h i c h m a d e t h e a g r e e -

m e n t l e s s a t t r a c t i v e t o t h e m . F u r t h e r m o r e , s o m e o f t h e d i s c r e p a n -

c i e s b e t w e e n t h e E n g l i s h a n d V i e t n a m e s e t e x t s p r o v e d s i g n i f i c a n t

a n d h a d t o b e r e s o l v e d i n a r d u o u s n e g o t i a t i o n s .

A n o t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t , p e r h a p s n o t u n e x p e c t e d b y t h e N o r t h

V i e t n a m e s e a n d c e r t a i n l y n ot u n w e l c o me t o t h e m , w a s t h a t t h e r e

w e r e g r o w i n g s i g n s t h a t a m a j o r i t y i n t h e n e w U . S . C o n g r e s s , w h i c h

w a s t o c o n v e n e i n J a n u a r y 1 9 7 3 , w o u l d f a v o r c u t t i n g o f f a l l a p -

p r o p r i a t i o n s f o r t h e V i e t n a m w a r . T h i s p r o s p e c t t e n d e d t o w e a k e n

the U . S . p o s i t i o n i n t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s . H a n o i ' s O c t o b e r 2 6 p u b li c a -

t i o n o f t h e n e a r l y c o m p l e t e d p e a c e t e r m s i n c r e a s e d U . S. d o m e s t i c

p r e s s u r e s o n N i x o n t o s e t t l e , e v e n a f t e r h i s r e - e l e c t i o n .

B y e a r l y D e c e m b e r 1 9 7 2 , t h e A m e r i c a n s i d e - h a v i n g p u b l i c l y

a n n ou n c e d t h a t w h e n i t w a s s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e t e r m s i t w o u l d s i g n a n

a g r e e m e n t e v e n i f T h i e u w o u l d no t - e x p e c t e d t h e a g r e e m e n t t o b e

b u t t o n e d u p i n a m a t t e r o f d a y s . H o w e v e r , m i d w a y i n t h e f i n a l

p h as e o f t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s ( o r w h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s e x p e c t e d t o b e

t h e f i n a l p h a s e ) , w h i c h b e g a n o n D e c e m b e r 4 , L e D u c T h o s e e m e d

t o h a v e c h a n g e d h i s m i n d o n t h e u r g e n c y o f a n e a r l y a g r e e m e n t . H e

r e f u s e d a n y d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e p r o t o c o ls o f i m p l e m e n t a t i o n a n d t h e n

s u b m i t t e d n e w p r o p o s a l s t h a t w e r e e n t i r e l y u n a c c e pt a b l e t o t h e

A m e r i c a n s i d e . F u r t h e r m o r e , h e w i t h d r e w s e v e r a l c o n c e s s i o n s h e

had made during November and even in early December . I t b e -

c a m e i n c r e a s i n g l y a p p a r e n t t h a t i f H a n o i h a d n ' t c h a n g e d i t s m i n d

a b o u t t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f a n e a r l y ag r e e m e n t , a t l e a s t i t m u s t h a v e

i n s t r u c t e d i t s n e g o t i a t o r t o p l a y f o r t i m e s o t h a t t h e P o l i t b u r o c o u l d

r e a s s e s s t h e e n t i r e m a t t e r . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , P r e s i d e n t T h i e u -

w h o h a d b e e n w a r ne d t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w o u l d p r o c e e d w i t h -

o u t h i m i f i t c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e a g r e e m e n t w a s r e a s o n a b l e - g a i n e d

f u r t h e r c o n c e s s i o n s f r o m P r e s i d e n t N i x o n , n o t a b l y a pe r s o n a l w r i t -

t e n c o m m i t m e n t t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w o u l d c o m e t o h i s a i d i f

N o r t h V i e t n a m u n d e r t o o k a w h o l e s a l e v i o l a t i o n of t h e a g r e e m e n t .

T h e P a r i s n e g o t i a t i o n s e n d e d w i t h o u t a g r e e m e n t o n D e c e m b e r

1 3 ( t h e U . S . a n d N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e s t a t e m e n t s o n t h e b r e a k d o w n

a r e p r i n t e d a s A p p e n d i x A a n d A p p e n d i x B o f t h i s s t u d y ) , a n d t h eU. S . b o m b i n g c a m p a i g n i n t h e H a n o i - H a i p h o n g a r e a b e g a n f i v e

d a y s l a t e r .



A Personal View

T h i s s u m m a r y o f t h e e v e n t s l e a d i n g u p t o t h e C h r i s t m a s b o m b i n g

h a s b e e n , I b e l i e v e , f a c t u a l . W h a t f o l l o w s i s m y o w n v i e w o f t h e

s i t u a t i o n c r e a t e d b e t w e e n O c t o b e r a n d D e c e m b e r .

F i r s t , i t a p p e ar s t h a t w h i l e P r e s i d e n t T h i e u ' s c o n t i n u e d o p p o s i -

t i o n w a s e m b a r r a s s i n g , i t n o l o n g e r w o u l d p r e c l u de t h e s i g n i n g o f

t h e s l i g h t l y i m p r o v e d a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d

N o r t h V i e t n a m t h a t s e e m e d w i t h i n r e a c h a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f D e -

cember . S e c o n d , i t s e e m s e n t i r e l y r e a s o n a b le t h a t t h e N o r t h V i e t -

n a m e s e w e r e h a v i n g s e c o n d t h o u g h t s a b ou t s i g n i n g t h e a g r e e m e n t

a s i t h a d b e e n a m e n d e d i n N o v e m b e r , b e c a u s e f o u r t h i n g s h a d

h a p p e n e d t o m a k e i t l e s s a t t r a c t i v e : t h e r e d u c t i o n o f t h e i r l o c a l

f o r c e s i n t h e S o u t h b r o u g h t a b o u t b y p r e m a t u r e s u r f a c i n g ; t h e

r e l a t i v e s t r e n g t h e n i n g o f t h e T h i e u g o v e r n m e n t t h r o u g h o p e r a -

t i o n s E n h a n c e a n d E n h a n c e - P l u s ; t h e p r e c i s i o ns i n t h e a g r e e m e n t

i n s i s t e d o n by K i s s i n g e r , w h i c h h a d r e m o v e d a m b i g u i t i e s , n o t a b l y

a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f t h e N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l o f N a t i o n a l R e c o n c i l i -

a t i o n a n d C o n c o r d ; a n d t h e p r o s p e c t i v e c h a n g e s i n t h e U . S . C o n -

g r e s s t h a t w o u l d m ak e i t w o r t h w h i l e t o p l a y a w a i t i n g g a m e . A s for

N i x o n , w h i l e t h e e l e c t i o n h a d s t r e n g t h e n e d h i s p o s i t i o n , h e n e e d e d

t o c o n v i n c e H a n o i t h a t s t a l l i n g t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s w o u l d n o t b e t o i t s

a d v a n t a g e . U n a b l e t o p r o v i d e i t s a d v e r s a r y w i t h a d d i t i o n a l i n c e n -

t i v e s t o c o n c lu d e t h e a g r e e m e n t , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a d t o f i n d

c o n v i n c i n g d i s i n c e n t i v e s t o n o n - c o n c l u s i o n .

I w i s h t o e m p h as i z e t h a t u n l e s s a c r e d i b l e w i t n e s s c o m e s f o r w a r d

t o t e l l u s , nobody c a n s a y w i t h a n y a s s u r a n c e w h a t w e n t o n i n t h e

N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e P o l i t b u r o d u r i n g t h e f i r s t h a l f o f D e c e m b e r

1972 . I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t i f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a d w a i t e d , t h e N o r t h

V i e t n a m e s e w o u l d h a v e c o m e b a c k t o t h e p e a c e t a l k s a n d s i g n e d

t h e a g r e e m e n t o n t h e N o v e m b e r t e r m s . I d o n o t t h i n k s o , b u t t h e

r e a d e r n e e d n o t a g r e e w i t h m e .

W h a t I w i s h t o a n a l yz e i n t h i s s t u d y i s w h e t h e r t h e b o m bi n g i t s e l f

w a s f a i r l y r e p o r t e d , w h e t h e r t h e d e c i s i o n t o b o m b w a s d i s c u s s e d o n

i t s m e r i t s , a n d w h e t h e r r e a d e r s o f A m e r i c a ' s p r e s t i g e p r e s s a n d

v i e w e r s o f i t s m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l n e w s p r o g r a m s c o u l d g a i n a b a l a n c e d

p i c t u r e of w h at w a s g o i ng o n a n d w h a t w a s a t s t a k e . A n s w e r i n g

EVENTS LEADING TO THE BOMBING 1 3



1 4 MARTIN F. HERZ

t h o s e q u e s t i o n s d o e s n o t r e q u i r e a p a r t i c u la r p o s i t i o n o n t h e i s s u e s ;

o n e n e e d o n l y b e a w a r e o f t h e v a r i o u s a l t e r n a t i v e s .

S i n c e w e w i l l b e d i s c u s s i n g t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e r e p o r t i n g a n d

d e b a t e , o n e m o r e p o i n t m u s t b e b r o u g h t up a t t h e r i s k o f f u r t h e r

c o m p l i c a t i n g a n a l r e a d y t a n g l e d s t o r y . O n D e c e m b e r 1 7 , j u s t

b e f o r e t h e b o m b i n g b e g a n , t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e i n t w o b r o a d -

c a s t s c a l l e d f o r a r e t u r n t o t h e O c t o b e r d r a f t - i . e . , f o r a j e t t i s o n i n g

o f a l l t h e i m p r o v e m e n t s a n d c l a r i f i c a t i o n s t h a t h a d b e e n a g r e e d o n

i n t h e N o v e m be r n e g o t i a t i o n s . T h i s w a s n o t n e w , b u t i t c o u l d h a v e

b e e n s i g n i f i c a n t . R e a s o n a b le m e n c a n d i f f e r o n w h e t h e r t h i s o f f e r

w a s s e r i o u s a n d w he t h e r i t s h o u l d h a ve b e e n a c c e p t e d . A r e t u r n t o

t h e O c t o b e r d r a f t w o u l d h a v e b r o u g h t a n o p e n b r e a k b e t w e e n

W a s h i n g t o n a n d S a i g o n ( a n d t h e r e w e r e t h o s e w h o t h o u g h t s u c h a

b r e a k d e s i r a b l e a n d ne c e s s a r y ) . T h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n w o u l d h a v e

v i e w e d i t a s a t r a g e d y n o t o n l y f o r S o u t h V i e t n a m b u t a l s o f or t h e

U n i t e d S t a t e s : i t w o u l d h a v e i n v o l v e d t h e b e t r a y a l o f a n al l y a nd a

s u r r e n d e r o f t h e i m p r o v e m e n t s t h a t h a d b e e n a r d u o u s ly w o n . T h e

d e b a t e o n t h e l i k e l y c o s t s v e r s u s t h e p r e s u m e d b e n e f i t s o f s u c h a

c o u r s e o f a c t i o n w o u l d h a ve b e e n i n t e r e s t i n g a n d w o r t h w h i l e - h a d

s u c h a d e b a t e t a k e n p l a ce i n t h e A m e r i c a n p r e s t i g e m e d i a .

V e r y l i t t l e o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n s u m m a r i z e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r w a s

u n k n o w n o r i n a cc e s s i b l e t o t h e r e p o r t e r s , e d i t o r s , e d i t o r i a l w r i t e r s ,

a n d T V a n c h o r m e n a n d r e p o r t e r s w h o w e r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e n e w s

a n d e x p r e s s i n g o p i n i o n s o n i t d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d o f t h e C h r i s t m a s

bombing . B u t r e m a r k a b l y li t t l e w a s s a i d o r w r i t t e n t o p r e s e n t a

c l e a r r a t i o n al e f o r w h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w a s . d o i n g i n N o r t h

Vietnam . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e U . S . g o v e r n m e n t d i d v e r y l i t t l e t o w a r d

o f f o r m i n i m i z e t h e t i d e o f a d v e r s e c o m m e n t t h a t w a s a b o u t t o r o l l

o v e r i t . T h i s w a s n o t u n u s u a l . A c e r t a i n r e s i g n e d l e t h a r g y t o w ar d

d o i n g b a t t l e w i t h t h e o p i n i on - m a k e r s h a d s e t i n . D u r i n g t h e l a s t

f e w y e a r s o f t h e w a r , i n t h e f a c e o f w h a t m u s t h a v e s e e m e d t h e

u n a lt e r a b l e o p po s i t i o n o f t h e p r e s t i g e m e d i a , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s

g o v e r n m e n t n e v e r g e a r e d i t s e l f u p a d e q u a t e l y t o e x p l a i n i t s p o s i -

t i o n s a n d p o li c i e s a n d t o r e b u t c r i t i c i s m o n a s y s t e m a t i c b a s i s .



CHAPTER TWO

Reporting by

t h e P r e s t i g e P r e s s

Martin F. Herz and Leslie Rider

ON DECEMBER 16, 1 9 7 2 , t w o d a y s b e f o r e t h e C h r i s t m a s

b o m b i n g b e g a n , H e n r y K i s s i n g e r g a v e a d e t a i l e d e x p l a n a t i o n o f

t h e b r e a k d o w n o f t h e P a r i s n e g o t i a t i o n s . H e di d no t fo r ec as t t he

bombing . T h i s w a s t h e l a s t d e t a i l e d o f f i c i a l U . S . s t a t e m e n t -

e x c e p t f o r a li s t o f t a r g e t s r e l e a s e d b y t h e U . S . c o m m a n d i n S a i g o n

o n D e c e m b e r 2 8 - m a d e u n t i l a f t e r t h e b o m b i n g e n d e d o n D e -

c e m b e r 2 9 .

T h e f i r s t n e w s o f t h e b o m b i n g c a m e f r o m H a n o i . A m e r i c a n

o f f i c i a ls w e r e t i g h t - l i p pe d o n t h e s u b j e c t . O n D e c e m b e r 1 8 , S e c r e -

t a r y o f D e f e n s e M e l v i n L a i r d w a s q u e s t i o n e d a b o u t t h e m a t t e r

d u r i n g a p h o t o g r a p h i c s e s s i o n w h e r e h e w a s p r e p a r i n g t o t u r n o v e r

h i s d u ti e s t o E l li o t t R i ch a r ds o n . " A f t e r a t t e m p t i n g t o a v o i d t h e

q u e s t i o n , " a c c o r d i n g t o t h e New York Times (Dec . 1 9 ) , L a i r d s a i d :

" ` A i r o pe r a t i o n s a r e be i n g c o nd u c t e d t h r ou g h o ut N o r t h V i e t n a m

a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e . ' H e d e c l i n e d t o d i s c u s s t h e m a t t e r f u r t h e r ,

s a y i n g i t m i g h t j e o p a r d i z e p i l o t s ' l i v e s . " T h e A d mi n i s t r a t i o n ' s

s i l e n c e w a s a l l b u t d e a f e n i n g . T h e D e c e m b e r 1 9 C B S r e p o r t o n t h e

b o m b i n g w a s b a s e d o n V i e t n a m e s e r e p o r t s . " F r o m t h e A m e r i c a n

s i d e t h e r e w e r e f e w d e t a i l s o n t h e b o mb i n g , " s a i d t h e r e p o r t .

" M i l i t a r y s o u r c e s i n W a s h i n g t o n a nd S a i g o n s a y P r e s i d e n t N i x o n

h a s c l a m p e d a l i d o n a n y i n f o r m a t i o n . S a i d o n e o f f i c e r , ` W e ' v e

n e v e r b e e n u n de r s u c h t i g h t r e s t r i c t i o n s ."' On December 22,

R o b e r t P i e r p o n t o f C B S r e p o r t e d t h a t " p r e s s e d t o c o m m e n t o n o r

e x p l a i n t h e m a s s i v e b o m b i n g o f N o r t h V i e t n a m , Z i e g l e r [ t h e p r e s i -

d e n t i a l p r e s s s p o k e s m a n ] w o u ld n e i t h e r c o nf i r m n o r d e n y t h a t i t i s

1 5



1 6 MARTIN F. HERZ AND LESLIE RIDER

a i m e d a t f o r c i n g H a n o i t o a c c e p t t h e U . S . v e r s i o n o f a f a i r s e t t l e -

ment . " L a t e r , W h i t e H o u s e p r e s s s p o k e s m e n a n s w e r e d s u c h q u e s -

t i o n s w i t h " n o c o m m e n t . "

T h e r e w a s a r e a s o n f o r t h i s , b u t i t b e c a m e k n o w n o n l y m u c h

l a t e r . K i s s i n g e r h a d r e c o mm e n d e d f r om P a r i s t h a t t h e P r e s i d e n t g o

o n n a t i o n a l t e l e v i s i o n t o a n no u n c e a n d e x p l a i n t h e b o m b i n g , b u t

t h e P r e s i d e n t h a d r e f u s e d c a t e g o r i c a l l y . N i x o n ' s t e l e g r a p he d r e -

s p o n s e t o K i s s i n g e r w a s : " T h e t h i n g t o d o h e r e i s t o t a k e t h e h e a t

f r o m t h e W a s h i n g t o n e s t a b l i s h m e n t , w h o k n o w t h e d i f f e r e n c e , f o r

s t e p p i n g u p t h e b o m b i n g w h i c h w i l l o c c u r f o r a f e w d a y s , a n d

s i m p l y a c t s t r o n g l y w i t h o u t e s c a l a t i n g p u b l i c i t y a b o ut o u r a c t i o n s

b y w h a t w e s a y a b o u t t h e m " (RN: T h e M e m o i r s o f R i c h a r d N i x o n ,

New York : G r o s s e t a n d D u n l a p , 19 7 8 , p . 7 3 0 ) . N i x o n ' s r e a s o n i ng

a n d t h e d e t e r i o r a t i n g r e l a t i o ns b e t w e e n h i m a n d K i s s i n g e r a t t h a t

t i m e w i l l b e e x a m i n e d i n c h a pt e r 4 .

N o t s u r p r i s i n g l y , t h e v e r y s i l e n c e o f t h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n w a s u s e d

a s a n a r g u m e n t a g a i n s t t h e b o m b i n g . N e w s d i s p a t c h e s r e p e a t e d l y

r e f e r r e d t o t h e " s e c r e t i v e n e s s " o f t h e W h i t e H o u s e , t h e S t a t e

D e p a r t m e n t , a n d t h e P e n t a g o n . E v e n e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r t h e s e c r e c y ,

w h e n t h e y w e r e g i v e n , c o nt r i b u t e d t o t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t f a c t s

w e r e b e i n g n e e d l e s s l y w i t h h e l d . F o r i n s t a n c e , a r e p o r t d a t e l i n e d

S a i g o n t h a t a p p e a r e d i n t h e Washington Post a s l a t e a s D e c e m b e r

2 8 q u o t e d a n A i r F o r c e m a j o r , G i l b e r t W h i t e m a n , a s s a y i ng t h a t

i n f o r m a t i o n w a s b e i n g " t e m p o r a r i l y w i t h h e l d t o p r o t e c t t h e s e c u -

r i t y o f o n g o i n g o p e r a t i o n s a n d pr o t e c t t h e s a f e t y o f t h e c r e w s . "

T h i s l a c k e d p l a u s i b i l i t y .

T h e o n e W h i t e H o u s e e x p l a n a t i o n o n l y m a d e m a t t e r s w o r s e .

O n D e c e m b e r 1 9 , P r e s s S e c r e t a r y R o n a l d Z i e g l e r s a i d : " T h e

P r e s i d e n t w i l l c o n t i n u e t o o r d e r w h a t e v e r a c t i o n h e c o n s i d e r s

n e c e s s a r y , b y a i r o r b y s e a , t o p r e v e n t a n y b u i l d u p t h a t c o u l d l e a d

t o t h e o pe n i n g o f a ne w o f f e n s i v e i n t he S o u t h . W e a r e n o t g oi n g t o

a l l ow t h e p e a c e t a l k s t o b e u s e d a s a c o v e r t o b u i l d u p a n o t h e r

o f f e n s i v e . " T h i s i m p l i e d t h a t t h e b o m b i n g w a s p r i m a r i l y f o r m i l i -

t a r y r e a s o n s . Z i e g l e r ' s a n n o u n c e m e n t w a s i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l ow e d

b y a s p a t e o f r e p o r t s t h a t w h e n U . S . m i l i t a r y o ff i c e r s w e r e a s k e d

w h e t h e r t h e r e h a d b e e n a c h a n g e i n t h e r e c e n t m i l i t a r y a s s e s s m e n t

t h a t i t w o u l d t a k e N o r t h V i e t n a m e i g h t e e n m o n t h s t o r e c o v e r f r o m



REPORTING BY THE PRESTIGE PRESS 1 7

i t s l o s s e s d u r i n g t h e s p r i n g - s u m m e r o f f e n s i v e , t h e y e x p r e s s e d s u r -

p r i s e a n d d i s b e l i e f .

Method of Analysis

T h e f a c t u a l m e d i a c o v e r a g e o f t h e b o m b i n g c a n b e g r o u p e d

u n d e r s e v e n h e a d i n g s : ( 1 ) W h o C au s e d t h e B r e a k d o w n o f N e g o t i -

a t i o n s ? ( 2 ) W i l l t h e B o mb i n g A c h i e v e I t s P u r p o s e ? ( 3 ) C i v i l i a n

Damage in North Vietnam . ( 4 ) U s e o f t h e B - 5 2 B o m b e r . ( 5 )

F o r e i g n R e a c t i o n t o t h e B o m b i n g . ( 6 ) C h i n a : A S p e c i a l C as e . ( 7 )

R e a c t i o n i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . I t w a s e s p e c i a l l y d i f f i c u l t t o d i s t i n -

g u i s h b e t w e e n f a c t u a l r e p o r t i n g a n d c o m m e n t i n t h e p e r i o d w e a r e

a n a l y z i n g ( D e c e m b e r 1 9 t o 3 1 ) , b o t h be c a u s e o f t h e s e l e c t i v i t y o f

t h e m e d i a i n r e p o r t i n g f a c t s a n d b e c a u s e s o m u c h c o m m e n t w a s

r e p o r t e d i n t h e n e w s c o l u m ns , i n e f f e c t g i v i n g t h a t c o m m e n t a f r e e

r i d e a s n e w s . B u t o t h e r p e o p l e ' s c o m m e n t s are n e w s , a c c o r d i n g t o

e s t a b l i s h e d c u s t o m , a nd i t i s h a r d t o s e e w h e r e e l s e s u c h c o m m e nt s

c o u l d h a v e b e e n p l a c e d .

W e d i s t i n g u i s h h e r e b e t w e e n ( a ) c o m m e n t i n t h e e d i t o r i a l c ol -

u m n s a n d o n t h e o p - e d ( o p p o s i t e t h e e d i t o r i a l s ) p a g e , a n d ( b ) a l l

m a t e r i a l i n t h e n e w s c o l u m ns . I n t h e a n a ly s i s o f Time and N e w s -

week, m a k i n g t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n i s d i f f i c u l t a n d i nv o l v e s s o m e a r b i t r a r -

i n e s s , s i n c e i n t h o s e p u b l i c a t i o n s n e w s a n d c o mm e n t a r e o f t e n

i n t e r t w i n e d ( a s i n d e e d t h e y a r e i n t e l e v i s i o n n e w s p r o g r a m s ) .

T h e d i f f i c u l t y i s c o m p o u nd e d w h e n s t r a i g h t e d i t o r i a l c om m e n t

f r o m a b r o a d i s c a r r i e d i n t h e n e w s c o l um n s . F o r i n s t a n c e , i n w h a t

c a t e g o r y s h o u l d o n e p l a c e a f a i r l y t y p i c a l r e p o r t i n t h e Washington

Post q u o t i n g t h e L o n d o n Daily Mirror a s s a y i n g t h e b o m b i n g w a s

" a n a c t o f i n s a n e f e r o c i t y , a c r u d e e x e r c i s e i n t h e p o l i t i c s o f t e r r o r , a

b l u n d e r o f t r a g i c m a g n i t u d e " ? W a s t h i s c o m m e n t o r ne w s ? I t w a s

c o m m e n t r e p o r t e d a s n e w s , s o w e t r e a t i t a s n e w s . ( A s i n g l e c o u n -

t e r v a i l i n g q u o t e f r o m t h e L o n d o n Daily Telegraph, a l s o r e p o r t e d i n

t h e P o s t , s a i d m e r e l y t h a t U . S . a c t i o n s " m a y w e l l b e r i g h t " ; t h i s

i l l u s t r a t e s h o w on e - s i d e d t h e d e b a t e w a s i f o n e c o m pa r e s t h e p a s -

s i o n a r o u s e d i n o p p o n e n t s o f t h e b o m b i n g t o t h e p a i n e d s o b r i e t y o f

i t s f e w s u p p o r t e r s . )

A n o t h e r d i f f i c u l t y i s t h e " n e w s a n a l y s i s " t h a t a p p e a r s i n t h e




n e w s c o l u m n s . F o r i n s t a n c e , C a r r ol l K i r k p a t r i c k a s s e r t e d i n t h e

Washington Post (Dec . 3 1 ) t h a t " s e c r e c y h as b e c o m e a p r e s i d e n t i a l

w e a p o n a n d o nl y t h e t i p o f t h e i c e b e r g i s e v e r a p p a r e n t t o t h e

v o t e r s i n t h i s d e m o c r ac y . " A l t h o u g h t h i s w a s c o m m e n t , i t w a s n o t

p r e s e n t e d a s e d i t o r i a l o p i n i o n , s o w e c o u n t e d i t a s p a r t o f t h e n e w s

c o v e r a g e .

W e h a d a v a i l a bl e c o m p le t e t r a n s c r i p t s o f t h e C B S e v e n i n g n e w s

b r o a d c a s t s b u t o n l y s u m m a r i e s o f t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g b r o a d ca s t s o f

t h e o t h e r n e t w o r k s ( a s p u b li s h e d i n t h e V a n d e r b i l t U n i v e r s i t y

T e l e v i s i o n N e w s I n d e x a n d A b s t r a c t s ) . W e t h e r e f o r e d i d n o t a t t e m p t

a q u a n t i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s o f t h e N B C a n d A B C n e w s b r o a d c a s t s . F o r

C B S , w e a n a l y z e d c o v e r a g e b y l i n e s i n t h e f u l l t r a n s c r i p t s , w h e r e a s

f o r t h e n e w s p a p e r s a n d m a g a z i n e s w e u s e d t h e a c t u a l n u m b e r o f

p r i n t e d l i n e s . " L i n e s " i n t h e f i v e s t u d i e d s o u r c e s a r e n o t s t r i c t l y

c o m p a r a bl e , s i n c e t h e n u m b e r o f w o r d s p e r l i n e d e p e n d s o n t h e

c o l u m n w i d t h a n d t y p e s i z e . N o n e t h e l e s s , w e t h i n k o u r a n a l y s i s

p r o v i d e s t h e r o u g h c o m pa r a b i l i t y w e s o u g h t .

Who Caused the Breakdown of Negotiations?

T h e q u e s t i o n o f w h o m t o b l a m e r o s e i m m e d i a t e l y . C o ns i d e r i n g

t h a t t h e p r e s s h a d a b u n d a n t a nt i - U . S . a c c u s a t i o n s f r o m H a n o i a n d

o n ly s p a r s e i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m W as h i n g t o n - e x c e p t f o r K i s s i n g e r ' s

d e t a i l e d p r e s s b r i e f i n g o n D e c e m b e r 1 6 a n d o n e " b a c k g r o u n d "

s e s s i o n o n D e c e m be r 2 0 - t h e b a l an c e i n t h e n e w s s t o r i e s i s b e t t e r

t h a n m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d ; s e e t a b l e 1 .

L i n e A o f t h e t a b l e i n c l u d e s r e p o r t s t h a t a c c u s e d t h e N o r t h

V i e t n a m e s e o f h a v i n g m a d e a f u n d a m e n t a l d e c i s i o n a g a i n s t p e a c e

*There is a marginal inexactitude in the tallies for the N e w Y o r k T i m e s and the

Washington Post . We counted lines of type but then decided to convert lines into

column inches . To do this we used the Post measure-a column inch equals five

lines-for both newspapers and rounded off to the nearest full i nch . By the time

we discovered that the Times column inch is calculated differently, Leslie Rider

had discarded the original line counts . Since we had divided by five to get column

inches, we multiplied by five to revert to lines . But since we had rounded off the

column-inch figures, the reconstruct ed line tallies m ay be one or two li nes off .

(This explains, of course, why our figures for the T im es and t he P os t are always

multipl es of five . )




TABLE 1

ASSIGNING BLAME FOR THE BREAKDOWN OF NEGOTIATIONS( B y l i n e s o f t e x t )

o r a d e c i s i o n t o s t a l l t h e t a l k s . R e p o r t s f r o m S o u t h V i e t n a m t h a t

r e f e r r e d t o N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e " p e r f i d y " c o m e i n t h i s c a t e g o r y . S o

d o r e p o r t s r e c a l l i n g K i s s i n g e r ' s a s s e r t i o n t h a t t h e e n e m y w a s p u t -

t i n g n e w o b s t a c l e s i n t h e w a y o f r e l e a s e o f A m e r i c a n p r i s o n e r s o f

w a r , r e f u s i n g t o d i s c u s s t h e t e c h n i c a l ma c h i n e r y o f t h e c e a s e - f i r e

( u n t i l t h e d a y b e f o r e h e w a s t o r e t u r n t o W a s h i n g t o n ) , a n d t r y i n g t o

w e a k e n t h e a l r e a d y w e a k s u p e r v i s o r y f o r c e . T h e r e w e r e a l s o r e c o l-

l e c t i o n s o f K i s s i n g e r ' s c h a r g e t h a t t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e h a d w i t h -

d r a w n e a r l i e r c o n c e s s i o n s a n d h a d r e f u s e d t o a c c e p t l a n g u a g e

about the DMZ and even a vague reference t o some ki nd of

coexis tence between Nort h and South Vietnam . T h i s c a t e g o r y

i n c l u d e s a l s o t h e r e p o r t t h a t t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e g o v e r n m e n t

h a d " d i r e c t e d a n e v a c u a t i o n o f w o m e n a n d c h i l d r e n f r o m H a n o i o n

D e c e m b e r 4 , t h e d a y t h e m o s t r e c e n t r o u n d o f p r i v a t e t a l k s b e g a n

i n P a r i s " ( N e w Y o r k T i m e s , Dec . 1 9 ) , w h i c h c o u l d b e i n t e r p r e t e d t o

m e a n t h a t t h e e n e m y m u s t h a v e k n o w n , or a t l e a s t c o n s i d e r e d i t

l i k e l y , t h a t t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s i n D e c e m b e r w e r e g o i n g t o f a i l o r b e

s t a l e m a t e d . (Actually the evacuation had covered more than

w o m e n a n d c h i l d r e n ; i t a p p a r e n t l y h a d n o t b e e n c o m p l e t e d b y t h e

t i m e t h e b o m b i n g b e g a n . ) I n a s i m i l a r a n d m o r e e x p l i c i t i t e m o n

ABC evening news December 2 1, Howard K . S m i t h , r e f e r r i n g t o

i n t e l l i g e n c e r e p o r t s a b o u t t h e e v a c u a t i o n , a d d e d t h a t "U. S . o f f i -

c i a l s t h e o r i z e t h a t H a n o i m a y , h a v e d e c i d e d t o s t a l l f o r o n e o r a l l o f

t h r e e r e a s o n s : t h e e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t Co n g r e s s m a y c u t of f m i l i t a r y

a i d t o S o u t h V i e t n a m ; t h e p r o s p e c t o f f u r t h e r d i s p u t e s b e t w e e n

N. Y .

TIMESWASHPOST TIME NEWS-WEEK C BS

A. B l a m e H a n o i 480 2 3 0 1 3 4 9 1 4 3

B . N e u t r a l 2 7 0 3 1 0 44 1 0 0 1 3

C. Blame U . S . 5 2 5 4 2 5 5 8 3 3 2 7



2 0 MARTIN F . HERZ AND LESLIE RIDER

S a i g o n a n d W a s h i n g t o n ; o r t h e n e e d f o r t i m e t o p r e p a r e a n e w

m i l i t a r y o f f e n s i v e . " T h e r e w a s n o s i m i l a r t h e o r i z i n g a b o u t t h e

r e a s o n f o r t h e b o m b i n g o n t h e C B S e v e n i n g n e w s .

L i n e B u s e s " n e u t r a l " t o m e a n , n o t b e i n g i m p a r t i a l t o w a r d

H a n o i a n d W as h i n g t o n , b u t m a k i n g n o v a l u e j u d g m e n t s a b o u t t h e

b e h a v i o r o f t h e t w o s i d e s . T h i s c a t e g o r y i n c l u d e s , f o r i n s t a n c e , b o t h

V i e t n a m e s e a n d A m e r i c a n d e n i a l s o f t h e a c c u s a t i o n s a g a i n s t t h e m ,

c h a r g e s t h a t S o u t h V i e t n a m w a s t o b l a m e , a t t e m p t s t o r e c o n c i l e

c o n f l i c t i n g c l a i m s , a n d s p e c u la t i v e m a t e r i a l a b o u t t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s .

A m o n g t h e l a t t e r w e r e a t t e m p t e d e x p l a na t i o n s o f w h a t w e n t w r o n g

i n P a r i s t h a t r e f e r r e d t o s u c h s t i c k i n g p o i n t s a s S o u t h V i e t n a m e s e

s o v e r e i g n t y , t h e s u p e r v i s o r y f o r c e , a n d t h e D M Z .

L i n e C i n c l u d e s m a t e r i a l t h a t a c c u s e d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o f t r y i n g

t o a l t e r t h e e s s e n t i a l p r i n c i p l e s o f t h e a g r e e m e n t u n d e r t h e g u i s e o f

t e c h n i c a l c h a n g e s a n d c l a r i f i c a t i o n s . Among the examples are

N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e c o n t e n t i o ns t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a d r e f u s e d

t o a c c e p t t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t t h e r e w e r e t w o g o v e r n m e n t s a n d t w o

m i l i t a r y f o r c e s i n S o u t h V i e t n a m a n d h a d a t t e m p t e d , i n s t e a d , t o

h a v e t h e a r m i s t i c e a g r e e m e n t e s t a b l i s h t h e s o v e r e i g n t y o f S o u t h

Vietnam. A Washington Post (Dec . 3 1 ) " n e w s a n a l y s i s " s u m -

m a r i z e d H a n oi ' s c o m pl a i nt t h a t a m o ng o t h e r t h i n g s K i s s i n g e r t r i e d

t o " m a k e t h e r e l e a s e o f t h e p o l i t i c a l de t a i n e e s i n S o u t h V i e t n a m

c o n t i n g e n t u p o n t h e w i t h d r a w a l o f N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e f o r c e s , t o

" r e d u c e t h e t a s k " o f t h e p r o po s e d t r i p a r t i t e N a t i o n a l C ou n c i l , a nd

t o " c a n c e l " a l l m e n t i o n o f t h e P r o v i s i o n a l R e v o l u t i o n a r y G o v e r n -

m e n t ( V i e t C o n g ) i n t h e a g r e e m e n t , a n d t h a t h e i n s i s t e d o n m a i n -

t a i n i n g U . S . m i l i t a r y a d v i s e r s i n S o u t h V i e t n a m u n d e r t h e g u i s e o f

c i v i l i a n p e r s o n n e l . T h e N o r t h V i e t n a me s e c h a r g e d t h a t t h e U n i t e d

S t a t e s h a d p r o po s e d 1 2 6 c h a n g e s i n t h e d r a f t a g r e e m e n t - w h i c h

e l i c i t e d a d e n i a l - a n d h a d t h r e a t e n e d " o n a d a i l y b a s i s " t o r e s u m e

t h e b o m b i n g n o r t h o f t h e t w e n t i e t h p a r a l l e l . T i m e ( J a n u a r y 1 ,

w h i c h w a s o n t h e n e w s t a n d s a b o u t D e c e m b e r 2 6 ) r e p o r t e d t h a t

" t h e l a s t s t r a w " c a m e w h e n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s r e o p e n e d a p r e v i -

o u s l y s e t t l e d i s s u e b y a t t e m p t i n g t o e s t a b l i s h t h e D M Z a s a n

i n t e r n a t i o n a l f r o n t i e r , a n d H a n o i " e x p l o d e d . "

A l l t h i s i s s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d e n o u g h , a n d t h e t a b l e a l l o w s u s t o n o t e

a n i n t e r e s t i n g d i s p a r i t y , w h i c h w e s h a l l c h e c k i n t h e s u b s e q u e n t

c a t e g o r i e s t o s e e i f i t i s a p a t t e r n . T h e r a t i o o f m a t e r i a l c r i t i c a l o f




H a n o i t o m a t e r i a l c r i t i c a l o f W a s h i n g t o n i s : New York Times,1 ( c r i t i c a l o f H a n oi ) t o 1 ( c r i t i c a l o f W a s h i n g t o n) ; Post, 1 t o 2 ;

Time, 2 . 5 t o 1 ; Newsweek, 3 t o 1 ; C B S , 3 t o 2 . C B S h a d t h e

s m a l l e s t p r o p o r t i o n o f n e u t r a l i t e m s ; Time's, t o o , w a s r e l a t i v e l y

s m a l l . I t s h o u l d be e m p h a s i z e d a g a i n t h a t i n t h i s s e c t i o n w e a r e

a n a l y z i n g n e w s , n o t e d i t o r i a l c o m m e n t .

Will the Bombing Achieve Its Purpose?

A s s e r t i o n s t h a t t h e b o m b i n g w o u l d be c o u n t e r p r o d u c t i v e w e r e

r e p o r t e d w i d e l y : i t w o u l d p r o lo n g r a t h e r t h a n e n d t h e w a r , i t w o u l d

f o r c e H a n oi t o s t i f f e n i t s s t a n d , i t w o u l d j e o p a r d i z e d e t e n t e w i t h

M o s c o w o r P e k i n g o r b o t h . T h e s e w e r e n o t c o u n t e r b a l an c e d b y

r e p o r t s a b o u t t h e p r e s u m e d r a t i o n a l e o f t h e b o m b i n g , n o r e v e n

b y r e p o r t s t h a t c r e d i t e d t h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n w i t h a p la u s i b l e

s t r a t e g y w h i l e e x p r e s s i n g d o u b t s t h a t i t w o u l d w or k . S o m e h o w t h e

n e w s - g a t h e r e r s s e e m e d a b l e t o f i n d o n l y o b t u s e a n d u n co n v i n ci n g

e x p l a na t i o n s o f w h a t t h e U . S . g o v e r n me n t w a s d o i ng . O ne r e po r t

c i t e d a " k n o w l e d g e a bl e s o u r c e " t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t P r e s i d e n t N i x o n

w a s h o p i n g t o " s h o w H a n o i t h a t h e c o u l d t a k e t h e h e a t a t h o m e a n d

a b r o a d " (New York Times, Dec . 2 6 ) , i . e . , t h a t h e c o u l d a f f o r d t o

c o n t i n u e t h e w a r . O t h e r s s a i d N i x o n w a s d e m on s t r a t i n g t h a t h e

w o u l d k e e p h i s w o r d b y f o l l o w i n g t h r o u g h o n t h r e a t s m a d e d u r i n g

t h e t a l k s a n d b y r e s u m i n g a c t i o n s p r e v i o u s l y h a lt e d i n t h e h o p e t h a t

H a n o i w o u l d d i s p l a y g o od w i l l a n d r e a s o n a b l e n e s s i n t h e t a l k s . A s

a s t o r y i n t h e Times (Dec . 2 4 ) p u t i t , " [ a s ] s p e c u l a t e d b y s o m e , t h e

P r e s i d e n t m a y h a v e o r d e r e d t h e B - 5 2 r a i d s a s m o r e o f a b l u n t

m a u li n g o p e r a t i o n , t o s h o w N o r t h V i e t n a m t h a t h e h a s t h e d e t e r -

m i n a t i o n t o i n t e n s i f y p r e s s u r e . " T h e r e w e r e n o r e p o r t s , o r a l m os t

n o n e , o f t h e o f f i c i a l v i e w t h a t t h e b o m b i n g m i g h t h a s t e n t h e c o m i n g

o f p e a c e .

V i e w s t h a t t h e b o m b i n g w a s n o t o n l y c r u e l a n d i m m o r a l b ut a l s o

f u t i l e a n d s e l f - d e f e a t i n g w e r e r e p o r t e d f r o m X a n T hu y , t h e N o r t h

V i e t n a m e s e n e g o t i a t o r ; a s t u d y b y a g r o u p o f l e a d i n g U . S . s c i e n -

t i s t s u n de r t h e a u s p i c e s o f t h e I n s t i t u t e o f D e f e n s e A n a l y s i s ;

N g u y e n T r i n h L e , t h e s p o k e s m a n f o r H a n oi ' s d e l e g a t i o n i n P a r i s ;

a n t i - w a r a c t i v i s t T o m H a y d e n ; D a v i d L i v i n g s t o n , a N e w Y o r k

l a b or l e a d e r ; M m e N g u y e n T h i B i n h , t h e V i e t c o n g n e g o t i a t o r ; " a



2 2 MARTIN F . HERZ AN D LESLIE RIDER

n u m b e r o f d i p l o m a t s i n S a i g o n " ; " on e o f fi c i a l" a nd "a n i n fo r me d

i n t e l l i g e n c e s o ur c e " i n W as h i n g t o n ; t h e S o v i e t a m b a s s a d o r t o

F r a n c e ; H a n o i r a d i o ; G e n e r a l V o N g u y e n G i a p o f N o r t h V i e t n a m ;

" m a n y A m e r i c a n e x p e r t s " w h o " d o n ot i d l y d i s m i s s G i a p ' s c l a i m " ;

t h e I n d i a n d e pu t y f or e i g n m i n i s t e r ; S e n a t o r J a c o b J a v i t s o f N e w

York ; t h r e e L a b o r p a r t y m e m b e r s ( f r o m C o v e n t r y ) i n t h e B r i t i s h

House of Commons ; A r t h u r G a l s t o n , a Y a l e b i o l o g i s t ; a nd ot h e r s .

A g r e a t d e a l o f a t t e n t i o n - p e r h a p s d e s e r v e d l y - w a s g i v e n t o a

s t a t e m e n t m a d e b y a l a r g e g r o u p o f A me r i c a n s c i e n t i s t s u n d e r t h e

a u s p i c e s o f t h e A m e r i c a n A s s o c i a t i o n f o r t h e A d v a n c e m e n t o f

S c i e n c e ; i n c l u d e d i n t h e g r o u p , i n a d d i t i o n t o P r o f e s s o r G a l s t o n ,

w e r e t h r e e N o b e l la u r e a t e s : G e o r g e W a l d o f H a r v a r d , S a l v a d o r e

L u r i a o f M I T , a n d A l b e r t S z e n t - G y o r g y i o f t h e M a r i n e B i o l o g y

Laboratory at Wood's Hole . T h e r e w a s a p r e p o n d e r a n c e o f

b i o l o g i s t s i n t h e g r o u p , a n d n o a p p a r e n t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n f r o m

a m o n g e x p e r t s i n p o l i t i c s , s t r a t e g y , o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l af f a i r s .

T h e d i s p a r a t e n e s s o f t h e s e s o u r c e s s u g g e s t s t h a t r e p o r t e r s

s o u g h t ne g a t i v e v i e w s m o r e as s i d u o u s l y t h a n p o s i t i v e o ne s . T h e

New York Tim e s, Time, a n d C B S f e a t u r e d a b o u t 2 5 p e r c e n t m o r e

n e g a t i v e t h a n p o s i t i v e c o m m e n t s a b o u t t h e e f f i c a c y o f t h e b o m b i n g

f o r p r e s s u r i n g N o r t h V i e t n a m t o ne g o t i a t e , w h i l e t h e Washington

Post and Newsweek d e v o t e d t h r e e t i m e s a s m u c h s p a c e t o s u c h

a r g u m e n t s a s t o t h e r e v e r s e c l a i m t h a t t h e b o m b i n g w o u l d or c o u l d

s u c c e e d i n a l t e r i n g t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e s t a n c e .

L o o k i n g a t t h e s e d a t a v e r y t e n t a t i v e l y t o s e e i f a n y p a t t e r n

e m e r g e s , w e f i n d t h a t f o r Newsweek a n d C B S t h e p a t t e r n f o u n d i n

t h e " W h o C au s e d t h e B r e a k d o w n ? " s e c t i o n s e e m s t o b e r e v e r s e d .

The Washington Post t e n d s t o b e m or e c o ns i s t e n t : w e s a w t h a t

t w i c e a s m u c h o f i t s n e w s t e n d e d t o b l a m e W a s h i n g t o n a s t o b l a m e

H a n oi f o r t h e b r e a k d o w n o f n e g o t i a t i o n s , a n d w e n o w s e e t h a t i t

g a v e t h r e e t i m e s a s m u c h s p a c e t o v i e w s t h a t t h e b o m b i n g w o ul d b e

i n e f f e c t i v e a s t o t h e o p p o s i t e v i e w .

Civi lian Damage in North Vietnam

W h a t w a s s a i d a b o u t c i v i l i a n d a m a g e c a u s e d b y t h e b o m b i n g i s

t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t as p e c t o f t h i s s t u d y . I t w a s t h e mo s t c on t r o v e r -

s i a l i s s u e . " B a l a n ce " i n r e p o r t i n g o n t h i s p o i n t w a s i m p o s s i b l e t o




a t t a i n , s i n c e t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e a n d o t h e r n a t i o n a l s i n H a n o i

w h o s y m p a t h i z e d w i t h N o r t h V i e t n a m h a d a v i r t u a l m o n o po l y o n

f a c t u a l i n f o r m a t i o n a n d H a n o i u n d e r s t a n d a b l y e m p h a s i z e d c i v i l i a n

r a t h e r t h a n m i l i t a r y d a m a g e . T h e U . S . g o v e r n m e n t ' s d e n i a l s t h a t i t

t a r g e t e d a n y c i v i l i a n s i t e s s e e m e d i m p l a u s i b l e i n t h e f a c e o f a n

a v a l an c h e o f i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t s e e m e d t o e s t a b l i s h t h a t t h e U n i t e d

S t a t e s w a s e n g a g e d i n i n d i s c r i m i n a t e " c a r p e t - b o mb i n g . "

Throughout the two-week bombing the Administ rati on main-

ta ined tha t i t wa s ta r g e t ing only fac il i t i e s of m il i ta ry valu e . T e n d a y s

i n t o t h e b o m b i n g t h e m i l i t a r y c o m m a n d i n S a i g o n i s s u e d a p r e s s

r e l e a s e a s s e s s i n g t h e d a m a g e d o n e t o m i l i t a r y t a r g e t s i n t h e H a n o i

a n d H a i p h o n g a r e a s . T h e l i s t i n c l u d e d a i r b a s e s , r a i l y a r d s a n d s h i p -

y a r ds , S A M ( s u r f a c e - t o - a i r m i s s i l e ) a n d o t h e r a n t i - a i r c r a f t s i t e s ,

f a c i l i t i e s f o r c o m m a n d a n d c o n t r o l , f o r c o m m u n i c a t i o n s , a n d f o r

v e h i c l e r e p a i r , w a r e h o u s e s , p o w e r p l a n t s , r a i l w a y b r i d g e s , t r u c k

p a r k s , a n d a i r - d e f e n s e r a d a r . A m er e l i s t in g o f th e s e t ar g e t s c ou ld

n o t o f f s e t t h e c h a r g e s t h a t A m e r i c a n a i r c r a f t , e s p e c i a l l y B - 5 2 s ,

w e r e s o w i n g p a t h s o f de s t r u c t i o n t h r o u g h o u t c i v i l i a n a r e a s , k i l l i n g

a n d m a i m i n g o n a s c a le r e c a l l i n g t h e m o s t i n t e n s e a i r r a i d s o f W o r l d

W a r I I . F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e s t a t e m e n t b y t h e s c i e n t i s t s l e d b y t h r e e

N o b e l P r i z e - w i n n e r s a s s e r t e d t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s

i s l a u n c h i n g t h o s e a t t a c k s a g a i n s t c o n c e n t r a t e d c e n t e r s o f c i v i l i a n

p o p u l a t i o n , w h i l e b l a n d l y a n n o u n c i n g l i s t s o f m i l i t a r y t a r g e t s t h a t

u n d e r t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s i n s u l t t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e o f e v e r y t h i n k i n g

p e r s o n . N o r t h V i e t n a m h a r d l y c o n t a i n s m i l i t a r y t a r g e t s ; a n d a

B - 5 2 b o m b i n g p a t t e r n , o n e a n d o n e - h a l f m i l e s l o n g b y o n e - h a l f

m i l e b r o a d , d r o pp e d f r o m a n a l t i t u d e o f 3 0 , 0 0 0 f e e t c a n n o t p i c k

o u t t a r g e t s . Y e t s u c h b om b i n g s a r e n o w c r i s s - c r o s s i n g s o m e o f

t h e m o s t d e n s e l y po p u l a t e d c i t i e s o f t h e w o r l d , i n a n u n p r e c e -

d e n t e d o r g y o f k i l l i n g a n d d e s t r u c t i o n t h a t h o r r i f i e s p e o p le

e v e r y w h e r e - a s G u e r n i c a , C o v e n t r y , a n d D r e s d e n o n c e h o r r i -

f i e d t h e m [ s t a t e m e n t b y t h e A m e r i c a n A s s o c i a t i o n f o r t h e

A d v a n c e m e n t o f S c i e n c e , D e c e m b e r 2 8 , 1 9 7 2 ] .

S u b s e q u e n t i n f o r m a t i o n h a s e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h e b o m b i n g w a s

s u r p r i s i n g l y a c c u r a t e a n d t h a t t h e n u m b e r o f c i v i l i a n s k i l l e d w a s

m u c h s m a l le r t h a n , f o r e x a m p le , t h e n u m b e r o f c i v i l i a n s k i l l e d b y t h e

N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e i n m e r e l y t h e i n i t i a l s t a g e s o f t h e i r s p r i n g o f f e n -

s i v e , w h e n t h e y h a d d e l i b e r a t e l y ai m e d a r t i l l e r y f i r e a t t h o u s a n ds o f

r e f u g e e s t r y i n g t o f l e e s o u t h w a r d f r o m Q u a n g T r i . ( T he s e ma t t e r s




w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d i n c h a p t e r 4 , " W h a t R e a l l y H a p pe n e d . " ) B u t

i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e a c c u r a c y o f t h e B - 5 2 w h e n u s e d a s i t w a s u s e d

o v e r H a n o i w a s w i t h h e l d f r o m t h e p r e s s , a s w a s t h e f a c t t h a t m i l i t a r y

t a r g e t s n e a r c i v i l i a n c on c e n t r a t i o n s - f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e H a n o i p ow e r

p l a n t - w e r e b o m b e d w i t h " s m a r t " b o m b s d e l i v e r e d b y f i g h t e r -

b o m b e r s a n d n o t s u b j e c t e d t o B - 5 2 b o m b i n g a t a l l . * A n i n q u i s i t i v e

j o u r n a l i s t c o u l d h av e d e d u c e d t h i s f r o m t h e p u b l i s h e d t a r g e t l i s t b y

n o t i n g t h e c a t e g o r y o f a i r c r a f t a s s i g n e d t o p a r t i c u l ar t a r g e t s . B u t t h a t

i n f o r m a t i o n , p u b l i s h e d D e c e m b e r 2 8 , w a s l a r g e l y i g n o r e d .

A b l u n d e r b y J e r r y F r i e d h e i m , t h e P e n t a g o n s p o k e s m a n , a t a p r e s s

c o n f e r e n c e D e c e m b e r 2 0 i l l u s t r a t e s b o t h t h e p a u c i t y o f i n f o r m a t i o n

a b o u t t h e b o m b i n g s t r a t e g y a n d t h e h a p l e s s n e s s o f m i l i t a r y s p o k e s -

m e n i n t h e f a c e o f p r e s s q u e s t i o n i n g . F r i e d h e i m s a i d f i r s t t h a t t h e

U n i t e d S t a t e s d i d n o t " s t r i k e c i v i l i a n t a r g e t s " b u t i m m e d i a t e l y c o r -

r e c t e d h i m s e l f b y s a y i n g t h a t i t d i d n o t " t a r g e t c i v i l i a n t a r g e t s . " ( A

New York Times e d i t o r i a l - s e e A p p e n d i x D - s u b l i m i n a ll y t r a n s -

f o r m e d t h i s r e m a r k t o a p p l y t o c i v i l i a n " c e n t e r s . " ) U n d e r q u e s t i o n -

i n g , h e c o n c e d e d t h a t o n e c o u l d n o t " r u l e o u t " t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f

c o l l a t e r a l d a m a g e . W he n t h e li s t o f t a r ge t s w a s i s s u ed i n S a i g on o n

D e c e m b e r 2 8 , F r i e d h e i m " s t r e s s e d t h a t a l l t h e t a r g e t s o n t h e l i s t o f

s i x t y - e i g h t t h a t h e r e l e a s e d w e r e m i l i t a r y o n e s a nd t h a t h e ` ha s n o

r e p o r t s o f a n y c o l la t e r a l d a m a g e ' t o c i v i l i a n i n s t a l l a t i o n s . H e c o n -

c e d e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t H a n o i i s a c i t y l i k e a n y o t h e r , w i t h m i l i t a r y a n d

c i v i l i a n f a c i l i t i e s i n t e r s p e r s e d . W h e r e m i l i t a r y s i t e s w e r e t a r g e t e d , h e

s a i d , h e c o u l d n o t ` r u l e o u t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f o t h e r t h i n g s h a p p e n -

* T h e r e w e r e t w o a p pa r e n t e x c e p t i o n s . One was the "Hanoi communicati ons

f a ci l i ty " l i s te d as a B - 5 2 t a r g et . I t w a s a l s o b o m b e d b y F - 1 1 1 s a n d F - 4 s . A c c o r d i n g

t o o u r r e a d i n g o f m i l i t a r y a n d c i v i l i a n m a p s , i t i s l o c a t e d i n t h e n o r t h w e s t c o r n e r o f

downtown Hanoi . ( W e a r e a s s u m i n g t h a t t h e " H a n o i c o m m u n i c a t i o n s f a c i l i t y " i s

i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e " H a n o i c o m m u n i c a t i o n s o f f i c e " s h o w n o n o u r m a p s b u t c o u l d n o t

g e t t h i s c o n f i r m e d b y m i l i t a r y s o u r c e s . T h e N e w Y o r k T i m e s i n a s c h e m a t i c m a p

p u b l i s h e d o n D e c e m b e r 2 8 , 1 9 7 2 , a s s u m e d t h e y w e r e i d e n t i c a l . ) A n o t h e r e x c e p t i o n

w a s t h e p e t r o l e u m p r o d u c t s a r e a i n a s o u t h e r n s u b u r b o f H a n o i t h a t w a s a m o n g t h e

B - 5 2 t a r g e t s ; i t w a s 2 0 0 y a r d s f r o m t h e B a c h M a i h o s p i t a l . A l s o c l o s e t o t h e h o s p i t a l

w e r e t h e B a c h M a i a i r f i e l d , a f i g h t e r - b o m b e r t a r g e t , a n d t h e " c o - l o c a t e d " B a c h M a i

m i l i t a r y s t or a g e c o m pl e x , a B - 5 2 t a r g e t . A n u n e x p l a i n e d a s p e c t o f t h e d a m a g e t o t h e

B a c h M a i h o s p i t a l i s t h a t , a c c o r d i n g t o o u r r e a d i n g o f t h e a e r i a l p h ot o g r a p h s

r e l e a s e d i n A p r i l 1 9 7 3 , t h e d a m a g e o c c u r r e d i n t h e p a r t o f t h e h o s p i t a l c o m p le x t h a t

was f a r t h e s t a w a y f r o m t h e B a c h M a i a i r f i e l d a n d f r o m t h e p e t r o l e u m p r o d u c t s a r e a .




i n g " ' (Washington Post, Dec . 2 8 ) . O n e c a n i m a g i n e t h e q u e s t i o n i n g

t h a t r e s u l t e d i n h i s " c o n c e d i n g " t h a t c i v i l i a n s c a n g e t h u r t w h e n

m i l i t a r y t a r g e t s n e a r c i v i l i a n h a b i t a t i o n s a r e b o m b e d .

T h e p r e d i c a m e n t o f t h e P e n t a g o n s p o k e s m a n , o b v i o u s l y u n d e r

o r d e r s n o t t o d i s c u s s c i v i l i a n c a s u a lt i e s , c a n b e s e n s e d i n t h e f o l l ow -

i n g r e p o r t :

T o r e p o r t e r s w h o a s k e d r e p e a t e d l y a b o u t f o r e i g n r e p o r t s o f

h e a v y d a m a g e a n d c a s u a l t i e s i n n o n m i l i t a r y s e c t i o n s o f t h e c a p i -

t a l , M r . F r i e d h e i m s a i d : " Y o u ' l l h a v e t o j u d g e t h e s o u r c e s o f t h a t

i n f o r m a t i o n . " P r e s s e d o n r e p o r t s o f " c a r p e t - b o m b i n g " o f c i v i l -

i a n a r e a s b y B - 5 2 s h e s a i d : " T h e a d j e c t i v e s y o u ' l l h a v e t o c h o o s e

f o r y o u r s e l v e s . I f t h e i m p li c a t i o n o f y ou r q u e s t i o n i s t h a t w e a r e

b o m bi n g c i v i l i a n a r e a s , t h e a n s w e r i s n o . . . . " A r e p o r t e r a s k e d :

" I s i t y o u r p o s i t i o n t h a t y o u d o n ' t w a n t t o d i s c u s s c i v i l i a n c a s u al -

t i e s , a n d y o u d o n ' t w a n t t o t e l l u s t h e r e a s o n s you d o n ' t w a n t t o

d i s c u s s t h e t o p i c , a n d t h a t a n y c o mm e n t i s t h a t t h e N o r t h V i e t -

n a m e s e o f t e n u s e s u c h s i t u a t i o n s f o r p r o p a g a n d a p u r p o s e s ? "

" I ' l l a c ce p t t h a t s u m m a t i o n , " M r . F r i e d h e i m r e p l i e d [New Yor k

Times, Dec . 3 0 ] .

T h e n e w s c o m i n g f r o m H a n oi s t r e s s e d d a m a g e d o n e t o c i v i l i a n

f a c i l i t i e s . T h e r e w e r e u n d e n i a b l e W e s t e r n e y e w i t n e s s r e p o r t s t h a t

t h e G i a L a m c i v i l i a n a i r p o r t h a d be e n h i t , t h o u g h i t w a s n o t o n t h e

l i s t o f t a r g e t s . T h e r e w e r e r e p o r t s t h a t S o v i e t , C h i n e s e , a n d P o li s h

s h i p s h a d b e e n h i t i n H a i p h o n g a n d t h a t t h e C u b a n , E g y p t i a n ,

I n d i a n , E a s t G e r m a n , B u l g a r i a n , C a m b o d i a n , a n d A l b a n i a n e m -

b a s s i e s a n d t h e H u n g a r i a n t r a d e m i s s i o n h a d b e e n h i t i n H a n oi .

( M u c h l a t e r i n t h e b o m bi n g , m i l i t a r y s o u r c e s b e g a n t o s u g g e s t t h a t

d o w n e d A m e r i c a n a i r c r a f t a n d s p e n t N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e a n t i -

a i r c r a f t m i s s i l e s h i t t i n g t h e g r o u n d c o ul d h a v e c a u s e d s o m e o f t h i s

damage . ) T h e r e w e r e r e p o r t s , e v e n a ll e g e d e y e w i t n e s s r e p o r t s ,

w h i c h l a t e r t u r n e d o u t t o b e v a s t l y e x a g g e r a t e d , t h a t U . S . b o m b s

h a d d a m a g e d t h e p r i s o n e r - o f - w a r f a c i l i t y t h a t t h e p r e s s had

d u b b e d t h e " H a n o i H i l t o n . " T h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e c h a r g e d t h a t

t h e B a ch M a i ho s p i t a l h a d b e e n " d e s t r o y e d " ; t h e n t h e A m e r i c a n

c o m m a n d d e n i e d h a v i n g " h i t " t h e h o s p i t a l . A s i t t u r n e d o u t ,

n e i t h e r t h e c h a r g e n o r t h e d e n i a l w as a c c u r at e . T h e h o s p i t al , w h i c h

i s l o c a t e d n e x t t o a m i l i t a r y a i r f i e l d a n d m i l i t a r y s t o r a g e f a c i l i t i e s ,

h a d i n d e e d b e e n h i t , b u t i t w a s f a r f r o m b e i n g c o m p l e t e l y d e -




s t r o y e d . T h e f a l s e d e n i a l f u e l e d t h e f i r e s o f e x a g g e r a t e d d a m a g e

c l a i m s .

T h e r e p o r t b y t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e N e w s A g e n c y d e s c r i b i n g

t h e a l l e g e d d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e B a c h M a i h o s p i t a l h a d c i r c u m s t a n t i a l

d e t a i l t h a t m a d e i t q u i t e p l au s i b l e , e s p e c i a l ly i n t h e a b s e n c e o f

p h o t o g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e t o t h e c o n t r a r y , w h i c h b e c a m e a v a i l a b l e

o n l y m u c h l a t e r :

T h e f i r s t b o m b i n g a t t a c k d e s t r o y e d a c o n s u l t a t i o n s e c t i o n o f t h e

B a c h M a i h o s p i t a l , w r e c k e d t h e e a r - n o s e - t h r o a t i n s t i t u t e , a n d

" c o m p le t e l y d e m o l i s h e d " a r e s e a r c h s e c t i o n , H a n o i s a i d . A

s e c o n d B - 5 2 r a i d S a t u r d a y " l a i d a c a r p e t o f b o m b s o f d i f f e r e n t

c a l i b e r s o n a l o ng s t r e t c h g o i n g f r o m t h e g a t e o f t h e h o s p i t a l t o

d i f f e r e n t s e c t i o n s a n d p a t i e n t w a r d s , " t h e a g e n c y r e p o r t e d .

T h i s s t r i k e d a m a g e d e v e r y u n t o u c h e d r o o m, i n c l u d i ng u n d e r -

g r o u n d s e c t i o n s o f t h e h o s p i t a l , a n d d e s t r o y e d t h e d e p a r t m e n t s

o f d e r m a t o l o g y , i n t e r n a l m e d i c i n e , p h a r m a c o l o g y , a d m i n i s t r a -

t i o n , k i t c h e n s , r e p a i r s h o p s , a n d l a un d r i e s , H a n o i s a i d [Wash-

i n g t o n P o s t , Dec . 2 4 ] .

T h i s r e p o r t w a s " c o r r o b o r a t e d " i n a n a ll e g e d e y e w i t n e s s a c -

c o u n t b y T e l f o r d T a yl o r , t h e f a m o u s Y a l e j u r i s t w h o h a d b e e n t h e

p r o s e c u t o r a t t h e N u r e m b e r g w a r c r i m e t r i a l s . A p p a r e n t l y u n -

a w a r e t h a t t h e h o s p i t a l w a s a v a s t c o m p l e x c o n s i s t i n g o f m a ny

b u i l d i n g s a n d w i n g s o f b u i l d i n g s , h e s a i d f l a t l y t h a t t h e e n t i r e

h o s p i t a l w a s " b l o w n t o s m i t h e r e e n s , b l o w n t o b i t s , c o m p l e t e l y

d e s t r o y e d " (Washington Post, Dec . 3 1 ) . W a lt e r C r o n k i t e ( C B S ,

Dec . 2 2 ) r e p o r t e d H a n o i ' s c h a r g e t h a t t h e h o s p i t a l h a d be e n d e -

s t r o y e d a n d m a n y d o c t o r s a n d n u r s e s h a d b e e n k i l l e d . T a y l o r a l s o

d e s c r i b e d t h e " r e m a i n s o f a l a r g e l o w - c o s t h o u s i n g d e v e l o pm e n t i n

t h e A n D u o n g d i s t r i c t o f H a n o i . S o m e t h i r t y m u l t i p l e - d w e l l i n g

u n i t s c o v e r i n g s e v e r a l a c r e s h a d s u f f e r e d t w e n t y o r m o r e h i t s

l e a v i n g f r e s h b o m b c r a t e r s f i f t y f e e t i n d i a m e t e r a n d v i r t u a l ly t o t a l

d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e h o m e s . " T h e F r e n c h r e p o r t e r J e a n L e c l e r c d e

S a b l on ( A g e n c e F r a n c e P r e s s e ) p r o v i d e d a n o t h e r e y e w i t n e s s r e -

port on the destruct ion of the "once busy st reet" of Kham

T h i e n - n e a r w h i c h , h e s a i d , t h e " o n l y " m i l i t a r y t a r g e t w a s a

r a i l w a y y a r d t h a t h a d b e e n " f i n i s h e d o f f " t h e w e e k b e f o r e . T h e

i m p l i c a t i o n w a s t h a t b o m b e r s h a d t a r g e t e d a c i v i l i a n a r e a w h o s e

n e a r n e s s t o a r a i l w a y y a r d w a s n o l o n g e r r e l e v a n t .




N u m e r o u s o t h e r c l a i m s o f h i g h c i v i l i a n l o s s e s m a d e b y R a d i o

H a n o i , F r e n c h r e p o r t e r s , a n d t h e S o v i e t n e w s a g e n c y T a s s w e r e

w i d e l y d i s s e m i n a t e d b y t h e A m e r i c a n m e d i a . ( A N o r t h V i e t -

n a m e s e s t a t e m e n t b r o a d c a s t o n D e c e m b e r 2 7 t h a t c a l l e d t h e

b o m b i ng r a i d s " b r u t a l a c t s a i m e d a t m a s s a c r i n g c i v i l i a n s " i s r e -

p r i n t e d a s A p p e n d i x C . ) I t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t i n t h e a b s e n c e o f

r e l i a b l e w i t n e s s e s t o t h e o v e r a l l a c c u r a c y o f t h e b o m bi n g , t h e

m e d i a r e s o r t e d t o e y e w i t n e s s a c c o u n t s c o m i n g o u t o f H a no i , e v e n

w h e n t h e y w e r e p a t e n t l y b i a s e d . O n D e c e m b e r 2 9 , B e r t Q u i n t o f

C B S i n t e r v i e w e d a n I n d i a n d i p l o m a t , M r . S h a s h a n k ( p r e s u m e d

s p e l l i n g ) , w h o h a d j u s t a r r i v e d i n V i e n t i a n e f r o m H a n o i , a n d

a n o t h e r I n d i a n o f f i c e r . T h e i t a l i c s a r e a d d e d t o c a l l a t t e n t i o n t o t h e

s i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n w h a t t h e s e " n e u t r a l " o b s e r v e r s w e r e s a y i n g

a n d w h a t H a n o i h a d c l a i m e d .

QUINT : W h y a r e t h e y [ S h a s h a n k ' s f a m i l y ] l e a v i n g ?SHASHANK : S i m p l y w e h a v e s e e n a s t a t e o f b o m bi n g w h i c h w a s

a l m o s t u n i m a g i n a b l e i n t h e b e g i n n i n g , a n d t h i n g s a r e b e i n g

b o m b e d w i t h o u t a n y s o r t o f [ u n i n t e l l i g i b l e ] . T h e c i v i l i a n t a r g e t s

are being bombed, a n d w h a t I ' m s u r p r i s e d a t , m a n y o f t h e s e

t a r g e t s a r e v e r y c l o s e t o t h e h e a v i l y p op u la t e d a r e a s o f t h e c i t i e s .

I h a v e b e e n i n H a n o i f o r t h e l as t s e v e n m o n t h s , b u t I t h i n k f i r s t

t i m e t h a t I ' m s e e i n g t h i s s o r t o f indiscriminate . . .QUINT : A n o t h e r I n d i a n , a m e m b e r o f t h e C o n t r o l C o m m i s -

s i o n , s a i d t h e b o m b i n g i s w o r s e t h a n e v e r . H o w b a d i s t h e

bombing?

INDIAN OFFICER : W e l l , y ou s e e , e v e r y e v e n i n g a f t e r t h e b o m b -

i n g i s o v e r , y o u g o t o t h e r o o f o f t h e h o t e l i n H a n o i a n d y o u s e e

f i r e a r o u n d t h e t o w n , a t l e a s t [ u n i n t e l li g i b l e ] . . .

QUINT : W h a t a b o u t c i v i l i a n s ?INDIAN OFFICER : V e r y m a n y , v e r y m a n y . T h e y ' v e b e e n d y i n g

l i k e a n y t h i n g b e c a u s e I s a w o n e c u s t o m o f f i c e r , i n t h e m o r n i n g I

s a w h i m a n d i n t h e e v e n i n g h e h a d d i e d .

P h i l B r a d y o f N B C i n t e r v i e w e d S h a s h a n k a n d h i s w i f e a l o n g w i t h

t h e s o n o f a n I n d i a n o f f i ci a l i n H a no i . B o t h t h e l i n e o f q u e s t i o n i ng

a n d t h e a n s w e r s a r e i n t e r e s t i n g .

SHASHANK : T h e B a c h M a i H o s p i t a l , t h e b i g g e s t h o s p i t a l i n t h e

R e p u b l i c o f V i e t n a m , h a s b e e n razed to the ground . I d o n ' t

k n o w , p e o p l e a r e s a y i n g t h a t i t h a s n o t b e e n h i t . B u t I h a v e s e e n

w i t h m y o w n e y e s t h a t i t h a s b e e n h i t a n d d i r e c t l y h i t .




MRS. SHASHANK : It's been the worst experi ence I've ever had

in my life I think . I was very scared and I was horrified at it

a l l . . .BRADY How bad is the bombing?MRS. SHASHANK : It's awful . I think all the military targets have

already been taken and now the only thing that is l e f t i s t h e l i v e s o f

the people, and I think that will be gone as well . . .BRADY A m i r ' s f a t h e r r u n s I n d i a 's e m b a s s y i n H a no i , w h i c h

has already been hit twice by American bombs .AMIR: It's very bad . They've been coming four or five ti mes a

day very regularly . T h e y h a v e s i x t i m e s b e e n c o m i n g .BRADY Only milit ary targets being hit?

AMIR : No, there is unrestricted bombing, they'r e bom bing at

every target .BRADY How about the North Vietnamese? Has this slowedthem down? Are they going to give i n?AMIR : No . The North Vietnamese have been fighting for thirty

y e a r s . They're not discouraged at all . And they're going to prove

that now to the American people .

S o m e r e s o l u t i o n o f t h e d i s p a r i t y b e t w e e n t h e a c c ou n t s o f t h eU.S. command and those of the eyewitnesses was attempted byTime, w h i c h r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t a c i v i l i a n m a p a nd a m i l i t a r y m a p

b e v i e w e d o n e a t o p t h e o t h e r :

Then it is at once evident that m any of those targets lay smack inthe middle of the most populous metropolitan and suburbanareas in the North . The Hanoi t hermal power plant, for i nstance,

w a s o n ly 1,000 ya r d s f r o m t he ve r y c en t e r o f t he c i t y . A mainpetroleum storage area was only 200 yards from the Bach Mai

hospital . The town of Thai Nguyen lay right next t o one of the

key power plants .

But Time did not explain that a map overlay showing the targets of

t h e e i g h t - m o t o r e d B- 5 2 s t r a t o s p h e r i c b o m b e r , w i t h i t s p r e s u m e d

lesser accuracy, would have shown that those targets (wit h one or

two exceptions, as indicated earlier ) lay either outs ide Hanoi or in

its outskirt s and that this bombing could not have involved either

t h e H a n oi p o w e r p l a n t o r c i v i l i a n d w el l i n g a r e a s e x c e p t b y s o m e

unintended mishap .

O n ly o n e s t o r y , t he Washington Post (Dec . 30), came close to

revealing the true dis positi on of the aerial weapons for different

target categories :



S o m e m i l i t a r y s o u r c e s r e p o r t t h a t i n a f e w c a s e s t h e B - 5 2 s w e r e

u s e d a g a i n s t s o m e t a r g e t s c l o s e t o H a n o i w h e r e t h e s h o c k e f f e c t

o f t h e i r b o m b i n g - w i t h t h i r t y t o n s o f b o m b s i n e a c h p l a n e -

c o u l d b e f e l t a n d t h e n t h e s a m e t a r g e t w a s h i t a g a i n b y s m a l l e r

f i g h t e r b o m b e r s c a r r y i n g m u c h m o r e a c c u r a t e b o m b s t o k n o c k

o u t t h e t a r g e t .

T h i s , o f c o u r s e , w a s s t i l l n o t t h e f u l l t r u t h , w h i c h w a s t h a t t a r g e t s i n

o r n e a r t h e c e n t e r o f H a n o i w e r e g e n e r a l l y t a r g e t e d f o r b o m b i n g b y

f i g h t e r - b o m b e r s , w h i c h a r e m o r e a c c u r a t e t h a n B - 5 2 s . Why was

t h i s n o t m a d e c l e a r t o t h e p r e s s ? P r o b a b l y i t w o u l d h a v e P r o v i d e d

i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t m i g h t h a v e b e e n o f u s e t o t h e e n e m y , f o r h e w o u l d

t h e n h a v e k n o w n w h e r e n o t t o e x p e c t t h e B - 5 2 s , w h i c h w o u l d h a v e

h e l p e d h i m i n p o s i t i o n i n g h i s a n t i - a i r c r a f t m i s s i l e s .

T h e q u a n t i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s o f n e w s i t e m s o n b o m b i n g d a m a g e i n

N o r t h V i e t n a m t h a t a p p e a r s i n t a b l e 2 m u s t b e t a k e n i n c o n t e x t

w i t h t h e i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t f o l l o w s i t .

TABLE 2

NEWS ON MILITARY DAMAGE VS . NEWS ON CIVILIAN DAMAGE

( B y l i n e s o f t e x t )

I n g e n e r a l , n e w s a b o u t m i l i t a r y d a m a g e t e n d e d t o c o n v e y t h e

i d e a t h a t t h e b o m b i n g w a s d o i n g i t s j o b , i . e . , t h a t i t w a s a l e g i t i m a t e

m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n , w h e r e a s n e w s a b o u t c i v i l i a n d a m a g e s u g g e s t e d

t h a t t h e b o m b i n g w a s i n d i s c r i m i n a t e a n d t h e r e f o r e r e p r e h e n s i b l e .

I n t a b l e 2 t h e t e r m " n e u t r a l " w a s u s e d f o r n e w s i t e m s t h a t d e a l t

w i t h e f f e c t s o f t h e b o m b i n g b u t d i d n o t f i t i n t o e i t h e r c a t e g o r y - f o r

i n s t a n c e , t h e P e n t a g o n ' s r e t o r t t h a t i f t h e H a n o i p r i s o n e r - o f - w a r

c a m p h a d b e e n h i t , t h e n t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e w e r e t o b l a m e f o r

p u t t i n g i t i n a n a r e a s u s c e p t i b l e t o a t t a c k ; t h e r e p o r t t h a t t h e G i a

L a m a i r p o r t h a d b e e n h i t b y m i s t a k e ; a n d t h e P e n t a g o n ' s s u g g e s -

N . Y .

TIMES

WASH.

POSTTIME

NEWS-

WEEKCBS

A . M i l i t a r y d a m a g e 5 2 5 2 2 5 2 1 2 0 24

B . N e u t r a l 1 5 0 2 2 0 3 3 1 3 7 1

C . C i v i l i a n d a m a g e 1 , 0 7 0 6 1 0 1 3 3 7 0 91




t i o n t h a t s o m e o f t h e c i v i l i a n d a m a g e a n d c a s u a l t i e s m i g h t h a v e

c o m e f r o m c r a s h i n g p l a n e s o r u n s p e n t m i s s i l e s . S u c h i t e m s , t h o u g h

n o t e x a c t l y n e u t r a l , d o n o t c o n t r i b u t e t o a n i m p r e s s i o n o f e i t h e r

w a n t o n d i s r e g a r d o r j u d i c i o u s r e g a r d f o r h u m a n w e l f a r e .

T h e p r o p o r t i o n f o r c o v e r a g e o f m i l i t a r y d a m a g e a n d c i v i l i a n

d a m a g e i n n e w s s t o r i e s i n t h e New York Times a p p e a r s t o b e 2 t o 1 ,

s u g g e s t i n g b e t t e r b a l a n c e t h a n i n t h e o t h e r m e d i a . T h e r e a s o n i s

t h a t w e i n c l u d e d i n t h e c a t e g o r y " m i l i t a r y d a m a g e " t h e 3 5 0 - l i n e

f u l l t e x t o f t h e D e c e m b e r 2 8 c o m m u n i q u e o n t a r g e t s i s s u e d i n

S a i g o n , w h i c h a p p e a r e d o n l y i n t h e Times . A c o m m u n i q u e t h a t

l i s t s t a r g e t s i s n o t r e a l l y a n e w s s t o r y , p r o p e r l y s p e a k i n g , b u t a

c h u n k o f d o c u m e n t a r y b a c k g r o u n d . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , n e w s i t e m s

a b o u t c i v i l i a n d a m a g e , s c a t t e r e d o v e r t h e e n t i r e p e r i o d a n d u s u a l l y

f e a t u r e d o n t h e f r o n t p a g e , h a d a m u c h g r e a t e r r e a d e r i m p a c t t h a n

t h e 2 - t o - 1 p r o p o r t i o n m i g h t s u g g e s t , e v e n g r e a t e r f r o m t h e p s y c h o -

l o g i c a l p o i n t o f v i e w t h a n t h e 6 - t o - 1 p r o p o r t i o n w e w o u l d h a v e

o b t a i n e d h a d t h e l e n g t h y c o m m u n i q u e n o t b e e n i n c l u d e d .

O v e r a l l , n e w s a b o u t d a m a g e w a s h e a v i l y t i l t e d t o w a r d c i v i l i a n

d a m a g e - s u r e l y i n l a r g e p a r t b e c a u s e o f t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f s u c h

n e w s f r o m H a n o i . I t w o u l d h a v e r e q u i r e d r e s t r a i n t o n t h e p a r t o f

t h e p r e s t i g e m e d i a t o d o w n p l a y t h e a b u n d a n t n e w s a b o u t c i v i l i a n

d a m a g e i s s u i n g f r o m e n e m y s o u r c e s . T h e p r o p o r t i o n i n t h e Post i s

a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 . 5 c i v i l i a n t o 1 m i l i t a r y , i n Time 6 . 5 t o 1 , i n

Newsweek 3 . 5 t o 1 , a n d i n C B S n e w s a bo u t 4 t o 1 . ( C B S a l s o h a d a

l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n o f " n e u t r a l " i t e m s . ) T h e o v e r a l l p r o b a bl e i m p r e s -

s i o n o f t h e r e a d e r a n d v i e w e r m u s t h a v e b e e n t h a t m o s t o f t h e

b o m b i n g d a m a g e w a s d o n e t o c i v i l i a n s .

Us e of the B-5 2 Bomber

T h e d e c i s i o n t o s e n d t h e B - 5 2 b o m b e r a g a i n s t H a n o i a n d

H a i p h o n g , c o r r e c t l y a t t r i b u t e d t o N i x o n h i m s e l f , g e n e r a t e d c o n -

s i d e r a b l e d e b a t e a b o u t t h e b i g b o m b e r ' s l i m i t e d m a n e u v e r a b i l i t y

a n d a c c u r a c y . T h e r e w e r e t h u s t w o i s s u e s : W a s i t w i s e t o e x p o s e t h e

B - 5 2 t o t h e c o n c e n t r a t e d d e f e n s e s o f N o r t h V i e t n a m , w h e r e i t s

i m a g e o f i n v u l n e r a b i l i t y w o u l d b e s e v e r e l y i m p a i r e d a n d m a n y

A m e r i c a n l i v e s w o u l d b e l o s t ? A n d w a s i t a p p r o p r i a t e a n d m o r a l t o




u s e a " w e a p o n o f m a s s d e s t r u c t i o n " ( w h i c h t h e B - 5 2 w a s p e r c e i v e d

t o b e ) a g a i n s t t a r g e t s i n a h e a v i l y p o p u l a t e d a r e a ? T h e o p p o n e n t s

a s s e r t e d o r i m p l i e d t h a t t h e l o s s e s i n a i r c r a f t w e r e u n a c c e p t a b l e

a n d t h a t , m o r e i m p o r t a n t , t h e B - 5 2 w a s a n i n a p p r o p r i a t e w e a p o n

a g a i n s t t a r g e t s i n a h e a v i l y p o p u l a t e d a r e a b e c a u s e i t w a s c a p a b l e

o n l y o f " c a r p e t - b o m b i n g , " i . e . , b o m b i n g a " t a r g e t b o x " o f a h a l f

m i l e b y a m i l e a n d a h a l f , a s t h e p r e s s k e p t i n s i s t i n g . T o s o m e

r e p o r t e r s a n d c o m m e n t a t o r s t h e u s e o f t h e B - 5 2 o v e r H a n o i a n d

H a i p h o n g w a s a m a j o r w a r c r i m e b e c a u s e i n t h e i r e y e s t h e m a i n

o b j e c t i v e m u s t h a v e b e e n t o t e r r o r i z e c i v i l i a n s r a t h e r t h a n t o

d e s t r o y m i l i t a r y t a r g e t s .

A m e r i c a n l o s s e s r e c e i v e d g r e a t p r o m i n e n c e , w i t h H a n o i i n v a r i -

a b l y m a k i n g e x a g g e r a t e d c l a i m s b e f o r e o f f i c i a l U . S . n e w s r e l e a s e s

c a m e o u t . H e n c e t h e l a t t e r a l w a y s h a d t o t r y t o o v e r t a k e a n d c o r -

r e c t t h e n e w s s t o r i e s g e n e r a t e d b y N o r t h V i e t n a m . T h i s w a s p r o b -

a b l y i n e v i t a b l e , s i n c e W a s h i n g t o n h a d t o w a i t f o r t h e r e t u r n o f t h e

p l a n e s b e f o r e m a k i n g i t s a n n o u n c e m e n t a n d s i n c e t h e m e d i a r e -

p o r t e d t h e f i r s t n e w s f i r s t . W h e n o f f i c i a l A m e r i c a n a n n o u n c e m e n t s

w e r e c a r r i e d t h e y w e r e s o m e t i m e s e m b r o i d e r e d b y t h e a d d i t i o n

o f t h e " p r i c e t a g s " o f d o w n e d p l a n e s . F o r i n s t a n c e , W a l t e r C r o n -

k i t e r e p o r t e d o n D e c e m b e r 2 1 : " The America n c ommand n ow

s a y s t h a t i n f o u r d a y s s i n c e t h e f u l l - s c a l e b o m b i n g r e s u m e d , s i x

B - 5 2 s h a v e b e e n s h o t d o w n , e a c h v a l u e d a t $ 8 m i l l i o n . " T h e c o s t

f i g u r e h a d n o t b e e n p a r t o f t h e n e w s r e l e a s e b u t w a s a d d e d b y C B S .

The U . S . m i l i t a r y p o i n t e d o u t d u r i n g a n d a f t e r t h e b o m b i n g s t h a t

t h e r a t e a t w h i c h p l a n e s w e r e l o s t ( s l i g h t l y o v e r 2 p e r c e n t p e r

m i s s i o n ) w a s l o w e r t h a n e x p e c t e d a n d t h a t t h e c o s t - e f f e c t i v e n e s s

r a t i o w a s a c c e p t a b l e . B u t t h e h e a d l i n e a t t e n t i o n g i v e n t o r e p o r t s t h a t

B - 5 2 s h a d b e e n s h o t d o w n a n d t h e p l a y g i v e n t o N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e

f i g u r e s o n l o s s e s - t h o u g h a l w a y s w i t h a t t r i b u t i o n t o t h e e n e m y

s o u r c e - c r e a t e d a f e e l i n g t h a t t h e U . S . S t r a t e g i c A i r C o m m a n d

w a s b e i n g b l e d d a n g e r o u s l y o v e r N o r t h V i e t n a m .

O n t h e a c c u r a c y o f t h e B - 5 2 , C B S c l a i m e d ( D e c . 2 1 ) t h a t " t h e

b o m b s a r e c o n s i d e r e d o n t a r g e t i f t h e y f a l l i n a p r e s e l e c t e d a r e a

m e a s u r i n g a h a l f m i l e w i d e a n d a l m o s t t w o m i l e s l o n g . " T h e m i l i t a r y

i n s i s t e d t h a t t h e B - 5 2 w a s a c c u r a t e b u t d i d n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y d i s p u t e

t h e f i g u r e s . ( T h e d e g r e e o f a c c u r a c y o f t h e B - 5 2 u n d e r i d e a l




c o n d i t i o n s - f o r i n s t a n c e , i n " b o m b i n g c o m p e t i t i o n s " h e l d i n

p e a c e t i m e - i s , i n f a c t , s t i l l c l a s s i f i e d i n f o r m a t i o n , b u t o f c o u r s e

c o n d i t i o n s o v e r H a n o i a n d H a i p h o n g w e r e f a r f r o m i d e a l . )

T h e r e w e r e p r o b a b l y i n a d v e r t e n t m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f t h e p e r -

f o r m a n c e o f t h e B - 5 2 . T h e W a s h i n g t o n P o s t (Dec . 3 ) , f o r e x a m p l e ,

r e p o r t e d :

F o r t h e B - 5 2 s t o b o m b w i t h a n y t h i n g a p p r o a c h i n g p r e c i s i o n , t h e y

m u s t s t a y o n a s t e a d y c o u r s e a n d a l t i t u d e f o r a t l e a s t a f e w m i n u t e s ,

d u r i n g w h i c h t h e y a r e g o o d t a r g e t s [ f o r a n t i - a i r c r a f t m i s s i l e s ] .

T r y i n g t o m a n e u v e r o u t o f t h e p a t h o f t h e s e m i s s i l e s o r h u r r y i n g

t h e i r b o m b r u n w i l l t h r o w t h e i r b o m b s o f f t a r g e t a n d w o u l d h e l p t o

e x p l a i n r e p o r t s o f l a r g e - s c a l e d e v a s t a t i o n t o c i v i l i a n a r e a s i n t h e

H a n o i v i c i n i t y .

T h e f a c t w a s , a s w e s h a l l s e e , t h a t B - 5 2 p i l o t s w e r e o r d e r e d u n d e r

t h r e a t o f c o u r t - m a r t i a l n o t t o d e v i a t e f r o m t h e i r p r e s c r i b e d b o m b i n g

r u n e v e n w h e n S A M s w e r e c o m i n g a t t h e m , a n d a s a r e s u l t m a n y

A m e r i c a n s d i e d f o r t h e s p e c i f i c p u r p o s e o f a v o i d i n g u n n e c e s s a r y

c i v i l i a n l o s s o f l i f e . F u r t h e r m o r e , i t w a s n o t t r u e t h a t t h e b o m b i n g r u n

r e q u i r e d " a t l e a s t a f e w m i n u t e s . " B u t e v e n a s o m e w h a t s h o r t e r

p e r i o d w a s e n o u g h f o r t h e c o m p u t e r s o f t h e S A M s y s t e m t o f i g u r e

o u t w h e r e m i s s i l e a n d B - 5 2 w o u l d m e e t .

Th e New York Times (Dec . 2 6 ) l o c a t e d a n u n i d e n t i f i e d U . S .

o f f i c e r w h o " a c k n o w l e d g e d " t h a t

w i t h o u t t h e g r o u n d - b a s e d n a v i g a t i o n a l a i d s l o c a t e d i n S o u t h V i e t -

n a m , t h e b o m b i n g w a s m u c h l e s s a c c u r a t e . . . . T h e o f f i c e r s a i d h e

b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e b i g p l a n e s w e r e f i n a l l y p u t i n t o l a r g e - s c a l e

u s e i n t h e N o r t h i n h o p e s t h a t t h e i r d e v a s t a t i n g c a r p e t b o m b i n g

w o u l d d e l i v e r a c r i p p l i n g b l o w t o t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e .

A c t u a l l y , t h e B - 5 2 s h a d a l a r g e n u m b e r o f n a v i g a t i o n a l a i d s t h a t ,

t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e m o d e o f d e p l o y m e n t o f t h e p l a n e s , a s s u r e d a

d e g r e e o f a c c u r a c y t h a t c o m p a r e d f a v o r a b l y w i t h t h a t o f t h e b o m b -

i n g o f t a r g e t a r e a s i n t h e S o u t h . A q u o t e l i k e t h i s o n e c a n n o t b e

checked . T h e u n i d e n t i f i e d " o f f i c e r " m i g h t n o t h a v e b e l o n g e d t o t h e

A i r F o r c e . H i s u s e o f t h e t e r m " c a r p e t - b o m b i n g " m a k e s i t h i g h l y

u n l i k e l y t h a t h e w a s i n f o r m e d a b o u t t h e d e p l o y m e n t m o d e o f t h e

B - 5 2 i n N o r t h V i e t n a m . I n f a c t , h i s s t a t e m e n t w a s o f t h e v e r y k i n d

t h a t b o m b i n g o p p o n e n t s w e r e s e e k i n g , p e r h a p s p r o m p t i n g , o r p o s s i -

b l y e v e n i n v e n t i n g . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e New York Times (Dec .




2 2 ) a l s o c a r r i e d a s t a t e m e n t a t t r i b u t e d t o " a w e l l - i n f o r m e d o f f i c e r "

t h a t " w i t h i n t h e p a c k a g e t h e r e w e r e n u m e r o u s t a r g e t s , a l l w i t h

a s s i g n e d p r i o r i t i e s , a n d n u m e r o u s a t t a c k p a t t e r n s i n w h i c h s e v e r a l

t y p e s o f a i r c r a f t a r m e d w i t h a v a r i e t y o f w e a p o n s w e r e b e i n g c o o r d i -

n a t e d . " T h i s m u c h m o r e t h a n t h e p r e v i o u s s t a t e m e n t r e a d s l i k e

s o m e t h i n g a U . S . A i r F o r c e o f f i c e r m i g h t h a v e s a i d .

T h e s e l f - p e r p e t u a t i n g m y t h t h a t a B - 5 2 i n e v i t a b l y h i t s a n a r e a a

h a l f m i l e w i d e a n d o n e a n d a h a l f m i l e s l o n g i s i l l u s t r a t e d b y t h e

F r e n c h r e p o r t e r J e a n L e c l e r c d e S a b l o n ' s r e p o r t t h a t K h a m T h i e n

a n d i t s a d j a c e n t s t r e e t s " w e r e c a r p e t b o m b e d b y p l a n e s i n c l u d i n g

B - 5 2 s w h i c h p l o u g h e d u p a s t r i p a b o u t a m i l e l o n g a n d s e v e r a l

h u n d r e d y a r d s w i d e f r o m o n e e n d o f t h e s t r e e t t o t h e o t h e r " (New

Y o r k T i m e s , Dec . 2 9 ) . A l t h o u g h d e s t r u c t i o n f r o m o n e s t r i n g o f

b o m b s c a n b e o b s e r v e d i n a e r i a l p h o t o s o f t h e K h a m T h i e n a r e a

r e l e a s e d i n M a y 1 9 7 3 , t h i s w a s n o t " c a r p e t - b o m b i n g . " T h e d a m a g e

o b s e r v e d b y M . d e S a b l o n w a s d e s c r i b e d i n v e r y d i f f e r e n t t e r m s b y

l a t e r e y e w i t n e s s e s , a s b r o u g h t o u t i n c h a p t e r 4 .

T a b l e 3 g i v e s a q u a n t i t a t i v e b r e a k d o w n o f t h e n e w s r e l a t i n g t o

B - 5 2 a c c u r a c y a n d s u r v i v a b i l i t y ( o r i n a c c u r a c y a n d j e o p a r d y ) .

TABLE 3

NEWS ON THE ACCURACY AND SURVIVABILITY OF THE B-52


" P o s i t i v e m a t e r i a l " i n t a b l e 3 i n c l u d e s a n y c l a i m s o f a c c u r a c y ,

s t a t e m e n t s t h a t t h e l o s s e s w e r e a c t u a l l y l o w e r t h a n a n t i c i p a t e d , a n d

a l s o i t e m s t h a t a c k n o w l e d g e d c i v i l i a n d e a t h s b u t t e r m e d t h e m

i n c i d e n t a l . A n e x a m p l e o f t h e f o r m e r w o u l d b e t h i s T i m e s r e p o r t :

P e n t a g o n o f f i c i a l s i n s i s t e d . . . t h a t t a r g e t s f o r t h e B - 5 2 s w e r e

b e i n g s e l e c t e d s o t h a t e v e n i f t h e i r b o m b i n g p a t t e r n s w e r e s l i g h t l y

o f f t h e y w o u l d n o t h i t c i v i l i a n c e n t e r s . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e y s a i d , t h e

N . Y .

TIMES

WASH .

POSTTIME

NEWS-

WEEK CBS

A . P o s i t i v e2 9 0 5 5

3 0 0

B . N e u t r a l 3 2 5 9 0 2 5 1 1 2

C . N e g a t i v e 1 3 5 1 4 5 3 1 3 4 1 8




B - 5 2 s m i g h t b e g i v e n a l a r g e t a r g e t o f a r a i l r o a d y a r d , w h i l e t a r g e t s

n e a r c i v i l i a n c e n t e r s , s u c h a s a b r i d g e o r a p o w e r p l a n t , w o u l d b e

l e f t t o f i g h t e r - b o m be r s u s i n g p r e c i s i o n b o m b s [New York Times,

Dec . 2 2 ] .

A n e x a m p l e o f t h e l a t t e r i s a n e w s i t e m q u o t i n g a s e n i o r A i r F o r c e

o f f i c e r : " E v e n w i t h t h e a c c u r a c y w e g e t , w e ' r e s t i l l n o t s u r e w e w o u l d

n o t g e t a l i t t l e m o r e t h a n m i l i t a r y t a r g e t s " (New York Times , Dec .

3 1 ) .

N o t e w o r t h y i s t h e v o l u m e o f n e w s o n t h e B - 5 2 i n t h e Times

c o m p a r e d t o t h a t i n t h e P o s t , a n d a l s o t h e i n v e r s i o n o f t h e r a t i o o f

f a v o r a b l e t o u n f a v o r a b l e n e w s ( 2 t o 1 i n t h e Times, 1 t o 3 i n t h e

Post) . Time, News w eek, a n d C B S h a d v i r t u a l l y n o t h i n g g o o d t o s a y

a b o u t t h e B - 5 2 a n d t h e d e c i s i o n t o d e p l o y i t a g a i n s t N o r t h V i e t -

n a m . T h e Wa sh ington Post, i n c o m p a r i s o n t o t h e a l m o s t e q u a l l y

a n t i - w a r Times, g a v e g r e a t e r a t t e n t i o n t o n e g a t i v e n e w s a b o u t t h e

u s e o f B - 5 2 s - a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s h a r e d i n t h i s i n s t a n c e b y Time,

News w eek, a nd CBS News .

Foreign Reaction to the Bombing

P e o p l e r a r e l y d e m o n s t r a t e i n f a v o r o f a n u n p l e a s a n t d e c i s i o n b y

their own government-mu ch less one by a foreign govern-

m e n t - e v e n i f i t i s r e g a r d e d a s n e c e s s a r y . T h e c o v e r a g e i n t h e

p r e s t i g e m e d i a o f f a v o r a b l e a n d u n f a v o r a b l e f o r e i g n r e a c t i o n s t o

t h e b o m b i n g i s n e v e r t h e l e s s s t a r t l i n g , a s i s t h e t h o r o u g h n e s s w i t h

w h i c h n e w s a b o u t u n f a v o r a b l e r e a c t i o n s w a s s o u g h t o u t a n d r e -

p o r t e d . E x c e p t f o r a c u r s o r y r e f e r e n c e ( M u r r e y M a r d e r ,W a s h ing -

t o n P o s t , Dec . 3 0 ) t o a " f e w n e w s p a p e r s i n W e s t e r n E u r o p e " w i t h

o n e c i t a t i o n o f a m i l d l y f a v o r a b l e c o m m e n t , a l l t h e p a p e r s a n d

b r o a d c a s t s e x a m i n e d i n t h i s s t u d y r e p o r t e d p o s i t i v e c o m m e n t o n l y

f r o m S o u t h V i e t n a m , C a m b o d i a , T a i w a n , a n d S o u t h K o r e a . Y e t

t h e r e w e r e d o u b t l e s s m a n y f o r e i g n m e d i a , s c h o l a r s , f o r e i g n - p o l i c y

s p e c i a l i s t s , a n d o t h e r s w h o s u p p o r t e d t h e b o m b i n g .

T h e a v a l a n c h e o f m a t e r i a l a b o u t u n f a v o r a b l e r e a c t i o n s r e c o r d e d

v i e w s f r o m t h e S o v i e t U n i o n , C h i n a , F i n l a n d , D e n m a r k , S w e d e n ,

t h e N e t h e r l a n d s , C a n a d a , Y u g o s l a v i a , P o l a n d , A u s t r a l i a , S i n g a -

p o r e , I n d i a , B a n g l a d e s h , W e s t G e r m a n y a n d W e s t B e r l i n , a n d



REPORTING BY THE PRESTIGE PRESS 35

B e l g i u m , a s w e l l a s f r o m t h e P o p e , U . N . s e c r e t a r y g e n e r a l W a l d -

h e i m , F i d e l C a s t r o , C a t h o l i c p e a c e g r o u p s a b r o a d , a n d t h e B r i t i s h

L a b o r p a r t y . T h e r e a c t i o n r a n g e d f r o m t h e P o p e ' s r e l a t i v e l y m i l d

e x p r e s s i o n o f " p a i n f u l e m o t i o n " o v e r " h a r s h a n d h e a v y m i l i t a r y

o p e r a t i o n s i n b l e s s e d V i e t n a m , w h i c h h a s b e c o m e a c a u s e o f d a i l y

g r i e f " t o t h e a s s e r t i o n b y t h e P o l i s h p r e s i d e n t o f t h e U . N . G e n e r a l

A s s e m b l y t h a t t h e b o m b i n g w a s " i n h u m a n i n a l l i t s a s p e c t s " a n d a

s t a t e m e n t b y R o y J e n k i n s o f t h e B r i t i s h L a b o r p a r t y c a l l i n g t h e

a c t i o n " o n e o f t h e m o s t c o l d - b l o o d e d a c t i o n s i n r e c e n t h i s t o r y . "

T h e s t a t e m e n t o f S o v i e t f i r s t s e c r e t a r y B r e z h n e v o n D e c e m b e r 2 1

t h a t t h e b o m b i n g w o u l d h a v e a n e f f e c t o n S o v i e t - A m e r i c a n r e l a -

t i o n s w a s r e p o r t e d b y W a l t e r C r o n k i t e ( C B S , D e c . 2 1 ) a s i n d i c a t -

i n g t h a t t h e " f u t u r e o f R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n r e l a t i o n s h a n g s i n t h e

b a l a n c e . " T h i s s e e m s t o b e a n e x a g g e r a t i o n o f w h a t B r e z h n e v

a c t u a l l y s a i d , w h i c h w a s : " H o w e v e r - a n d t h i s s h o u l d b e c l e a r l y

e m p h a s i z e d - m u c h w i l l d e p e n d o n t h e c o u r s e o f e v e n t s i n t h e

i m m e d i a t e f u t u r e a n d , i n p a r t i c u l a r , o n w h a t k i n d o f t u r n i s t a k e n

o n t h e i s s u e o f e n d i n g t h e w a r i n V i e t n a m . "

TABLE 4

NEWS ABOUT FOREIGN REACTIONS TO THE BOMBING


T h e o v e r a l l p i c t u r e w a s e v e n m o r e o v e r w h e l m i n g l y n e g a t i v e

t h a n t a b l e 4 s u g g e s t s , b e c a u s e o f t h e p a s s i o n o f s o m e o f t h e c r i t i c a l

v i e w s r e p o r t e d . T h e p r e v i o u s l y m e n t i o n e d L o n d o n D a i l y M i r r o r

c o m m e n t " a n a c t o f i n s a n e f e r o c i t y , a c r u d e e x e r c i s e i n t h e

p o l i t i c s o f t e r r o r " - w a s r e p o r t e d i n t h e Wa sh ington P o s t (Dec . 3 0 )

w i t h t h e i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t t h e e d i t o r i a l h a d a p p e a r e d o n t h e f r o n t

p a g e u n d e r t h e h e a d l i n e " N i x o n ' s C h r i s t m a s D e l u g e o f D e a t h . " I n

N . Y .

TIMES

WASH .

POSTTIME

NEWS-

WEEKCBS

A . F a v o r a b l e 9 0 4 0 3 0 0

B . N e u t r a l 6 0 1 1 5 1 1 5 1 0

C . N e g a t i v e 1 , 0 1 0 6 3 5 5 7 1 6 1 9




r e v i e w i n g m o u n t i n g w o r l d w i d e c r i t i c i s m o f t h e b o m b i n g , t h a t i s s u e

o f t h e Post a l s o q u o t e d f r o m Asa hi, J a p a n ' s l i b e r a l n e w s p a p e r :

" W e b e l i e v e t h a t w h a t P r e s i d e n t N i x o n i s t r y i n g t o a c h i e v e i n

V i e t n a m i s n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n i m p e r i a l i s m , c o l o n i a l i s m , and

g e n o c i d e . " A l l t h e m e d i a w e r e v i e w e d r e p o r t e d a s t a t e m e n t b y

S w e d i s h p r i m e m i n i s t e r O l o f P a l m e , a l o n g t i m e o p p o n e n t o f U . S .

i n v o l v e m e n t i n V i e t n a m :

W h a t i s h a p p e n i n g i s t h a t a p e o p l e a r e be i n g t o r t u r e d , a n a t i o n i s

b e i n g t o r m e n t e d a n d h u m i l i a t e d t o f o r c e t h e m t o s u b m i t t o t h e

l a n g u a g e o f f o r c e . T h a t i s w h y t h e b o m b i n g s a r e a n o u t r a g e .

T h e r e a r e m a n y e x a m p l e s o f t h i s i n m o d e r n h i s t o r y. T h e y a r e

u s u a l l y r e m e m b e r e d b y n a m e s - G u e r n i c a , O r a d o u r , B a b i Y a r ,

K a t y n , L i d i c e , S h a r p e v i l l e , T r e b l i n k a .

Time ( J a n . 8 , 1 9 7 3 , w h i c h w a s o n t h e n e w s t a n d s a b o u t J a n . 1 )

c a r r i e d a q u o t e f r o m a n e d i t o r i a l i n t h e F r e n c h w e e k l y L'Expres s

t h a t t u r n e d c o n d e m n a t i o n o f t h e b o m bi n g i n t o a p e r s o n a l a t t a c k o n

N i x o n :

I n t h e p o k e r g a m e o f l i f e , M r . N i x o n i s a m a s t e r . B y m e a n s o f t h e

n e a r l y b l i n d m o n s t e r , t h e B - 5 2 , h e h a s d i s c a r d e d f o r e v e r a n

a s s u m p t i o n . M r . N i x o n i s n o l o n g e r , a n d w i l l n e v e r a g a i n b e , a

r e s p e c t a b l e m a n . T h a t i s , i f h e e v e r w a s o n e .

O n e m a y w o n d e r w h e t h e r t h e n e w s s e r v i c e s o f t h e Times, t h e

P o s t , Time, News w eek, a n d C B S s e a r c h e d a s d i l i g e n t l y f o r l e s s

c o n d e m n a t o r y c o m m e n t , p e r h a p s f r o m s o m e o f t h e m o r e c o n s e r -

v a t i v e s p o k e s m e n o r m e d i a i n E n g l a n d , F r a n c e , G e r m a n y , a n d

Japan-e . g . , The Economist, Le F igaro, L'Aurore, Fran kfu rter

All gemeine Zeitun g, Mainich i, o r Sankei Shimbu n, i n w h i c h e d i t o -

r i a l s l e s s c r i t i c a l o f t h e A m e r i c a n p r e s i d e n t d i d a p p e a r . A n a n a l y s i s

i n t h e Economist (Dec . 2 3 ; s e e A p p e n d i x H ) w a s e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y

e l o q u e n t i n m a k i n g t h e c a s e f o r t h e A m e r i c a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .

Newsweek d i d q u o t e t h i s c o m m e n t f r o m Le F igaro i n i t s r o u n d u p

o f w o r l d r e a c t i o n s ( J a n . 8 ) : " A s f o r t h r o w i n g t h e e n t i r e r e s p o n s i b i l -

i t y f o r t h e f a i l u r e o f t h e t a l k s s o l e l y o n t h e A m e r i c a n G o v e r n m e n t ,

i t i s g o o d p o l e m i c s a t b e s t . "

T h e " n e u t r a l " c a t e g o r y i n t a b l e 4 c o v e r s m a t e r i a l t h a t n o t e d

t h e r e s t r a i n t o f c e r t a i n o f f i c i a l r e a c t i o n s s u c h a s t h o s e e x p r e s s e d

b y W e s t e r n E u r o p e a n g o v e r n m e n t s , r e m a r k e d t h a t r e a c t i o n s




s e e m e d s l o w t o d e v e l o p , o r o b s e r v e d t h a t , i n i t i a l l y a t l e a s t , t h e

r e s p o n s e s o f l e a d e r s l i k e t h e P o p e a n d W a l d h e i m w e r e r e s t r i c t e d

t o e x p r e s s i o n s o f c o n c e r n .

I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o r e s i s t t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t c e r t a i n m e d i a s o u g h t

o u t u n f a v o r a b l e c o m m e n t f o r t h e i r n e w s c o l u m n s . T h e s h e e r v o l -

ume of 1,010 lines in the Times a n d 6 3 5 l i n e s i n t h e Post

s u g g e s t s t h i s , a s d o e s t h e f a c t t h a t s o m e o f t h e n e w s i t e m s c a m e

f r o m s o u r c e s t h a t a r e r a r e l y q u o t e d i n t h e p r e s t i g e p r e s s . T h e

W a s h ington Post (Dec . 2 8 ) , f o r e x a m p l e , i n f o r m e d i t s r e a d e r s

t h a t t h e B u e n o s A i r e s p a p e r La Opin ion h a d c a r r i e d t h e h e a d -

l i n e "U . S . C a r r i e d O u t M o s t C o m p l e t e P l a n o f D e s t r u c t i o n i n

Human History . " S i m i l a r l y , a b o y c o t t b y A u s t r a l i a n s e a m e n , a

m a r c h o f 7 0 0 p e o p l e i n W e s t B e r l i n , a n d a s i l e n t v i g i l o u t s i d e t h e

America n embas sy in London woul d perha ps not ha ve merited

c o v e r a g e b y t h e s e m e d i a h a d t h e r e n o t b e e n a n e f f o r t t o b u i l d u p

t h e p i c t u r e o f A m e r i c a n i s o l a t i o n i n t h e w o r l d . News w eek r e -

p o r t e d i n i t s J a n u a r y 8 i s s u e ( p r i n t e d J a n u a r y 1 ) t h a t " t h e r e a c -

t i o n i n m o s t o f t h e r e s t o f t h e w o r l d [ h a d b e e n ] i m m e d i a t e a n d

f u r i o u s , " a n d i t s p o k e o f " t h e o u t r a g e d r e a c t i o n a m o n g f r i e n d l y

a n d a d v e r s a r y n a t i o n s a l i k e . " T h e i t e m w a s h e a d l i n e d " D i p l o -

m a c y b y T e r r o r . "

T h a t t h e o u t r a g e w a s p e r h a p s n o t s o g r e a t a n d i n t e n s i v e a s i t

m i g h t h a v e b e e n w a s a c k n o w l e d g e d a t t h e e n d o f a Wa sh ington

Post s t o r y ( D e c . 30 ) headl ined "Bombing Criticism Mounts . "

A f t e r d e v o t i n g 1 7 5 l i n e s t o r e p o r t i n g p r o t e s t s a n d c r i t i c i s m s , t h e

Post b r i e f l y n o t e d : " W o r l d p r e s s c r i t i c i s m , U . S . a n a l y s t s n o t e d ,

h a s b e e n c o n s i d e r a b l y s l o w e r t o d e v e l o p i n v o l u m e t h a n i t d i d

w h e n A m e r i c a n t r o o p s c r o s s e d i n t o C a m b o d i a i n A p r i l , 1 9 7 0 . "

F i v e l i n e s r e p o r t e d a E u r o p e a n c o m m e n t i n d e f e n s e o f t h e U . S .

bombing .

China : A S p e c i a l C a s e

M o s t o f t h e c o m m e n t a b o u t t h e r e a l , i m a g i n e d , a l l e g e d , o r

feared effect of the "Christmas bombing" on U . S . - S o v i e t a n d

U. S . - C h i n e s e r e l a t i o n s a p p e a r e d , q u i t e p r o p e r l y , o n t h e e d i t o r i a l

p a g e s o r i n c o m m e n t c l e a r l y i d e n t i f i e d a s s u c h . T h i s i n c l u d e d ( a s




n o t e d i n t h e n e x t c h a p t e r ) w a r n i n g s t h a t d e t e n t e w i t h t h e

U . S . S . R . a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f r e l a t i o n s w i t h C h i n a c o u l d b e

j e o p a r d i z e d . B u t o n e f r o n t - p a g e i t e m m e r i t s s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n .

Under the headl ine "Chou Says Raids Hurt U . S . R e l a t i o n s "

(Wa sh ington Post, Dec . 2 9 ) a r e p o r t d a t e l i n e d P e k i n g b y M a r i -

l y n B e r g e r s a i d i n p a r t :

C h o u w a s a s k e d w h e t h e r t h e b o m b i n g , t h e s e c o n d r e s u m p -

t i o n s i n c e h e r e c e i v e d P r e s i d e n t N i x o n i n P e k i n g i n F e b r u a r y ,

w o u l d a f f e c t C h i n a ' s r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .

H i s r e p l y , i n C h i n e s e , w a s t r a n s l a t e d a s " C e r t a i n l y . "

C h o u , h e a v i n g h i s s h o u l d e r s a n d p o i n t i n g h i s f i n g e r f o r e m -

p h a s i s , s t o p p e d a n d s a i d i n E n g l i s h : " S u r e l y . "

A s k e d h o w t h e b r e a c h c o u l d b e h e a l e d , h e s a i d , a g a i n i n

E n g l i s h , " S t o p . "

T h e n , i n C h i n e s e , h e c o n t i n u e d : " T h e U n i t e d S t a t e s g o v -

e r n m e n t s h o u l d s t o p t h e b o m b i n g . I h o p e y o u w i l l c o n v e y m y

a n s w e r t o t h e A m e r i c a n p e o p l e . "

T h e p r e m i e r s p o k e a s h e p a s s e d t h r o u g h t h e r e c e i v i n g l i n e i n

t h e G r e a t H a l l o f t h e P e o p l e w h e r e s o m e 4 0 0 C h i n e s e o f f i -

c i a l s , f o r e i g n d i p l o m a t s a n d j o u r n a l i s t s w e r e i n v i t e d t o a n u n -

u s u a l l y g r a n d ba n q u e t f o r M r s . B i n h ( t h e V i e t C o n g " F o r e i g n

M i n i s t e r " ) .

I t i s a p p a r e n t f r o m t h i s s t o r y - a n d t h e r e i s m o r e t o c o m e -

t h a t t h e C h i n e s e p r i m e m i n i s t e r h a d n o t i n t e n d e d t o d e l i v e r s u c h

a messa ge to the American people bu t wa s "a sked" the

q uestion-b y the writer of this report-a s h e wa s pa ss ing

t h r o u g h t h e r e c e i v i n g l i n e . T h e q u e s t i o n a b o u t " h o w t h e b r e a c h

c o u l d b e h e a l e d " d i d n o t r e f e r t o a n y t h i n g t h a t C h o u h a d s a i d ;

h e h a d n o t m e n t i o n e d a b r e a c h . T h e w h o l e s t a t e m e n t a n d a d -

m o n i t i o n w e r e e l i c i t e d f r o m h i m b y a n A m e r i c a n j o u r n a l i s t a t a

s o c i a l o c c a s i o n .

Ms . B e r g e r w e n t o n t o r e p o r t t h e g l i t t e r i n g f u n c t i o n i n t h e G r e a t

H a l l o f t h e P e o p l e w h e r e t h e V i e t C o n g " f o r e i g n m i n i s t e r " w a s

b e i n g e n t e r t a i n e d . S h e d e s c r i b e d i n s o m e d e t a i l w h a t C h i P e n g - f e i ,

t h e C h i n e s e f o r e i g n m i n i s t e r , h a d s a i d a b o u t t h e b r e a k d o w n o f

n e g o t i a t i o n s a n d t h e b o m b i n g : " T h e U . S . g o v e r n m e n t c o m m i t t e d

a b r e a c h o f f a i t h , f a b r i c a t e d p r e t e x t s , s e t u p v a r i o u s o b s t a c l e s a n d

d e l i b e r a t e l y d e l a y e d a n d s a b o t a g e d t h e s i g n i n g o f t h e p e a c e




a g r e e m e n t . . . " ; t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w a s " c o m m i t t i n g u n f o r g i v a b l e

n e w c r i m e s a g a i n s t t h e V i e t n a m e s e p e o p l e " ; a n d t h e l i k e . A l m o s t

a s a n a f t e r t h o u g h t , t h e s t o r y w e n t o n t o s a y t h e f o l l o w i n g :

W h i l e a t t a c k i n g t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , h e [ C h i P e n g - f e i ] a l s o s a i d

t h a t C h i n a u n d e r s t o o d t h a t f u r t h e r t a l k s w o u l d b e n e c e s s a r y .

" T h e U n i t e d S t a t e s m u s t s t o p f o r t h w i t h t h e b o m b i n g o f t h e

D e m o c r a t i c R e p u b l i c o f V i e t n a m , " h e s a i d , " a n d through

n e g o t i a t i o n s , s p e e d i l y s i g n t h e a g r e e m e n t o n e n d i n g t h e w a r a n d

r e s t o r i n g p e a c e i n V i e t n a m " [ i t a l i c s a d d e d ] .

T h e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n w h a t t h e C h i n e s e f o r e i g n m i n i s t e r w a s

q u o t e d a s s a y i n g a n d w h a t t h e V i e t C o n g " f o r e i g n m i n i s t e r " w a s

s a y i n g o n t h e s a m e o c c a s i o n w a s g l a r i n g - b u t u n r e m a r k e d b y t h e

r e p o r t e r ; f o r M m e N g u y e n T h i B i n h w a s r e p o r t e d a s " c a l l i n g o n

t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t o s i g n t h e d r a f t c e a s e - f i r e a g r e e m e n t r e a c h e d i n

O c t o b e r , " i . e . , w i t h o u t f u r t h e r n e g o t i a t i o n . C o n s i d e r i n g t h a t t h e

N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e w e r e a c c u s i n g W a s h i n g t o n o f h a v i n g g o n e b a c k

o n t h e O c t o b e r a g r e e m e n t a n d t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a d t a k e n t h e

p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e a g r e e m e n t n e e d e d i m p r o v e m e n t , i t i s a p p a r e n t

t h a t aWa sh ington Post

r e p o r t e r w a s p r e s e n t o n a r a r e o c c a s i o n

when a major divergence between China and North Vietnam

( r e p r e s e n t e d t h r o u g h i t s V i e t C o n g s a t e l l i t e ) w a s a i r e d i n p u b l i c .

B u t t h e P o s t , i n i t s e a g e r n e s s t o r e p o r t t h e a l l e g e d d a n g e r t o

U. S . - C h i n e s e r a p p r o c h e m e n t , p e r h a p s i n a d v e r t e n t l y b u r i e d o n a

b a c k p a g e s o m e n e w s t h a t p r e f i g u r e d t h e c h a n g e i n t h e N o r t h

V i e t n a m e s e p o s i t i o n t h a t e v e n t u a l l y l e d t o a n e n d t o t h e b o m b i n g

a n d t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e a r m i s t i c e w i t h i n a m o n t h .

R e a c t i o n i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s

T h e p r o p o r t i o n o f u n f a v o r a b l e t o f a v o r a b l e n e w s i t e m s o n

A m e r i c a n d o m e s t i c r e a c t i o n s r e p o r t e d i n t h e p r e s t i g e p r e s s i s

s t a r t l i n g , e v e n i n t h e f a c e o f t h e i m b a l a n c e w e h a v e s e e n s o f a r i n

t h e o t h e r t o p i c s a n a l y z e d . T h e New York Times a n d t h e Was hing-

t o n P o s t a p p a r e n t l y f o u n d i t a l m o s t i m p o s s i b l e t o l o c a t e a n y f a v o r -

a b l e c o m m e n t . T a b l e 5 s h o w s o v e r w h e l m i n g a t t e n t i o n t o c r i t i c a l

c o m m e n t t o t h e v i r t u a l e x c l u s i o n o f s u p p o r t i v e v i e w s .



40 MARTIN F . HERZ AND LESLIE RIDER

TABLE 5NEWS ABOUT U . S . REACTIONS TO THE BOMBING

(By l i n e s o f t e x t )

I n a l l t h e m e d i a t h e r e i s a t e l l i n g d i s p r o p o r t i o n ; t h e d i f f e r e n c e i s

o n l y i n d e g r e e . C B S g a v e s i x t i m e s m o r e s p a c e t o c r i t i c a l c o m m e n t

t h a n t o f a v o r a b l e c o m m e n t . T h e New York Times h a d a r a t i o o f 1 9

t o 1 a n d t h e Wa sh ington Post 2 5 t o 1 . T h e n e w s m a g a z i n e s w e r e

l e s s u n b a l a n c e d .

H o w c o u l d s u c h l o p s i d e d n e s s h a v e h a p p e n e d ? I t m i g h t b e s a i d

t h a t t h e r e s i m p l y w a s n o f a v o r a b l e c o m m e n t a v a i l a b l e . B u t t h i s

s e e m s u n l i k e l y w h e n t h e p u b l i c o p i n i o n p o l l s i n 1 9 7 2 s t i l l s h o w e d a

f a i r l y e v e n d i v i s i o n b e t w e e n o p p o n e n t s a n d p r o p o n e n t s o f f u r t h e r

U. S . s u p p o r t f o r S o u t h V i e t n a m .

T h e k i n d o f s t o r i e s t h e m e d i a h i g h l i g h t e d s u g g e s t s t h a t s o m e

s u p p o r t f o r t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s p o l i c y w e n t u n d e r - r e p o r t e d . D e s p i t e i t s

g e n e r o u s r e p o r t i n g o f c r i t i c a l c o m m e n t o n t h e b o m b i n g a n d i t s

d e n u n c i a t i o n s o f t h e P r e s i d e n t a n d o f U . S . p o l i c y , t h e New YorkTimes (Dec . 2 3 ) c a r r i e d a p a g e - s e v e n s t o r y e n t i t l e d " R e a c t i o n t o

Bombing Is Relatively Mild . " I t n o t e d t h a t u p t o t h e n a n t i -

b o m b i n g d e m o n s t r a t i o n s w e r e f e w a n d t h a t s o m e e d i t o r s w e r e

r e m a r k i n g o n t h e p a u c i t y o f p r o t e s t l e t t e r s . (On the same day

A n t h o n y L e w i s , w r i t i n g h i s o p - e d c o l u m n f r o m L o n d o n , r e m a r k e d

d e s p a i r i n g l y o n t h e " i n e r t n e s s o f t h e r e s p o n s e i n m a n y q u a r t e r s " i n

t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . ) B u t a s t h e t h o r o u g h r e p o r t i n g o n n e g a t i v e

c o m m e n t o r a c t i o n c o n t i n u e d , t h i s c h a n g e d .

S o m e s u p p o r t i v e v i e w s w e r e r e p o r t e d , i n c l u d i n g t h o s e o f a n

A m e r i c a n s o l d i e r , t h e l e a d e r o f a p r i s o n e r - o f - w a r g r o u p , a n d a

s m a t t e r i n g o f s e n a t o r s . Congressman F . Edw ard Hebert (D-La . )

s a i d h e s u p p o r t e d t h e A m e r i c a n e f f o r t i f i t w o u l d e n d t h e w a r , a n d

N . Y .

TIMES

WASH .

POSTTIME

NEWS-

WEEKCBS

A . F a v o r a b l e 35 40 5 13 28

B . N e u t r a l 140 130 30 5 1 4 1

C. U n f a v o r a b l e 650 990 96 75 159




S e n a t o r H u g h S c o t t (R-Pa . ) s a i d h e w a s d i s t r e s s e d b u t h a d h o p e

t h a t t h e b o m b i n g w o u l d b e s u c c e s s f u l. W i l l i a m F

. B u c k l e y c o n s i d -

e r e d t h e b o m b i n g a l o g i c a l a n d h o n o r a b l e r e s p o n s e t o H a n o i ' s

" M i c k e y M o u s e " t a c t i c s . T h e New York Times ( D e c . 2 5 ) r e p o r t e d

t h a t t h e c o m e d i a n B o b H o p e s u p p o r t e d t h e b o m b i n g . T h e W a s h -

ington Post (Dec . 3 1 ) r e p o r t e d t h e a s s e s s m e n t o f W i l l i a m E . T i m -

m o n s , h e a d o f t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s c o n g r e s s i o n a l l i a i s o n o f f i c e , t h a t

C o n g r e s s b e l i e v e d N i x o n w a s r e a l l y t r y i n g t o e n d t h e w a r . A n d t h a t

w a s a b o u t a l l . I f , a s C B S , t h e P o s t , a n d t h e Times ( a l l o n D e c . 3 1 )

r e p o r t e d , s e n a t o r s p o l l e d d u r i n g t h e r e c e s s o p p o s e d t h e b o m b i n g

b y t w o t o o n e , t h e n t h e r e w e r e m o r e t h a n t h i r t y s e n a t o r s w h o d i d

n o t o p p o s e t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s d e c i s i o n ; y e t t h e i r v i e w s w e n t u n r e -

p o r t e d .

I n c o n t r a s t , t h e p r e s t i g e m e d i a r e p o r t e d c r i t i c a l o r c o n d e m n a -

t o r y c o m m e n t s f r o m s e n a t o r s M i k e M a n s f i e l d ( D - M o n t . ) , E d -

wa rd K ennedy (D-Mass . ) , W i l l i a m S a x b e ( R - O h i o ) , E d m u n d

Mus kie (D-Maine), Edw a rd Brooke (R-Ma s s . ) , G e o r g e

McGovern (D-S . D . ) , C l i f f o r d C a s e (R-N . J . ) , John Tun ney (D-

C a l i f . ) , H a r o l d H u g h e s ( D - I o w a ) , J a c o b J a v i t s (R-N . Y . ) , Hubert

Humphrey (D-Minn . ) , a n d C h a r l e s M a t h i a s (R-Md . ) ; c o n -

g r e s s m e n D o n a l d R i e g l e ( R - M i c h . ) , R o b e r t D r i n a n ( D - M a s s . ) ,

Lester Wolf f (D-N . Y . ) , a nd Ed wa rd Koc h ( D- N . Y . ) ; t h e

M e n l o - A t h e r t o n c h a p t e r o f t h e C a l i f o r n i a R e p u b l i c a n L e a g u e ;

t h e C h i c a g o c i t y c o u n c i l ; t h e Los Angeles Times, t h e Mil wa u kee

Journal , t h e Bos ton Gl obe, a n d t h e San Fran cisco Chronicl e ;

Averell Harriman, Theodore Rosza k, an d Hamil ton F ish

Armstrong ; t h e R e v . P h i l i p B e r r i g a n , t h e U. S

. C a t h o l i c C o n f e r -

e n c e , R a b b i M a u r i c e E i s e n d r a t h ( p r e s i d e n t o f t h e U n i o n o f

A m e r i c a n H e b r e w C o n g r e g a t i o n s ) , R o b e r t V . M o s s ( p r e s i d e n t o f

t h e U n i t e d C h u r c h o f C h r i s t ) , W i l l i a m T h o m p s o n ( s t a t e d c l e r k o f

t h e U n i t e d P r e s b y t e r i a n C h u r c h ) , R o b e r t N e l s o n W e s t ( p r e s i d e n t

o f t h e U n i t a r i a n U n i v e r s a l i s t A s s o c i a t i o n ) , a n d " t h e s o c i a l a c t i o n

d i r e c t o r s o f t h e s e v e n p r o v i n c e s o f t h e S o c i e t y o f J e s u s . "

T h e s e c r i t i c a l s t a t e m e n t s d i d n o t l a c k f o r c e f u l n e s s a n d

pungency . T h e m o r a l c o n c e r n s o f t h e n a t i o n w e r e s a i d t o b e r e -

f l e c t e d i n a s t a t e m e n t b y " a n i n t e r f a i t h g r o u p o f f o r t y - f o u r r e l i -

g i o u s l e a d e r s " t h a t d e n o u n c e d t h e b o m b i n g a s " a n u n s p e a k a b l e




a s s a u l t u p o n t h i s s e a s o n ' s m e s s a g e o f p e a c e o n e a r t h " ( W a s h in g -

ton Post, Dec . 2 3 ) . O n e o f t h e m o s t f r e q u e n t l y c i t e d n e g a t i v e

r e a c t i o n s w a s t h e d e f e c t i o n o f S e n a t o r W i l l i a m S a x b e ( R - O h i o )

f r o m t h e N i x o n c a m p a n d t h e t e r m i n a t i o n o f h i s l o n g s t a n d i n g

s u p p o r t o f t h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s S o u t h e a s t A s i a n p o l i c y : " I h a v e

f o l l o w e d P r e s i d e n t N i x o n t h r o u g h a l l h i s c o n v o l u t i o n s a n d s p e -

c i o u s a r g u m e n t s , b u t h e a p p e a r s t o h a v e l o s t h i s s e n s e s o n t h i s . "

S a x b e w a s a l s o q u o t e d a s s a y i n g t h e d e c i s i o n t o b o m b H a n o i a n d

H a i p h o n g d e m o n s t r a t e d " a r r o g a n c e a n d i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . "

An NBC interview (Dec . 2 6 ) g a v e S e n a t o r M c G o v e r n a n o p -

p o r t u n i t y f o r a n u n u s u a l l y l o n g s t a t e m e n t i n w h i c h h e s a i d i n

p a r t :

I n t h e l a s t t e n o r e l e v e n d a y s w e ' v e s e e n t h e m o s t m u r d e r o u s

a e r i a l b o m b a r d m e n t i n t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e w o r l d - t h e f i r s t u s e

o f B - 5 2 s , t h e l a r g e s t b o m b e r s w e h a v e , i n N o r t h V i e t n a m . I

t h i n k t h i s p o l i c y h a s n o t o n l y d e s t r o y e d a n y i m m e d i a t e h o p e s

f o r p e a c e , b u t I t h i n k i t ' s t h e m o s t i m m o r a l a c t i o n t h a t t h i s n a -

t i o n h a s e v e r c o m m i t t e d i n i t s n a t i o n a l h i s t o r y . I t ' s m a d e a

t r a v e s t y o f t h e w h o l e s p i r i t o f C h r i s t m a s . . . . We're bombing

i n o n e o f t h e m o s t d e n s e l y p o p u l a t e d s e c t i o n s o f I n d o c h i n a , i n

the outskirts of Haiphong a nd Hanoi, wh ere most of the

p e o p l e h a v e f l e d i n o r d e r t o g e t a w a y f r o m t h e c e n t r a l c i t i e s .

I t ' s a p o l i c y o f m a s s - m u r d e r t h a t ' s b e i n g c a r r i e d o n i n t h e

na me of the American people . A n d I h o p e t h e p e o p l e o f t h i s

c o u n t r y w i l l r i s e u p a g a i n s t i t .

I t m a y b e n o t e d t h a t t h e s e n a t o r a c k n o w l e d g e d t h a t B - 5 2 s w e r e

b o m b i n g n o t t h e c i t i e s p r o p e r b u t t h e i r " o u t s k i r t s , " b u t b e c a u s e

h e p l a c e d t h e b u l k o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f H a n o i a n d H a i p h o n g i n

t h e o u t s k i r t s , h e m a d e t h e b o m b i n g a p p e a r a s a c a l c u l a t e d e f f o r t

t o d e s t r o y c i v i l i a n s . ( I n t h i s s u g g e s t i o n M c G o v e r n w a s u n i q u e

among opponents of the bombing . ) S e n a t o r H a r o l d H u g h e s w a s

q u o t e d a s d e c l a r i n g : " I t i s u n b e l i e v a b l e s a v a g e r y t h a t w e h a v e

u n l e a s h e d o n t h i s h o l y s e a s o n ; t h e o n l y t h i n g I c a n c o m p a r e i t

w i t h i s t h e s a v a g e r y a t H i r o s h i m a a n d N a g a s a k i . " S e n a t o r M i k e

M a n s f i e l d s a i d o n A B C n e w s : " I t h i n k t h a t b o m b i n g w i l l j u s t p u t

s t e e l i n t h e i r b a c k b o n e s a n d p r o l o n g t h e w a r . " S e n a t o r J a c o b

J a v i t s s a i d: " T h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e h a v e n o t b e e n b o m b e d i n t o

a s e t t l e m e n t , a n d t h e r e i s n o t h i n g t o i n d i c a t e t h a t o u r r e n e w e d




a i r s t r i k e s a r e g o i n g t o h a v e t h a t e f f e c t n o w . " A s t a t e m e n t b y

Senator Mathias q uoted in the W a s h i n g ton Post su mmarized

m a n y o f t h e c o n c e r n s t h a t m o t i v a t e d t h e p r o t e s t s a n d c a l l s f o r

c o n g r e s s i o n a l a c t i o n :

E v e n i f t h e b o m b i n g i s s u c c e s s f u l i n b r i n g i n g t h e p a r t i e s b a c k

t o t h e n e g o t i a t i n g t a b l e . . . t h e p r i c e w o u l d b e t o o h i g h i n l i v e s

l o s t . . . a n d t h e h i g h e s t o f a l l i n o u r l o s s o f m o r a l l e a d e r s h i p i n

t h e w o r l d .

A s i n t h e c a s e o f r e p o r t s o n r e a c t i o n s f r o m a b r o a d , t h e c o v e r a g e

of un fa vorable comments b y America n l eaders incl uded some

w h o s e i m p o r t a n c e - p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e a b s e n c e o f a n y c o u n t e r -

v ail ing items of even moderate importan ce-might be q ues-

t i o n e d . A m o n g t h e s e w e r e t h e v i e w s o f t h e p r e s i d e n t o f t h e F i r s t

N a t i o n a l B a n k o f B o s t o n , s e v e n t y - e i g h t a c t i v i s t s p i c k e t i n g t h e

h o m e o f N i x o n ' s N e w J e r s e y c a m p a i g n c h a i r m a n , a n d c l e r g y m e n

wh o picketed the White House (a nd thus got featured on the

C B S e v e n i n g n e w s ) .

O u r r e v i e w o f r e p o r t i n g a b o u t U . S . r e a c t i o n l e a d s u s t o t h e

c o n c l u s i o n t h a t w i t h a m i n i m u m o f e f f o r t , t h e p r e s t i g e m e d i a

cou l d ha v e reported more comment f rom people wh o, while

p e r h a p s n o t e n t h u s i a s t i c a b o u t t h e b o m b i n g , w o u l d n o t h a v e

b e e n s o s h a r p l y c r i t i c a l a s t h o s e w h o s e v i e w s w e r e r e p o r t e d .

T h e s e c o u l d e a s i l y h a v e b e e n f o u n d a m o n g t h e m a n y A m e r i c a n

s c h o l a r s , h i s t o r i a n s , a n d f o r e i g n - p o l i c y s p e c i a l i s t s w h o s u p p o r t e d

the Christmas bombing a s a mean s for persuad ing Hanoi to

n e g o t i a t e m o r e s e r i o u s l y .



CHAPTER THREE

Commen t b y

t h e P r e s t i g e P r e s s

Martin F . H e r z a n d L e s l i e R i d e r

IN OUR SOCIETY THE CRUCIAL d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n r e p o r t -

i n g t h e n e w s a n d c o m m e n t i n g o n i t i s a c c e p t e d i n t h e o r y a n d

f r e q u e n t l y v i o l a t e d i n p r a c t i c e . T h e s t a n d a r d s f o r r e s p o n s i b l e r e -

p o r t i n g a r e s p e l l e d o u t i n t h e v a r i o u s b r o a d c a s t i n g a n d p r i n t m e d i a

c o d e s . T h e y f o c u s o n a b a l a n c e d p r e s e n t a t i o n o f f a c t s a n d v i e w s

a b o u t s i g n i f i c a n t e v e n t s o r d e v e l o p m e n t s . B u t t h e r e a r e n o s i m i l a r

r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r e d i t o r i a l s , i n w h i c h o p i n i o n s a b o u t e v e n t s c a n b e

f r e e l y g i v e n , t h o u g h u n d e r t h e F C C ' s F a i r n e s s D o c t r i n e , a s n o t e d

i n c h a p t e r 1 , a b r o a d c a s t e r i s r e q u i r e d t o l a b e l c o m m e n t a s s u c h

a n d t o p r o v i d e a " r e a s o n a b l e o p p o r t u n i t y " f o r d i v e r s e o p i n i o n s t o

b e a i r e d .

T h e f o l l o w i n g a n a l y s i s o f t h e p r e s t i g e m e d i a ' s e d i t o r i a l p e r f o r -

m a n c e t a k e s t h e s e d i s t i n c t i o n s i n t o a c c o u n t . T h e v i e w s o f t h e NewYork Times a n d t h e Wa sh ington Post t o w a r d t h e V i e t n a m W a r

w e r e w e l l k n o w n , a n d i t w o u l d h a v e b e e n s u r p r i s i n g h a d t h o s e

p a p e r s - o r W a l t e r C r o n k i t e o n C B S - h a d a n y t h i n g g o o d t o s a y

a b o u t t h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s h a n d l i n g o f t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s o r a b o u t

t h e b o m b i n g i n D e c e m b e r 1 9 7 2 . N o o n e c a n c r i t i c i z e a n e d i t o r i a l

w r i t e r f o r v o i c i n g s t r o n g o p i n i o n s .

H o w e v e r , t h e c o n f i d e n c e w i t h w h i c h e d i t o r i a l w r i t e r s a n d c o l -

u m n i s t s a s s u m e d c e r t a i n a s s e r t i o n s a b o u t t h e C h r i s t m a s b o m b i n g

t o b e f a c t s i s , i n r e t r o s p e c t , r e m a r k a b l e . T h i s c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e

s e l e c t i v e n e w s r e p o r t i n g t h a t w e e x a m i n e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r

c r e a t e d a c o n t i n u i n g o n e - s i d e d i n f l u e n c e o n e l i t e p u b l i c o p i n i o n .

4 4



COMMENT BY THE PRESTIGE PRESS 4 5

O p i n i o n s i n the Times

T h e f i r s t Times e d i t o r i a l o n t h e b o m b i n g ( " D e c e p t i o n o r N a i v e -

t 6 ? , " Dec . 1 9 ) w a s s c a t h i n g o n a l l c o u n t s . T h e b o m b i n g " i s n o t

l i k e l y t o h a s t e n - a n d c o u l d i n d e f i n i t e l y p o s t p o n e - t h e ` j u s t a n d

f a i r ' a g r e e m e n t t h a t H e n r y K i s s i n g e r h a s s a i d i s t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s

o b j e c t i v e , " s a i d t h e Times . F u r t h e r m o r e , W a s h i n g t o n w a s a t f a u l t

f o r t h e b r e a k d o w n o f t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s :

B u t i t w a s W a s h i n g t o n t h a t i n t r o d u c e d M r . T h i e u ' s s u b s t a n t i v e

d e m a n d s i n t o t h e P a r i s t a l k s , u p s e t t i n g t h e t e n t a t i v e a g r e e m e n t

t h a t h a d b e e n h a m m e r e d o u t i n O c t o b e r a n d o p e n i n g t h e w a y t o

c o u n t e r d e m a n d s f r o m t h e o t h e r s i d e . I t i s P r e s i d e n t N i x o n ,

a c c o r d i n g t o a l l a v a i l a b l e t e s t i m o n y , w h o i s n o w i n s i s t i n g t h a t a

f i n a l a c c o r d s o m e h o w r e q u i r e H a n o i t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t S a i g o n i s

t o r e m a i n i n c o n t r o l o f t h e S o u t h .

H o w e v e r d e v o u t l y t o b e w i s h e d , t h i s i s a n u n r e a l i s t i c c o n d i t i o n

t h a t a t t e m p t s t o i m p o s e a t t h e p e a c e t a b l e a p o l i t i c a l s o l u t i o n

t h a t h a s n o t b e e n w o n - a n d c a n n o t b e w o n - o n t h e f i e l d o f

b a t t l e .

Th e Times r i d i c u l e d K i s s i n g e r f o r h a v i n g s a i d t h a t h i s c a l l f o r

l a n g u a g e i n t h e a g r e e m e n t t h a t w o u l d " m a k e c l e a r t h a t t h e t w o

p a r t s o f V i e t n a m w o u l d l i v e i n p e a c e w i t h e a c h o t h e r a n d t h a t

n e i t h e r s i d e w o u l d i m p o s e i t s s o l u t i o n o n t h e o t h e r b y f o r c e " w a s

" a m o d e s t r e q u i r e m e n t , " " r e l a t i v e l y e a s i l y a c h i e v a b l e . " ( T h a t K i s -

s i n g e r s a i d h e w o u l d h a v e s e t t l e d f o r a v a g u e f o r m u l a t i o n , " h o w -

e v e r a l l u s i v e , h o w e v e r i n d i r e c t , " w a s n o t m e n t i o n e d . ) W h a t , a s k e d

t h e T i m e s , d i d P r e s i d e n t N i x o n a n d h i s a d v i s e r s t h i n k t h a t t h e

h i s t o r y o f V i e t n a m f o r t h e l a s t e i g h t e e n y e a r s h a d b e e n a l l a b o u t ?

T h e p a p e r s a i d t h a t N i x o n a n d K i s s i n g e r h a d b e e n " e i t h e r d e c e p -

t i v e o r n a i v e i n t h e i r p r e - e l e c t i o n a s s u r a n c e s t o t h e A m e r i c a n

p e o p l e a b o u t t h e i m m i n e n c e o f p e a c e i n V i e t n a m . " A n d i t c o n -

c l u d e d b y s a y i n g , " P e a c e w a s n o t a t h a n d , a n d M r . K i s s i n g e r h a s

g i v e n n o c o n v i n c i n g r e a s o n s f o r b e l i e v i n g t h a t i t w a s . " S o t h e

i m p l i c a t i o n w a s c o n v e y e d t h a t K i s s i n g e r , w h o m f e w h a v e a c c u s e d

o f n a i v e t e , h a d d e l i b e r a t e l y d e c e i v e d t h e A m e r i c a n p e o p l e .

T h i s w a s o n l y t h e o p e n i n g s a l v o o f w h a t b e c a m e a d r u m f i r e o f

s c a t h i n g c o m m e n t . T h e a l l e g e d i n d i s c r i m i n a t e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e

b o m b i n g a n d i t s b r u t a l i t y w e r e a s s u m e d . T h e n e x t d a y ( D e c . 2 0 ) ,




t h e Times a c c u s e d N i x o n o f " r e s o r t i n g o n c e m o r e t o n a k e d f o r c e "

a n d c o m m e n t e d t h a t " c i v i l i z e d m a n w i l l b e h o r r i f i e d a t t h e r e -

n e w e d s p e c t a c l e o f t h e w o r l d ' s m i g h t i e s t a i r f o r c e m e r c i l e s s l y

p o u n d i n g a s m a l l A s i a n n a t i o n i n a n a b u s e o f n a t i o n a l p o w e r a n d

d i s r e g a r d o f h u m a n i t a r i a n p r i n c i p l e s . " N o r t h V i e t n a m m a y y e t b e

b o m b e d " b a c k t o t h e s t o n e a g e , " a s a n A i r F o r c e g e n e r a l o n c e

s u g g e s t e d , s a i d t h e Times, b u t " i n t h e p r o c e s s , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s

i t s e l f i s i n d a n g e r o f b e i n g r e d u c e d t o t h e k i n d o f s t o n e a g e b a r -

b a r i s m t h a t c o u l d d e s t r o y s o m e o f w h a t i s m o s t w o r t h p r e s e r v i n g i n

A m e r i c a n c i v i l i z a t i o n . "

I n " T e r r o r F r o m t h e S k i e s " ( D e c . 2 2 ; r e p r i n t e d a s A p p e n d i x

D o f t h i s s t u d y ) , t h e Times s a i d t h a t " n o r m a l l y " B - 5 2 s o p e r a t e i n

f l i g h t s o f t h r e e t h a t l a y d o w n a p a t t e r n o f b o m b s - t w e n t y t o n s t o

a p l a n e - " w h i c h s c a t t e r o v e r a n a r e a m o r e t h a n h a l f a m i l e w i d e

a n d m o r e t h a n a m i l e a n d a h a l f l o n g . " C l a i m i n g ( q u i t e e r r o n e -

o u s l y ) t h a t A m e r i c a n p l a n e s h a d d r o p p e d 2 0 , 0 0 0 t o n s o f e x p l o -

s i v e s i n t h e f i r s t t w o d a y s a l o n e , t h e p a p e r s a i d t h a t t h i s w a s t h e

" e q u i v a l e n t o f t h e H i r o s h i m a b o m b " - i m p l y i n g t h a t t e n s o f

t h o u s a n d s o f c i v i l i a n s w e r e b e i n g s l a u g h t e r e d . " I m a g i n e what

w o u l d h a p p e n t o N e w Y o r k o r a n y o t h e r A m e r i c a n c i t y , " t h e

Times s a i d , " i f a c o m p a r a b l e e n e m y f o r c e w e r e u n l e a s h e d t o a t -

t a c k s u c h t a r g e t s o n t h e P e n t a g o n ' s a u t h o r i z e d l i s t a s r a i l y a r d s ,

s h i p y a r d s , c o m m a n d a n d c o n t r o l f a c i l i t i e s , w a r e h o u s e a n d t r a n s -

s h i p m e n t a r e a s , c o m m u n i c a t i o n s f a c i l i t i e s , v e h i c l e - r e p a i r f a c i l i -

t i e s , p o w e r p l a n t s , r a i l w a y b r i d g e s , r a i l w a y r o l l i n g s t o c k , t r u c k

p a r k s , a i r b a s e s , a i r - d e f e n s e r a d a r s , a n d g u n a n d m i s s i l e s i t e s . " T h e

r e a d e r w o u l d b e l i k e l y t o s u p p o s e t h a t t h e b o m b i n g w a s d e s t r o y i n g

H a n o i a n d H a i p h o n g . T h e e d i t o r i a l c o n c l u d e d r e s o u n d i n g l y :

N o m a t t e r w h o i s t o b l a m e f o r t h e b r e a k d o w n i n t a l k s , t h i s

m a s s i v e , i n d i s c r i m i n a t e u s e o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ' o v e r w h e l m -

i n g a e r i a l m i g h t t o t r y t o i m p o s e a n A m e r i c a n s o l u t i o n t o V i e t -

n a m ' s p o l i t i c a l p r o b l e m s i s t e r r o r i s m o n a n u n p r e c e d e n t e d s c a l e ,

a r e t r e a t f r o m d i p l o m a c y . . . . I n t h e n a m e o f c o n s c i e n c e a n d

c o u n t r y , A m e r i c a n s m u s t n o w s p e a k o u t f o r s a n i t y i n W a s h i n g -

t o n a n d p e a c e i n I n d o c h i n a .

O n t h e s a m e d a y , t h e Times r e p o r t e d o n a n e d i t o r i a l f r o m LeMonde ( P a r i s ) t h a t c o m p a r e d t h e b o m b i n g w i t h t h e a t r o c i t y a t




G u e r n i c a d u r i n g t h e S p a n i s h c i v i l w a r a n d s p o k e o f " c o v e r i n g

t h i s d e n s e c r o w d w i t h a c a r p e t o f b o m b s , " c o n c l u d i n g t h a t N o r t h

Vietnam wa s being "martyred" by an "a bomination" becau se

Nixon w as bypassing the U . S . C o n s t i t u t i o n " b y t h e l o g i c o f a n

i m p e r i a l s y s t e m . " A s n o t e d i n c h a p t e r 2 , Times c o l u m n i s t A n -

thony Lewis (Dec . 2 3 ) d e p l o r e d t h e a b s e n c e o f a p u b l i c o u t c r y

a g a i n s t " a p o l i c y t h a t m a n y m u s t k n o w h i s t o r y w i l l j u d g e a c r i m e

a g a i n s t h u m a n i t y ." Wh at wa s the purpose of the bombing? he

asked : " I t i s o n l y , H e n r y K i s s i n g e r s a y s , t o m a k e s u r e t h e A m e r -

i c a n d e p a r t u r e i s ` h o n o r a b l e . ' F o r t h a t w e h a v e c a u s e d , a r e c a u s -

i n g a n d p r e s u m a b l y w i l l c o n t i n u e t o c a u s e t h e m o s t t e r r i b l e d e -

s t r u c t i o n i n t h e h i s t o r y o f m a n . "

T h e e m o t i o n s o f C h r i s t m a s w e r e i n t e r m i n g l e d w i t h o p p o s i t i o n

t o t h e w a r a n d t h e b o m b i n g i n c o l u m n s b y L e w i s , " G o o d W i l l t o

Men" (Dec . 2 5 ) , a n d T o m W i c k e r , " S h a m e o n E a r t h " ( D e c . 2 6 ) .

L e w i s s a i d :

America ns are us ed to regarding themselves as the good

n e i g h b o r s o f t h e w o r l d , i n n o c e n t a n d h e l p f u l . H o w t e r r i b l e i t i s

t o r e a l i z e t h i s C h r i s t m a s t h a t i n t h e e y e s o f m o s t o f t h e w o r l d

t h e C h r i s t i a n p e a c e o f f e r e d b y t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i s t h e p e a c e

o f t h e I n q u i s i t i o n : c o n f o r m i t y o r t o r m e n t e d d e a t h .

And W icker :

T h e r e i s n o p e a c e . There is sh ame on earth, and American

s h a m e , p e r h a p s e n d u r i n g , s u r e l y p e r s o n a l a n d i m m e d i a t e a n d

i n e s c a p a b l e . W h a t e v e r h a p p e n e d i n P a r i s , i t i s n o t t h e y w h o i n

w i l l f u l a n g e r a r e b l a s t i n g o u r c i t i e s a n d o u r p e o p l e . I t i s w e

w h o h a v e l o o s e d t h e h o l o c a u s t .

On December 24 , a Times a r t i c l e b y L e s l i e G e l b a n d A n t h o n y

L a k e c l a i m e d t h a t N i x o n w a s s e e k i n g a N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e " s u r -

r e n d e r " a n d w i t h t h e b o m b i n g w a s " l a s h i n g o u t a t N o r t h V i e t -

n a m l i k e a s p o i l e d c h i l d w h o c a n n o t g e t h i s w a y ." On December

2 7 , t h e p a p e r e x h o r t e d t h e C o n g r e s s t o p u t a n e n d t o t h e w a r b y

l i n k i n g f u r t h e r f u n d s t o t h e a c h i e v e m e n t o f a s e t t l e m e n t a n d t h e

r e t u r n o f t h e p r i s o n e r s o f w a r . O n i t s o p - e d p a g e w e r e t h e a p p e a l

o f t h e s c i e n t i s t s m e n t i o n e d i n c h a p t e r 2 a n d a n a r t i c l e b y G e n e r a l

M a x w e l l T a y l o r , w h o a r g u e d t h a t t h e r e w a s n o n e e d f o r a n y w r i t -

t e n a g r e e m e n t t o w i t h d r a w t h e r e m a i n i n g A m e r i c a n f o r c e s .




O p i n i o n s i n t h e Post

Th e Wa sh ington Post d i d n o t l a g b e h i n d t h e Times i n v i g o r o u s

c o n d e m n a t i o n o f t h e b o m b i n g . I t a c c e p t e d a s f a c t v i r t u a l l y e v e r y -

t h i n g t h a t H a n o i a n d t h e A m e r i c a n a n t i - w a r m o v e m e n t w e r e

c l a i m i n g . A l o n g e d i t o r i a l e n t i t l e d " T h e G r e a t P e a c e C h a r a d e "

(Dec . 1 9 ) m a d e t w o s o m e w h a t c o n t r a d i c t o r y p o i n t s : t h a t K i s -

s i n g e r h a d b e e n n a i v e o r d i s i n g e n u o u s i n a s c r i b i n g " s o m e d a r k

a n d d u b i o u s b a r g a i n i n g t r i c k s " t o t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e , s i n c e

h e o f a l l p e o p l e s h o u l d h a v e r e a l i z e d t h a t t h e y " a r e n o t b e h a v i n g

l i k e p e r f e c t g e n t l e m e n " - a n d t h a t h e h a d c r a f t i l y t r i e d t o t r i c k

t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e i n t o c o n c e d i n g , u n d e r t h e g u i s e o f a m i n o r

a m e n d m e n t t o t h e a g r e e m e n t , t h e c r u c i a l p o i n t o f t h e w h o l e w a r ,

n a m e l y " n o t h i n g l e s s t h a n t h e p o l i t i c a l f u t u r e o f S o u t h V i e t -

n a m . " T h e p a p e r c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h i s , r a t h e r t h a n a n y a l l e g e d

North Vietna mese obs tru ction, h ad tran sf ormed the e n t i r e

n e g o t i a t i n g p r o c e s s i n t o a " c h a r a d e . " T h e o p p o s e d o b j e c t i v e s o f

N o r t h a n d S o u t h V i e t n a m , t h e e d i t o r i a l s a i d , c a n n o t b e r e c o n -

c i l e d : " t h e r e i s n o c o n c e i v a b l e s e t t l e m e n t s h o r t o f a n u n w i n n a b l e

v i c t o r y . " T h e P r e s i d e n t m u s t " a c c e p t t h i s h a r s h r e a l i t y " - a n d ,

presumably, withdraw from Vietnam on North Vietnamese

t e r m s .

L i k e t h e T i m e s , t h e Post d i d n o t a c c u s e K i s s i n g e r o u t r i g h t o f

d e c e p t i o n i n h i s " p e a c e i s a t h a n d " s t a t e m e n t i n O c t o b e r , b u t i t

c a m e s o c l o s e t h a t t h e e f f e c t w a s t h e s a m e . I t s a i d , f i r s t , t h a t a

c h a r a d e w a s a g a m e t h a t " t a k e s t w o t e a m s t o p l a y , " a d d i n g t h a t

" Mr . N i x o n a n d D r . K i s s i n g e r h a v e m a d e t h e i r o w n c o n s i d e r a b l e

c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h i s p a r t i c u l a r c h a r a d e . " R e f e r r i n g t h e n t o K i s s i n -

g e r ' s O c t o b e r s t a t e m e n t , t h e Post s a i d : " . . . i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o

r e m e m b e r t h a t t h e c r i t i c a l p i e c e o f p a n t o m i n e , i f y o u w i l l , w a s

p l a y e d o u t o n t e l e v i s i o n o n t h e e v e o f t h e n a t i o n a l e l e c t i o n , w i t h

t h e m o s t c a r e f u l c a l c u l a t i o n , w i t h w h a t h a d t o b e e n o r m o u s p o l i t i -

c a l e f f e c t . " T h e i m p l i c a t i o n w a s c l e a r : K i s s i n g e r h a d b e e n l e s s t h a n

t r u t h f u l . A t t h e l e a s t , t h e p a p e r s a i d , " h e a n d t h e P r e s i d e n t h a v e

b e e n t a k e n f o r a l o n g h a r d r i d e b y t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e ; i n s h o r t ,

t h e y h a v e b e e n h a d , b y D r . K i s s i n g e r ' s o w n a d m i s s i o n . " B u t t h e

r e a s o n f o r t h i s w a s n o t a r t f u l n e s s o r d u p l i c i t y o n t h e p a r t o f t h e




N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e ; i t w a s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e A m e r i c a n n e g o t i a t o r s

h a d m a d e u n r e a l i s t i c d e m a n d s .

I n " T e r r o r B o m b i n g i n t h e N a m e o f P e a c e " ( D e c . 2 8 ; r e p r i n t e d

a s A p p e n d i x E ) t h e Post c a l l e d t h e b o m b i n g " t h e m o s t s a v a g e a n d

s e n s e l e s s a c t o f w a r e v e r v i s i t e d , o v e r a s c a n t t e n d a y s , b y o n e

s o v e r e i g n p e o p l e u p o n a n o t h e r . " I t a r g u e d t h a t t h e r e c o u l d b e n o

r e s o l u t i o n t o t h e f i g h t i n g t h a t w o u l d y i e l d m o r e t h a n a m b i g u i t y :

T o p r e t e n d t h a t w e a r e d o i n g o t h e r w i s e - t h a t w e a r e m a k i n g

" e n d u r i n g p e a c e " b y c a r p e t - b o m b i n g o u r w a y a c r o s s d o w n t o w n

H a n o i w i t h B - 5 2 s - i s t o p r a c t i c e y e t o n e m o r e c r u e l d e c e p t i o n

u p o n a n A m e r i c a n p u b l i c a l r e a d y c r u e l l y d e c e i v e d . I t i s , i n b r i e f ,

t o c o m p o u n d w h a t i s p e r h a p s t h e r e a l i m m o r a l i t y o f t h i s a d m i n i s -

t r a t i o n ' s p o l i c y - t h e c o n t i n u i n g r e a d i n e s s t o d i s s e m b l e , t o t a l k

o f " m i l i t a r y t a r g e t s " w h e n w h a t w e a r e h i t t i n g a r e r e s i d e n t i a l

c e n t e r s a n d h o s p i t a l s a n d c o m m e r c i a l a i r p o r t s ; t o s p e a k o f o u r

d e d i c a t i o n t o t h e r e t u r n o f o u r P O W s a n d o u r m i s s i n g i n a c t i o n

e v e n w h i l e w e a d d m o r e t h a n s e v e n t y t o t h e i r n u m b e r i n l i t t l e

m o r e t h a n a w e e k .

T h i s p a r a g r a p h e p i t o m i z e s t h e Wa sh ington Post's s t a n c e . T h e

Post a c c e p t e d i t a s f a c t t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w a s , a s N o r t h

V i e t n a m w a s c l a i m i n g , " c a r p e t - b o m b i n g " r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s o f

Hanoi ; i t a c c u s e d t h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f " c r u e l d e c e p t i o n " a b o u t

t h e c a u s e s o f t h e b r e a k d o w n i n t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s ; i t w a s c o n -

v i n c e d - a s w e s a w i n i t s D e c e m b e r 1 9 e d i t o r i a l - t h a t t h e b o m b i n g

w o u l d n o t l e a d t o a n a g r e e m e n t ; a n d i t d i s b e l i e v e d t h e A d m i n i s -

t r a t i o n ' s s t a t e m e n t s t h a t o u r b o m b e r s w e r e a iming o n l y a t m i l i t a r y

t a r g e t s . T h e e d i t o r i a l c a l l e d t h e b o m b i n g " t h e h e a v i e s t a e r i a l

o n s l a u g h t o f t h i s o r a n y o t h e r w a r , " t h u s c o n j u r i n g u p t h e i d e a t h a t

t h e c a s u a l t i e s m u s t b e o n t h e o r d e r o f t h o s e i n f l i c t e d o n D r e s d e n ,

T o k y o , a n d H i r o s h i m a ( t h o u g h a p a r a l l e l w i t h t h o s e W o r l d W a r I I

b o m b i n g s w a s n o t e x p l i c i t l y d r a w n ) . T h e p a t t e r n w a s c l e a r . T h e

Post, l i k e t h e Times, h a d f o r y e a r s g i v e n g r e a t e r c r e d e n c e t o e n e m y

c l a i m s a b o u t t h e w a r t h a n t o s t a t e m e n t s i s s u e d b y U . S . o f f i c i a l s -

n o t a l w a y s w i t h o u t j u s t i f i c a t i o n .

W h i l e e d i t o r i a l l y a s s c a t h i n g a n d d e n u n c i a t o r y a s t h e Times, t h e

Post h a d n o t h i n g t o m a t c h t h e e l o q u e n c e o f L e w i s a n d W i c k e r o n

i t s o p - e d p a g e. M o s t o f i t s c o l u m n i s t s , w h i l e h o s t i l e t o t h e b o m bi n g ,

w e r e a n a l y t i c a l a n d p r e s c r i p t i v e r a t h e r t h a n o u t r a g e d a n d c o n -




demna tory . A m o n g t h e g u e s t c o l u m n i s t s d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d w a s

f o r m e r a m b a s s a d o r C h a r l e s W . Y o s t ( D e c . 3 0 ) , w h o s a w " t h e c r u e l

a n d f o o l i s h " r e s u m p t i o n o f t h e b o m b i n g o f N o r t h V i e t n a m a s

" t h r o w i n g d e t e n t e i n t o h a z a r d . " T h e d e t e n t e w i t h t h e S o v i e t

U n i o n a n d C h i n a h a d r e m o v e d , h e w r o t e , " t h e o n l y c o n v i n c i n g

r e a s o n f o r t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ' c o n c e r n w i t h a V i e t n a m e s e w a r ,

w h i c h w a s o r i g i n a l l y c o n c e i v e d o f a s a n i n s t r u m e n t o f t h e i r e x p a n -

s i o n . O n e c a n t h e r e f o r e s a y t h a t r a r e l y i n h i s t o r y h a s s o m u c h b e e n

r i s k e d f o r s o l i t t l e . "

Among the regul ar colu mnists, Victor Zorza (Dec . 2 0 )

h y p o t h e s i z e d w h a t n o o n e c o u l d p o s s i b l y h a v e k n o w n : t h a t H a n o i

m a d e t h e o r i g i n a l O c t o b e r c o n c e s s i o n s " a f t e r a f i g h t i n w h i c h t h e

h a r d l i n e r s w e r e n a r r o w l y d e f e a t e d b y C o m m u n i s t ` d o v e s . " '

I t t o o k t h e H a n o i P o l i t b u r o t h r e e d a y s t o d i g e s t t h e r e p o r t s f r o m

P a r i s , a n d t o t a k e a n e w v o t e o n t h e n e w A m e r i c a n d e m a n d s ,

w h i c h w e n t f a r b e y o n d w h a t h a d b e e n p r e v i o u s l y a g r e e d . I n

t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , t h e H a n o i h a r d l i n e r s w o u l d h a v e b e e n a b l e

t o a r g u e t h a t t h e y h a d b e e n r i g h t a l l a l o n g , a n d t o s w i n g t h e

P o l i t b u r o m a j o r i t y t o t h e i r s i d e .

Z o r z a c o n c l u d e d t h a t N i x o n ' s v e r y " u n p r e d i c t a b i l i t y " h a d b e c o m e

p r e d i c t a b l e a n d t h a t H a n o i w o u l d n o w t r y t o e x p l o i t a h y p o t h e t i c a l

s p l i t t h a t w a s d e v e l o p i n g b e t w e e n a N i x o n " h a r d l i n e " a n d a s o f t e r

l i n e a l l e g e d l y s o u g h t b y K i s s i n g e r .

Another Post c o l u m n i s t , K e n n e t h C r a w f o r d , d e c i d e d t h a t " K i s -

s i n g e r , a M o s t U n l i k e l y V i c t i m , W a s H a d " ( D e c . 2 3 ) . C r a w f o r d d i d

n o t s h a r e t h e v i e w h e l d b y S e n a t o r M c G o v e r n ( a n d s t r o n g l y i m -

p l i e d b y t h e New York Times) t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l " p e a c e i s a t h a n d "

a n n o u n c e m e n t h a d b e e n a d e l i b e r a t e h o a x . R a t h e r , h e h e l d t h a t

K i s s i n g e r h a d b e e n l e d d o w n t h e g a r d e n p a t h b y t h e C o m m u n i s t s ,

w h o n e v e r i n t e n d e d t o s e t t l e w i t h t h e A m e r i c a n s . W h e n K i s s i n g e r

h a d t r i e d t o c l a r i f y t h e d e l i b e r a t e o b s c u r i t i e s o f t h e O c t o b e r

a g r e e m e n t , C r a w f o r d a r g u e d , " t h e C o m m u n i s t s w e n t i n t o t h e i r

p e t t i f o g g i n g , o b f u s c a t i n g , n e r v e - j a n g l i n g a c t . Anyone wh o h a s

e v e r s e e n t h i s p e r f o r m a n c e , e v e n i n a c o m m u n i s t - i n f i l t r a t e d o r -

g a n i z a t i o n , m u s t s y m p a t h i z e w i t h K i s s i n g e r . A f t e r h i s O c t o b e r

o p t i m i s m , t h e y h a d h i m s e t u p f o r t h e d o u b l e c r o s s . "

C r a w f o r d ' s c o n c l u s i o n w a s t h a t o n t h e o n e h a n d , p u b l i c o p i n i o n




w o u l d f o r c e t h e American g o v e r n m e n t b a c k t o t h e n e g o t i a t i n g

t a b l e , i . e . , t h a t t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e w e r e r e a p i n g t a c t i c a l a d v a n -

t a g e f r o m t h e b o m b i n g ; a n d t h a t , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i f t h e b o m b i n g

w a s t h e r i g h t t a c k n o w , " t h e n i t w a s a m i s t a k e t o d i s c o n t i n u e [ i t ] a s

a g e s t u r e o f g o o d w i l l w h i l e t h e P a r i s n e g o t i a t i o n s w e r e p r o c e e d -

i n g . " T h e i m p l i c a t i o n o f t h e c o l u m n w a s t h a t a t e s t o f w i l l s w a s

i n v o l v e d i n w h i c h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g N o r t h V i e t -

n a m e s e w e a k n e s s , w o u l d l o s e b e c a u s e o f t h e p r e s s u r e o f p u b l i c

o p i n i o n t o s e t t l e o n e n e m y t e r m s .

B u t " H a n o i W a s H a d " a c c o r d i n g t o a n i n f r e q u e n t c o n t r i b u t o r t o

t h e P o s t , Josiah Lee Auspitz (Dec . 2 4 ) . A u s p i t z a s s e r t e d t h a t

Nixon h ad never wanted a reasonable agreement ; r e a l i z i n g b e -

l a t e d l y t h a t t h e a g r e e m e n t K i s s i n g e r h a d n e g o t i a t e d w o u l d b r i n g

t h e d o w n f a l l o f T h i e u a n d t h e v i n d i c a t i o n o f M c G o v e r n , t h e P r e s i -

d e n t w a s n o w d o i n g " t h e u g l i e s t t h i n g A m e r i c a n s h a v e s e e n a

P r e s i d e n t d o f o r m a n y a C h r i s t m a s . " A n o t h e r i n f r e q u e n t c o n t r i -

b u t o r , F r e d B r o n f m a n , w r o t e a t l e n g t h a b o u t t h e h i d e o u s n e s s o f

t h e A m e r i c a n o r d n a n c e d r o p p e d o n N o r t h V i e t n a m , s o m e o f i t

d e s i g n e d t o " p e n e t r a t e u n d e r g r o u n d s h e l t e r s , " s o m e e m p l o y e d f o r

m a x i m u m e f f e c t o n h u m a n b o d i e s , a n d s o o n ( D e c . 2 4 ) . B r o n f m a n

c l a i m e d t h a t t h e u s e o f p l a s t i c i n b o m b s w a s e s p e c i a l l y r e p r e h e n s i -

b l e b e c a u s e , N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e d o c t o r s s a i d , " t h e f r a g m e n t s d o n o t

s h o w u p o n a n X - r a y . " ( T h e Post l a t e r c a r r i e d a P e n t a g o n s t a t e -

m e n t d e n y i n g t h a t a n y A m e r i c a n b o m b s u s e d p l a s t i c f o r s h r a p n e l ,

a l t h o u g h s o m e o f t h e f i n s o n b o m b s w e r e m a d e o f p l a s t i c f o r

a e r o d y n a m i c e f f e c t . )

Murrey Marder (Wa sh ington Post, Dec . 2 3 ) t o o k t h e p o s i t i o n

t h a t s i n c e K i s s i n g e r a n d t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e h a d d i a m e t r i c a l l y

o p p o s i n g e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r t h e b r e a k d o w n o f t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s , a n d

s i n c e t h e f a c t s w e r e n o t k n o w n , " t h e o p p o s i n g a r g u m e n t s m u s t b e

t a k e n o n f a i t h . B u t b l i n d f a i t h d i s a p p e a r e d y e a r s a g o - a n e a r l y

c a s u a l t y o f t h e w a r . " I n o t h e r w o r d s , M a r d e r a t l e a s t l e f t o p e n t h e

p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t H a n o i m i g h t n o t b e t e l l i n g t h e t r u t h . C o l u m n i s t

S t e w a r t A l s o p ( D e c . 2 7 ) a s k e d : W h a t w o u l d N i x o n d o i f t h e N o r t h

V i e t n a m e s e r e f u s e d t o r e t u r n t o t h e c o n f e r e n c e t a b l e ? " N u k e

H a n o i ? H i t t h e d i k e s ? O r j u s t g o o n b o m b i n g N o r t h V i e t n a m t i l l

h e l l f r e e z e s o v e r ? "




The Other Prestige Media

I t i s m o r e d i f f i c u l t t o i d e n t i f y e d i t o r i a l o r c o l u m n i s t c o m m e n t i n

t h e n e w s m a g a z i n e s a n d t h e n e t w o r k s b e c a u s e i n t h e s e m e d i a n e w s

a n d c o m m e n t a r e o f t e n i n t e r t w i n e d . Time (Dec . 2 5 ) g a v e t h e

K i s s i n g e r s i d e o f t h e c o n t r o v e r s y a b o u t t h e b r e a k d o w n o f t h e

n e g o t i a t i o n s b u t r e m a r k e d t h a t " t h e U . S . m a y b e d e m a n d i n g m o r e ,

in Han oi's view, t h a n h a s b e e n w o n o n t h e b a t t l e f i e l d . " ( I t a l i c s i n

c o m m e n t s i n t h i s p a r a g r a p h a r e a d d e d t o h i g h l i g h t " h e d g i n g . " ) I t

c o n c l u d e d t h a t " t h e A m e r i c a n p e o p l e h a d e v e r y r i g h t t o f e e l d i s i l -

l u s i o n e d a n d perhaps e v e n m i s l e d . " I n t h e n e x t i s s u e ( J a n . 1 , 1 9 7 3 ) ,

Time c a l l e d t h e b o m b i n g " b r u t a l " a n d n o t e d t h a t " t h e B - 5 2 i s

b e t t e r a t s a t u r a t i o n b o m b i n g t h a n p i n p o i n t a t t a c k : H a n o i ' s c l a i m o f

h i g h c i v i l i a n c a s u a l t i e s w a s propagan distic bu t pla us ible . " W r i t i n g

l i k e t h i s m a k e s i t d i f f i c u l t t o c a t e g o r i z e t h e e d i t o r i a l p o s i t i o n . T h e

s a m e w a s t r u e o f Newsweek . I t a s k e d s u c h q u e s t i o n s a s , " W a s

K i s s i n g e r ' s ` p e a c e i s a t h a n d ' d e c l a r a t i o n j u s t b e f o r e e l e c t i o n d a y

o n l y a p o l i t i c a l g a m b i t ? " ( D e c . 2 5 ) . I n i t s J a n u a r y 1 i s s u e , i t

r e v i e w e d t h e c h r o n o l o g y o f t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s a n d t h e i r b r e a k d o w n

a n d n o t e d t h a t " t h e s a v a g e , w r e n c h i n g t u r n a b o u t o n t h e p a t h

t o w a r d a s e t t l e m e n t c o n f i r m e d t h e b e l i e f o f m a n y A m e r i c a n s -

well founded or not-that t h e y c o u l d n o t t r u s t t h e i r o w n g o v e r n -

ment . " A l t h o u g h Time and Newsweek d i d n o t s upport W a s h i n g -

t o n ' s p o s i t i o n , t h e i r c o m m e n t w a s d i s t i n c t l y l e s s n e g a t i v e t h a n w h a t

w a s s a i d i n t h e New York Times a n d t h e W a s h in g t on Post .

T o i d e n t i f y " e d i t o r i a l " o p i n i o n s i n t h e t r a n s c r i p t s o f t h e C B S

a f t e r n o o n a n d e v e n i n g n e w s s h o w s i s d i f f i c u l t , s i n c e t h o s e s h o w s

c o n s i s t e d a l m o s t e n t i r e l y o f v i s u a l n e w s s t o r i e s . M a n y s t o r i e s w e r e

n e g a t i v e : t h e p r o n o u n c e m e n t s o f w a r c r i t i c s , r e p o r t s a b o u t t h e

f a m i l i e s o f p r i s o n e r s , C o m m u n i s t a n d o t h e r f o r e i g n d e n u n c i a t i o n s

o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , r e p o r t s o f p r o t e s t s i n A m e r i c a , a n d t h e l i k e .

B u t t h i s c o m e s u n d e r t h e h e a d i n g o f s e l e c t i v e n e w s r e p o r t i n g r a t h e r

t h a n d i r e c t e d i t o r i a l i z i n g . T h e o n l y o u t r i g h t C B S e d i t o r i a l s w e r e

t h o s e o f E r i c S e v a r e i d , w h o s e t e c h n i q u e , a s r e q u i r e d b y t h e

m e d i u m , i s " c o o l " a n d t h u s f o r t h e m o s t p a r t o n e o f i n d i r e c t i o n a n d

i m p l i c a t i o n . S u c h " c o m m e n t " c a n n o t b e a n a l y z e d i n d e p t h h e r e ;

t h e t o n e i s a p p a r e n t i n t h e f o l l o w i n g S e v a r e i d p a s s a g e ( D e c . 2 2 ) :




T h e g r e a t g o v e r n m e n t b u i l d i n g s h e r e h a v e g o n e d a r k ; t h e t r a f f i c

c r a w l s a l o n g i n t h e c o l d d r i z z l e a s t h e p e o p l e w h o m a n t h i s

g o v e r n m e n t h e a d f o r t h e i r h o m e s a n d t h e l o n g C h r i s t m a s h o l i -

d a y . T h e a i r o f d e j e c t i o n h e r e c o m p a r e s i n s o m e m e a s u r e a t l e a s t

w i t h t h e C h r i s t m a s o f ' 4 1 w h e n o u r n a v y l a y s m a s h e d a t P e a r l

H a r b o r a n d t h e n i g h t w h e n e v e r y o n e t h o u g h t t h e w a r i n E u r o p e

w a s a l l b u t o v e r , a n d l e a r n e d i n s t e a d t h a t t h e N a z i s h a d s m a s h e d

b a c k i n t h e B a t t l e o f t h e B u l g e a n d p e a c e a g a i n r e c e d e d . T h e h i g h

h o p e s o f e a r l y a u t u m n a r e i n r u i n s . I n m o s t a r e a s o f t h i s g o v e r n -

m e n t , t h e v e r y h i g h l e v e l s i n c l u d e d , t h e f e e l i n g i s o n e o f d i s m a y ,

t i n g e d w i t h s h a m e t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i s a g a i n r e s o r t i n g t o

m a s s k i l l i n g . [ T h e ] c r e d i b i l i t y g a p i s o p e n i n g w i d e , a n d u n l e s s

t h e r e ' s a r e s o l u t i o n q u i c k l y , a g o o d m a n y r e p u t a t i o n s w i l l s l i d e

d o w n i t s s l o p e s . T h e s e n s e o f s h o c k h a s n o t y e t t u r n e d i n t o

o r g a n i z e d p r o t e s t , p a r t l y b e c a u s e i t i s t h e h o l i d a y s e a s o n . T h e

C o n g r e s s i s o u t ; t h e c o l l e g e s a r e c l o s e d . W e k n o w l i t t l e o f w h a t i s

h a p p e n i n g i n N o r t h V i e t n a m , s a v e w h a t H a n o i R a d i o c l a i m s .

A m e r i c a n m i l i t a r y a u t h o r i t i e s a r e h e l d t o v i r t u a l s i l e n c e , a n d t h e

P r e s i d e n t h i m s e l f m a i n t a i n s t o t a l s i l e n c e . . . . I f s e r i o u s a n d p r o -

d u c t i v e n e g o t i a t i o n s a r e n o t r e s u m e d , t h e n t h e h a u n t i n g q u e s t i o n

i s , W h a t h i g h e r b a r g a i n i n g c a r d s o r w e a p o n s d o w e p o s s e s s ?

D o e s t h e w i l l e x i s t t o u s e t h e m ; a n d a t w h a t c o s t t o t h e A s i a n

c o u n t r y a n d t o o u r s e l v e s ?

T h e p i c t u r e i s o n e o f a l m o s t u n r e l i e v e d g l o o m , w i t h t h e q u e s t i o n o f

m o r e i n t e n s i v e p r e s s u r e o n N o r t h V i e t n a m ( n u c l e a r w e a p o n s ? )

r a i s e d s u b t l y . In a su bsequent comment (Dec . 2 9 ; r e p r i n t e d a s

Appendix F) Sevareid was somewh at more outspoken :

I s i t p o s s i b l e t o g e t w h a t t h e P r e s i d e n t c a l l s a n h o n o r a b l e p e a c e

b y d i s h o n o r a b l e m e a n s ? H o w i s i t p o s s i b l e t o p r e s e r v e A m e r i c a n

l e a d e r s h i p a n d c r e d i b i l i t y i n t h e w o r l d , w h i c h t h e P r e s i d e n t s a y s

i s t h e i m p o r t a n t g o a l , w h e n t h e m o r a l b a s e f o r t h a t n a t i o n a l

p o s t u r e i s b e i n g h a c k e d a w a y ?

T o r a i s e q u e s t i o n s i n s u c h r h e t o r i c a l t e r m s i s t o a n s w e r t h e m .



CHAPTER FOUR

What Really Happened

Martin F . Herz

DURING THE ELEVEN DAYS o f t h e b o m b i n g o f N o r t h V i e t -

n a m , D e c e m b e r 1 8 t o 2 9 , 1 9 7 2 ( t h e r e w a s n o a c t i o n o n C h r i s t -

m a s d a y ) , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s d r o p p e d o v e r 2 0 , 0 0 0 t o n s o f b o m b s

o n t a r g e t s i n t h e H a n o i - H a i p h o n g a r e a . T h i s w a s b y f a r t h e

l a r g e s t a n d m o s t c o n c e n t r a t e d b o m b i n g c a m p a i g n o f t h e w a r . I n

t o n s o f o r d n a n c e d r o p p e d , t h e o p e r a t i o n c a n b e c o m p a r e d t o

s o m e o f t h e h e a v i e s t b o m b i n g s o f W o r l d W a r I I . T h e r e w e r e 7 2 4

s o r t i e s b y B - 5 2 s ( m o s t o f t h e m c a r r y i n g t h i r t y t o n s o f b o m b s )

a n d 6 4 0 s t r i k e s o r t i e s b y o t h e r a i r c r a f t ( A - 7 s , F - 4 s , F - 1 1 1 s ) p l u s

1 , 3 8 4 s o r t i e s b y o t h e r a i r c r a f t ( r e c o n n a i s s a n c e , S A M / f l a k s u p -

p r e s s i o n , e s c o r t , c o m b a t a i r p a t r o l , e l e c t r o n i c c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s ,

s e a r c h a n d r e s c u e , a n d o t h e r s ) .

D e s p i t e t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h i s e f f o r t , t h e n u m b e r o f c i v i l i a n s

k i l l e d i n H a n o i , b y t h e o f f i c i a l N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e a c c o u n t o f J a n u -

a r y 4 , w a s 1 , 3 1 8 . T h e n u m b e r o f w o u n d e d w a s g i v e n a s 1 , 2 6 1 . ( T h e

n u m b e r k i l l e d i n H a i p h o n g w a s 3 0 5 . ) M u c h a s o n e m u s t d e p l o r e

t h e l o s s o f c i v i l i a n l i v e s - i n d e e d , o f a l l l i v e s - i n a w a r , t h e e x t r a o r -

d i n a r y a s p e c t o f t h e s e f i g u r e s i s t h a t t h e y w e r e s o l o w , c o n s i d -

e r i n g t h e i n t e n s i t y o f t h e b o m b i n g e f f o r t . T h e r e i s s i m p l y n o c o m -

p a r i s o n w i t h t h e c i v i l i a n t o l l t a k e n b y t h e m a j o r b o m b i n g r a i d s i n

G e r m a n y a n d J a p a n d u r i n g W o r l d W a r I I .

T h a t t h e n u m b e r o f d e a d m u s t h a v e b e e n s m a l l b e c a m e a p p a r -

ent du ring the bombing c ampaign bu t wa s overlooked or

d o w n p l a y e d b y t h e m e d i a . F o r i n s t a n c e , o n D e c e m b e r 2 1 t h e

New York Times c a r r i e d o n i t s f r o n t p a g e a r e p o r t f r o m t h e

S o v i e t p r e s s a g e n c y T a s s c h a r g i n g t h a t t h e r a i d s h a d c a u s e d

5 4



WHAT REALLY HAPPENED 5 5

" h e a v y " c i v i l i a n c a s u a l t i e s a n d d a m a g e d " t h o u s a n d s " o f h o m e s ;

m a n y p a g e s l a t e r - o n p a g e 1 6 - t h e r e a p p e a r e d a n i n c o n s p i c u o u s

A s s o c i a t e d P r e s s r e p o r t t h a t H a n o i h a d c l a i m e d o n l y 2 6 0 d e a t h s

i n H a n o i a n d H a i p h o n g a s a r e s u l t o f t h e m a s s i v e r a i d s u p t o t h a t

t i m e .

Wh y Civilian Death s Were Low

A m o n g t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h e e x c e e d i n g l y l o w n u m b e r o f f a t a l i t i e s

a r e t h e s e :

1 . H a n o i ' s c i v i l d e f e n s e m e a s u r e s w e r e e f f e c t i v e . M a y o r T r a n

D u y H o n g e x p l a i n e d t o a Wa sh ington Post r e p o r t e r o n F e b r u a r y

4 , 1 9 7 3 : "W hen American bombs struck in December, two-

t h i r d s o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n h a d b e e n e v a c u a t e d . T h i s e x p l a i n s w h y

d e s p i t e t h e B - 5 2 s f e w p e o p l e w e r e k i l l e d . " T h e e v a c u a t i o n c o n -

t i n u e d a f t e r t h e b o m b i n g b e g a n , s o t h a t b y t h e e n d o f D e c e m b e r

p r o b a b l y t h r e e - q u a r t e r s o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n h a d b e e n e v a c u a t e d .

I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g , i n c i d e n t a l l y , t o n o t e t h a t t h e m a y o r o f H a n o i

r e p o r t e d a f t e r t h e a r m i s t i c e ( W a s h i n g t o n P o s t , Feb . 3 , 1 9 7 3 ) t h a t

i n D e c e m b e r h e h a d r e c e i v e d a d v i c e f r o m A m e r i c a n " c o m r a d e s "

t o c l a i m a f i g u r e o f 1 0 , 0 0 0 d e a d b u t t h a t h e h a d r e f u s e d , s a y i n g

t h i s w o u l d h a r m N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e c r e d i b i l i t y - s o t h a t , i f t h e

U n i t e d S t a t e s l a t e r r e a l l y k i l l e d 1 0 , 0 0 0 p e r s o n s , " n o b o d y w o u l d

b e l i e v e u s . "

2 . B - 5 2 s w e r e a s s i g n e d t o " a r e a " t a r g e t s o u t s i d e H a n o i a n d

H a i p h o n g p r o p e r o r i n t h e i r o u t s k i r t s ; * t h e m o r e p r e c i s e a n d a c -

c u r a t e f i g h t e r - b o m b e r s w e r e u s e d o n t a r g e t s i n o r n e a r d e n s e l y

p o p u l a t e d a r e a s . D e s p i t e c h a r g e s o f " c a r p e t - b o m b i n g " b y B - 5 2 s

i n s i d e H a n o i a n d H a i p h o n g , t a r g e t s s u c h a s t h e H a n o i p o w e r s t a -

t i o n w e r e g i v e n n o t t o B - 5 2 s , w h i c h b o m b e d a t n i g h t b y r a d a r ,

b u t t o s m a l l e r p l a n e s t h a t b o m b e d v i s u a l l y b y d a y . T h e p o w e r

s t a t i o n w a s a t t a c k e d a n d d e s t r o y e d b y o n e f l i g h t o f F - 4 s u s i n g

" s m a r t " ( l a s e r - g u i d e d ) b o m b s d u r i n g o n e o f t h e v e r y s h o r t

p e r i o d s o f g o o d v i s i b i l i t y .

* A s n o t e d e a r l i e r , t h e H a n o i c o m m u n i c a t i o n s f a c i l i t y m a y w e l l h a v e b e e n a n

e x c e p t i o n t o t h i s r u l e .



5 6 MARTIN F . HERZ

T h i s i s n o t t o s a y t h a t B - 5 2 s w e r e n e v e r u s e d a g a i n s t t a r g e t s

t h a t w e r e n e a r c i v i l i a n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s . I n s e v e r a l i n s t a n c e s B - 5 2 s

w e r e a s s i g n e d " a r e a t a r g e t s , " s u c h a s t h e K i m N o s t o r a g e a r e a

a n d t h e H a n o i p e t r o l e u m p r o d u c t s a r e a , t h a t , t h o u g h o n t h e o u t -

skirts of the city, were s t i l l c l o s e e n o u g h t o c i v i l i a n

i n s t a l l a t i o n s - s u c h a s t h e B a c h M a i h o s p i t a l - t h a t c o l l a t e r a l

d a m a g e o c c u r r e d , a p p a r e n t l y f r o m b o m b s r e l e a s e d b y e r r o r o r

a c c i d e n t . T h e t o w n o f T h a i N g u y e n , l o c a t e d n e x t t o t h e T h a i

N g u y e n e l e c t r i c p o w e r p l a n t , f a l l s i n t o a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t c a t e -

g o r y . I t s u s t a i n e d m a j o r d a m a g e a n d l o s s o f c i v i l i a n l i f e t h r o u g h

r e p e a t e d e f f o r t s t o p u t t h e p o w e r p l a n t o u t o f c o m m i s s i o n ; t h e

q u e s t i o n a r i s e s w h e t h e r i t w o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n b e t t e r t o w a i t f o r

t h e w e a t h e r t o c l e a r s o t h a t t h e p l a n t c o u l d b e a t t a c k e d w i t h

" s m a r t " b o m b s l a u n c h e d b y f i g h t e r - b o m b e r s . ( I t a p p e a r s , i n f a c t ,

t h a t a f t e r t h e B - 5 2 s f a i l e d t o d e s t r o y t h e t h e r m a l p o w e r p l a n t ,

F - 1 1 1 s w e r e c a l l e d i n t o c o m p l e t e t h e j o b . ) B u t c l e a r l y t a r g e t s

w i t h i n h e a v i l y p o p u l a t e d a r e a s o r c l o s e t o s u c h c e n t e r s w e r e , w i t h

o n e o r t w o e x c e p t i o n s , n o t a s s i g n e d t o B - 5 2 s . T h i s p o i n t w a s m a d e

c l e a r b y t h e t a r g e t l i s t . ( A n d i f t h a t l i s t h a d b e e n f a k e d t h e m e d i a

w o u l d u n d o u b t e d l y h a v e f o u n d i t o u t . )

D e s p i t e t h e i n s i s t e n c e o f s o u r c e s i n t h e S t r a t e g i c A i r F o r c e

t h a t t h e B - 5 2 i s s u p e r i o r i n a c c u r a c y t o f i g h t e r - b o m b e r s , t h e r e i s

n o d o u b t i n t h e m i n d s o f t h e a u t h o r s o f t h i s s t u d y t h a t t h e

f i g h t e r - b o m b e r s ( e v e n w h e n not us ing " smart" b ombs) w ere

m o r e a c c u r a t e t h a n t h e s t r a t o s p h e r i c B - 5 2 D s , w h o s e h u g e m i x e d

l o a d o f 1 0 8 b o m b s o f 7 5 0 a n d 5 0 0 p o u n d s h a d a s u b s t a n t i a l

a m o u n t o f s c a t t e r d u r i n g d e s c e n t . A c c o r d i n g t o G u e n t e r L e w y , i t

h a s b e e n e s t i m a t e d t h a t i n 9 0 p e r c e n t o f a l l B - 5 2 m i s s i o n s o n e

o r m o r e b o m b s l a n d e d o u t s i d e t h e t a r g e t " b o x e s " b e c a u s e o f

b e n t o r d a m a g e d f i n s ( A m e r i c a i n V i e t n a m , p . 4 1 2 ) .

3 . A n o t h e r f a c t o r i n t h e l o w c i v i l i a n d a m a g e w a s t h e p a r t i c u -

l a r m o d e o f b o m b i n g o r d e r e d f o r t h e B - 5 2 s . T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n

w a s n o t g i v e n o u t d u r i n g t h e b o m b i n g a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y b e c a m e

a v a i l a b l e o n l y t h r o u g h s p e c i a l i z e d p u b l i c a t i o n s , s u c h a s t h e U . S .

A i r F o r c e m o n o g r a p h " L i n e b a c k e r I I : A V i e w f r o m t h e R o c k . "

W i t h o u t g o i n g i n t o c l a s s i f i e d i n f o r m a t i o n , i t c a n b e s a i d t h a t t h e

" c e l l s " o f B - 5 2 s w e r e s m a l l e r a n d m o r e c o n c e n t r a t e d t h a n t h o s e

o b s e r v e d b y t h e p r e s s i n p r e v i o u s b o m b i n g s , s u c h a s t h e b o m b -




i n g s a r o u n d K h e S a n h i n 1 9 6 8 a n d a r o u n d A n L o c i n t h e s u m -

mer of 1972; t h a t p l a n e s i n t h e c e l l s d i d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y d r o p

t h e i r b o m b s a t t h q . ; s a m e m o m e n t ; a n d t h a t t h e o p e r a t i o n t o o k

p l a c e u n d e r i n s t r u c t i o n s t h a t m i n i m i z e d c i v i l i a n c a s u a l t i e s

t h r o u g h t h e l i n e s o f a p p r o a c h s e l e c t e d f o r b o m b i n g r u n s , t h r o u g h

s t r i c t i n s t r u c t i o n s t o r e f r a i n f r o m e v a s i v e a c t i o n a g a i n s t H a n o i ' s

s u r f a c e - t o - a i r m i s s i l e s ( S A M s ) d u r i n g t h e b o m b i n g r u n s , and

t h r o u g h o r d e r s t o w i t h h o l d b o m b s a n d j e t t i s o n t h e m i n t o t h e s e a

i f p r e s c r i b e d t a r g e t a c c u r a c y c o u l d n o t b e a s s u r e d .

T o b e s u r e , t h e t h r e a t o f c o u r t - m a r t i a l a g a i n s t a i r c r a f t c o m -

m a n d e r s w h o m a n e u v e r e d t o a v o i d S A M s d u r i n g t h e i r b o m b i n g

r u n s w a s n o t m o t i v a t e d o n l y b y a d e s i r e t o m i n i m i z e c i v i l i a n

c a s u a l t i e s : i t w a s a l s o c a u s e d b y a c o n c e r n f o r " c e l l i n t e g r i t y , "

b e c a u s e o f t h e f e a r o f c o l l i s i o n s a n d a l s o b e c a u s e s t a y i n g c l o s e

t o g e t h e r m a d e t h e p l a n e s ' e l e c t r o n i c c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s a g a i n s t t h e

S A M g u i d a n c e s y s t e m s m o r e e f f e c t i v e .

A l t o g e t h e r N o r t h V i e t n a m l a u n c h e d m o r e t h a n 1 , 2 5 0 S A M s .

T h e U n i t e d S t a t e s l o s t t w e n t y - s i x a i r c r a f t , i n c l u d i n g B - 5 2 s , a l l

SAM victims . T h e l o s s o f B - 5 2 s w a s s l i g h t l y o v e r 2 p e r c e n t ,

w h i c h i s w e l l b e l o w t h e l o s s r a t i o o f b o m b e r s i n W o r l d W a r I I . I t

i s k n o w n t h a t m a n y S A M s e x p l o d e d i n t h e a i r w i t h o u t h i t t i n g

t h e i r i n t e n d e d t a r g e t s , a n d a l s o t h a t m a n y f a i l e d t o e x p l o d e a n d

h e a d e d d o w n a g a i n . S o m e o f t h e d a m a g e i n p o p u l a t e d a r e a s t h a t

w a s a t t r i b u t e d t o U . S . p l a n e s i n g e n e r a l o r t o B - 5 2 s i n p a r t i c u l a r

w a s l i k e l y t o h a v e b e e n c a u s e d b y h u g e S A M s a n d o t h e r a n t i -

a i r c r a f t o r d n a n c e t h a t f e l l t o t h e g r o u n d w i t h o u t h i t t i n g t h e i r

t a r g e t s. ( I n c i d e n t a l l y , i t a p p e a r s t h a t b y t h e t i m e t h e b o m b i n g

w a s s t o p p e d u p o n r e c e i p t o f a s i g n a l f r o m N o r t h V i e t n a m t h a t i t

w o u l d r e s u m e n e g o t i a t i o n s , t h e e n e m y h a d f i r e d i t s e n t i r e s t o c k

of SAMs ; c o n t i n u e d b o m b i n g b y B - 5 2 s w o u l d t h e r e f o r e h a v e

b e e n m u c h l e s s r i s k y f o r t h e a t t a c k e r s . )

The Da mage to Ha noi

E y e w i t n e s s a c c o u n t s , s o m e e v e n d u r i n g t h e b o m b i n g , c o n -

t r a d i c t t h e c l a i m s o f " c a r p e t - b o m b i n g " a n d i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e a c -

c u r a c y o f t h e a t t a c k e r s m u s t h a v e b e e n q u i t e r e m a r k a b l e , c o n -

s i d e r i n g t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e b o m b i n g c a m p a i g n . Mal colm W .



5 8 MARTIN F . HERZ

Browne of the New York Times , a c o n f i r m e d c r i t i c o f t h e N i x o n

a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s c o n d u c t o f t h e w a r , r e p o r t e d f r o m H a n o i a f t e r

the Janu ary a greement that "the damage cau sed by America n

bombing wa s gross ly overstated by North Vietna mese prop-

aga nda " (March 31, 1973) . A f t e r a v i s i t i n M a r c h 1 9 7 3 , P e t e r

W a r d o f t h e Bal timore Sun w r o t e t h a t " e v i d e n c e o n t h e g r o u n d

d i s p r o v e s c h a r g e s o f i n d i s c r i m i n a t e b o m b i n g . S e v e r a l b o m b l o a d s

o b v i o u s l y w e n t a s t r a y i n t o c i v i l i a n r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s , b u t d a m a g e

t h e r e i s m i n o r c o m p a r e d t o t h e t o t a l d e s t r u c t i o n o f s e l e c t e d

t a r g e t s " ( M a r c h 2 5 ) .

Tammy Arbuc kle of the Wa sh ington Star, w h o v i s i t e d H a n o i

i n l a t e M a r c h 1 9 7 3 , r e p o r t e d : " P i c t u r e s a n d s o m e p r e s s r e p o r t s

h a d g i v e n a v i s i t o r t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t H a n o i h a d s u f f e r e d b a d l y

i n t h e w a r - b u t i n f a c t t h e c i t y i s h a r d l y t o u c h e d " ( A p r i l 1 ) . A r -

bu ckle was not sh own the Bac h Mai hospital b ut man aged to

v i s i t K h a m T h i e n , t h e a r e a a b o u t w h i c h t h e F r e n c h N e w s A g e n c y

h a d r e p o r t e d s o l u r i d l y i n D e c e m b e r , a n d d e s c r i b e d t h e d e s t r u c t i o n

t h e r e a s f o l l o w s :

We were sh own K ha m Thien . I t l o o k e d a s i f a b o u t 6 0 h o u s e s

ha d been destroyed an d an other 20 da maged . N o r t h V i e t -

n a m e s e o f f i c i a l s s a i d a b o u t 2 1 5 p e o p l e w e r e k i l l e d a t K h a m

Thien . I t w a s d i f f i c u l t t o a s s e s s w h a t s o r t o f b o m b i n g h a d

c a u s e d t h e d e s t r u c t i o n a s m a k e s h i f t h o u s e s h a v e s p r u n g u p o n

t h e r u i n s o f t h e o l d .

T h e K h a m T h i e n a r e a , a c c o r d i n g t o N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e s o u r c e s

(W as hington Post, Feb . 4 , 1 9 7 3 ) , h a d a p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y o f

7 5 , 0 0 0 p e r s o n s p e r s q u a r e m i l e . A l t h o u g h m a n y o f t h e s e m u s t

h a v e b e e n e v a c u a t e d , t h e l o w o f f i c i a l n u m b e r o f d e a d i n t h i s r e s -

i d e n t i a l a r e a s u g g e s t s t h a t i t w a s n o t " c a r p e t - b o m b e d " b y B - 5 2 s .

T e l f o r d T a y l o r , w h o h a d r e p o r t e d i n D e c e m b e r t h a t t h e B a c h

M a i h o s p i t a l h a d b e e n " b l o w n t o s m i t h e r e e n s " a n d i m p l i e d t h a t

t h e d e s t r u c t i o n h a d b e e n d e l i b e r a t e , m o d i f i e d h i s a s s e s s m e n t

a f t e r a s e c o n d v i s i t . T h e New York Times ( J a n . 7 ) q u o t e d h i s r e -

v i s e d v i e w t h a t t h e b o m b s t h a t h i t t h e h o s p i t a l " w e r e p r o b a b l y

d i r e c t e d a t t h e a i r f i e l d a n d n e a r b y b a r r a c k s a n d o i l s t o r a g e

u n i t s. " I n h i s e a r l i e r r e p o r t T a y l o r h a d n o t m e n t i o n e d t h e h o s p i -

t a l ' s p r o x i m i t y t o t h e s e m i l i t a r y t a r g e t s , o r i f h e h a d , t h e p o i n t

wa s censored b y the North Vietnamese . ( I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t ,




d e s p i t e t h e s e r e v i s e d r e p o r t s , t h e c h a r g e o f d e l i b e r a t e a t t a c k s o n

c i v i l i a n t a r g e t s w a s a c c e p t e d a s t r u e b y D a l e S . D e H a n n , c o u n s e l

t o t h e S e n a t e s u b c o m m i t t e e o n r e f u g e e s , w h o v i s i t e d H a n o i i n

M a r c h 1 9 7 3 , a n d b y t h e c h a i r m a n o f t h e s u b c o m m i t t e e , S e n a t o r

Edw ard Kennedy . * )

N o t u n t i l A p r i l 4 , 1 9 7 3 , i n e x p l i c a b l y , d i d t h e D e f e n s e D e -

p a r t m e n t r e l e a s e a e r i a l p h o t o g r a p h s t o p r o v e i t h a d n o t e n g a g e d

i n " c a r p e t - b o m b i n g . " T h e New York Times r e p o r t e d t h i s i n a n

articl e by Drew Midd leton entitled " Han oi Films Show No

' C a r p e t - B o m b i n g " ' ( M a y 2 ). T h e k e y p a s s a g e f o l l o w s

:

A e r i a l p h o t o g r a p h s o f t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e h e a v y U n i t e d S t a t e s

b o m b i n g o f H a n o i l a s t D e c e m b e r s h o w d a m a g e t o m i l i t a r y

t a r g e t s , t o a h o s p i t a l n e a r a m i l i t a r y a i r f i e l d , a n d t o a c o m m e r -

c i a l a n d r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a c l o s e t o t h e m a i n r a i l r o a d s t a t i o n a n d

y a r d s . T h e p h o t o g r a p h s , t a k e n b y r e c o n n a i s s a n c e d r o n e s a f t e r

t h e t w e l v e - d a y b o m b i n g o f f e n s i v e a n d m a d e p u b l i c b y t h e D e -

f e n s e D e p a r t m e n t , i n c l u d e o n e c o m p o s i t e p i c t u r e o f H a n o i .

T h i s d o e s n o t s u p p o r t c h a r g e s m a d e d u r i n g t h e o f f e n s i v e t h a t

U n i t e d S t a t e s A i r F o r c e p l a n e s s u b j e c t e d H a n o i t o t h e k i n d

o f c a r p e t - b o m b i n g e m p l o y e d a g a i n s t G e r m a n c i t i e s i n W o r l d

W a r I I .

T h e a r t i c l e n o t e d t h a t t h e d a m a g e t o t h e B a c h M a i h o s p i t a l , w h i c h

h a d b e e n t h e f o c u s o f m u c h i n t e r n a t i o n a l c r i t i c i s m , w a s e x p l a i n e d

b y t h e h o s p i t a l ' s p r o x i m i t y t o t h e B a c h M a i m i l i t a r y a i r f i e l d , w h i c h

w a s h e a v i l y b o m b e d b y B - 5 2 s , F - 1 1 1 s , a n d F - 4 s : " T h e r u n w a y w a s

c u t a t t w o p o i n t s a n d t e n s u p p o r t b u i l d i n g s a n d t e n b a r r a c k s w e r e

d e s t r o y e d . B u t w h a t w e r e d e s c r i b e d a s p r e m a t u r e b o m b d r o p s

s e v e r e l y d a m a g e d s e v e r a l b u i l d i n g s i n t h e n e a r b y B a c h M a i c i v i l i a n

h o s p i t a l . " T h e p i c t u r e s , a c c o r d i n g t o M i d d l e t o n , a l s o s h o w e d s o m e

h e a v y d a m a g e i n t h e K h a m T h i e n a r e a n e a r t h e r a i l w a y y a r d s , b u t

t h e Times w r i t e r r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e r e w a s n o e v i d e n c e o f d e l i b e r a t e

b o m b i n g o f c i v i l i a n a r e a s . H o w e v e r , t h e T i m e s , w h o s e e d i t o r i a l s

h a d c o m p l a i n e d a b o u t w h o l e s a l e d e v a s t a t i o n , d i d n o t a c k n o w l e d g e

t h e s e f i n d i n g s i n i t s e d i t o r i a l c o l u m n s .

A s f o r t h e Wa sh ington Post, i t t u c k e d t h e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t

*U. S . Senate, Committee on the Ju dicia ry, Sub committee to Inv estigate Prob-

lems Conn ected with Refugees an d Esca pees, Hearings on Relief and Reha bilita-

tion of Wa r Victims in Indoch ina, P a r t I I I : North Vietna m and Laos, Jul y 31,

1973, 93rd Congress, 1s t Sess ion, 1973, p . 7 2 .



6 0 MARTIN F. HERZ

w h a t t h e a e r i a l p h o t o g r a p h s r e v e a l e d a t t h e e n d o f a n e w s s t o r y

a b o u t a n o t h e r s u b j e c t ( " C a m b o d i a n P e r i l I s D i s c o u n t e d b y P e n t a -

g o n , " A p r i l 5 ) o n p a g e 2 4 . O f c o u r s e , t h i s p a p e r , w h i c h h a d

s p e c i f i c a l l y c h a r g e d c a r p e t - b o m b i n g " a c r o s s d o w n t o w n H a n o i , "

d i d n o t c o m m e n t o n t h e n e w i n f o r m a t i o n ; a n d t h e o t h e r m e d i a

s u r v e y e d h e r e d i d n o t e v e n r e p o r t i t i n c i d e n t a l l y .

T h e r e i s a n o t h e r o d d i t y a b o u t t h e a e r i a l p h o t o g r a p h s . T h e y w e r e

p r e s e n t e d t o t h e H o u s e D e f e n s e A p p r o p r i a t i o n s S u b c o m m i t t e e o n

A p r i l 4 , b u t w h e n A d m i r a l T h o m a s M o o r e r , t h e c h a i r m a n o f t h e

J o i n t C h i e f s o f S t a f f , w a s a s k e d w h y t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n h a d n o t b e e n

r e v e a l e d b e f o r e , h e s a i d ( a c c o r d i n g t o t h e P o s t ) t h a t " t h e l a r g e

p h o t o w a s n ' t a v a i l a b l e u n t i l J a n u a r y " a n d t h a t " c e a s e - f i r e n e g o t i a -

t i o n s w e r e g o i n g o n a g a i n a t t h a t t i m e . " I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o s e e w h y

r e l e a s e o f t h e p h o t o i n t e l l i g e n c e a b o u t t h e a c t u a l e x t e n t o f d a m a g e

i n H a n o i w o u l d h a v e i n t e r f e r e d w i t h t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s , w h i c h i n a n y

e v e n t w e r e c o n c l u d e d o n J a n u a r y 1 2 . I t i s a l s o d i f f i c u l t t o u n d e r -

s t a n d w h y , w i t h t h e p h o t o i n t e l l i g e n c e a v a i l a b l e o n A p r i l 4 , t h e

Times r e p o r t e d i t o n l y o n M a y 2 . O n e c a n s p e c u l a t e t h a t p e r h a p s

t h e r e w a s s o m e r e l u c t a n c e t h a t h a d t o b e o v e r c o m e .

The Nixon- Kissinger Disagreement

W h y , d u r i n g t h e C h r i s t m a s b o m b i n g a n d f o r s o m e t i m e t h e r e a f -

t e r , t h e U . S . g o v e r n m e n t w a s s i l e n t a b o u t t h e o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e

b o m b i n g a n d s a i d s o l i t t l e a b o u t t h e s t e p s t a k e n t o m i n i m i z e

c i v i l i a n d e a t h s , i s n o m y s t e r y . A s n o t e d i n c h a p t e r 3 , t h e s i l e n c e

a b o u t o b j e c t i v e s r e s u l t e d f r o m a d e c i s i o n b y P r e s i d e n t N i x o n t a k e n

a g a i n s t t h e r e p e a t e d a d v i c e o f H e n r y K i s s i n g e r . T h e i n t e r p l a y

b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o m e n o n t h i s p o i n t a s r e p o r t e d i n t h e i r m e m o i r s i s

n o t e w o r t h y . B o t h N i x o n a n d K i s s i n g e r r e p o r t e d t h a t w h e n i t

l o o k e d a s i f t h e t a l k s w o u l d h a v e t o b e b r o k e n o f f a n d t h e b o m b i n g

r e s u m e d , K i s s i n g e r r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t t h e P r e s i d e n t g o o n t e l e v i -

s i o n t o e n l i s t t h e s u p p o r t o f t h e A m e r i c a n p e o p l e f o r t h e s t e r n

m e a s u r e s t h a t w o u l d b e t a k e n . " I b e l i e v e t h a t y o u c a n m a k e a

s t i r r i n g a n d c o n v i n c i n g c a s e t o r a l l y t h e m a s y o u h a v e s o o f t e n i n

t h e p a s t w i t h y o u r d i r e c t a p p e a l s , " K i s s i n g e r t e l e g r a p h e d f r o m

P a r i s (RN: The Memoirs of Richard Nixon, New York : G r o s s e t

a n d D u n l a p , 1 9 7 8 , p . 7 2 6 ) . B u t t h e P r e s i d e n t d i s a g r e e d .




I n s t e a d o f a f r a n t i c a n d p r o b a b l y f o r e d o o m e d a t t e m p t o n m y

p a r t t o r a l l y A m e r i c a n p u b l i c o p i n i o n b e h i n d a m a j o r e s c a l a t i o n

o f t h e w a r , I p r e f e r r e d a n u n a n n o u n c e d s t e p p i n g u p o f t h e

bombing . T h i s w o u l d b e c o u p l e d w i t h a p r e s s c o n f e r e n c e b y

K i s s i n g e r t o e x p l a i n w h e r e w e s t o o d i n t e r m s o f t h e n e w a t t e m p t s

a t r e a c h i n g a s e t t l e m e n t , a n d w h y t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s h a d b r o k e n

d o w n [ i b i d . ] .

K i s s i n g e r d i s a g r e e d a n d r e m o n s t r a t e d , b u t N i x o n n o t e s : " I r e -

m a i n e d u n c o n v i n c e d o f t h e w i s d o m a n d t h e f e a s i b i l i t y o f t h i s

c o u r s e o f a c t i o n " ( p . 7 2 7 ) . L a t e r , i n a t e l e g r a m , t h e P r e s i d e n t t o l d

K i s s i n g e r: " I h a v e t a l k e d t o a f e w o f t h e h a r d - l i n e r s h e r e i n t o t a l

c o n f i d e n c e , a n d i t i s t h e i r s t r o n g l y u n a n i m o u s v i e w t h a t i t w o u l d b e

t o t a l l y w r o n g f o r t h e P r e s i d e n t t o g o o n T V a n d e x p l a i n t h e d e t a i l s

o f w h y t h e t a l k s h a v e f a i l e d " ( p . 7 2 8 ) . K i s s i n g e r d e s c r i be s h i s o w n

s t a t e o f m i n d a t t h e t i m e i n t h i s w a y :

I f I a d m i r e d N i x o n ' s d e c i s i o n [ t o b r e a k o f f t h e t a l k s a n d r e s u m e

t h e b o m b i n g ] , I w a s l e s s e n t h u s i a s t i c a b o u t h i s r e f u s a l t o e x p l a i n

i t t o t h e p u b l i c . . . .Bu t Nixon wa s d etermined to take himself out

o f t h e l i n e o f f i r e [ i t a l i c s s u p p l i e d ] . I w a s a s k e d t o g i v e a l o w - k e y

b r i e f i n g o f t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h e r e c e s s i n g o f t h e P a r i s t a l k s ; h o w t o

b e l o w - k e y a b o u t s u c h a d r a m a t i c e v e n t w a s n o m o r e a p p a r e n t t o

m e i n W a s h i n g t o n t h a n i t h a d b e e n i n P a r i s . I h a d n o o b j e c t i o n t o

t h i s a s s i g n m e n t ; i n d e e d , I v o l u n t ee r e d f o r i t . B u t i f t h e r e w a s a

m a j o r u p r o a r , o n l y t h e P r e s i d e n t w o u l d b e a b l e t o q u i e t i t a n d

g i v e t h e p u b l i c a s e n s e o f w h e r e w e w e r e h e a d e d . I t w a s p r o p e r

t h a t I s h o u l d b e t h e b u t t o f a t t a c k , a s I h a d b e e n a n d w o u l d b e

a g a i n t h e f o c a l p o i n t o f s u c c e s s . . . .

B u t t h e o v e r r i d i n g , i m m e d i a t e n e e d w o u l d b e t o c a l m p u b l i c

f e a r s a n d r e s c u e n a t i o n a l s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e o u t o f t h e b e d l a m

c e r t a i n t o f o l l o w N i x o n ' s d e c i s i o n . Nixon explains that he wa s

concerned n ot to jeopardize the negotiations ; s ilence ena bl ed him

to av oid giving our actions the character of a n ul timatum and thus

permitted Hanoi to return to the conference tabl e without l oss of

face [ i t a l i c s s u p p l i e d ] . T h i s w a s p a r t o f h i s c o n c e r n ; b u t I a l s o

t h i n k t h e r e w e r e o t h e r , m o r e c o m p l e x r e a s o n s . N i x o n w a s s t i l l

s e i z e d b y t h e w i t h d r a w n a n d s u l l e n h o s t i l i t y t h a t h a d d o m i n a t e d

h i s m o o d s i n c e h i s e l e c t o r a l t r i u m p h . H e r e s e n t e d h a v i n g t o f a c e

o n c e a g a i n t h e e m o t i o n a l t r a v a i l o f a n e x p a n d e d w a r a t t h e v e r y

s t a r t o f h i s n e w a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . H e w a s m u c h l e s s c e r t a i n o f

s u c c e s s t h a n I ; h e t o l d m e h i s d o u b t s r e p e a t e d l y [Wh ite HouseYears, Boston : L i t t l e , B r o w n a n d C o . , 1 9 7 9 , p p . 1 4 4 8 , 1 4 4 9 ] .

P e r s o n a l l y I b e l i e v e t h a t N i x o n w a s r i g h t a n d t h a t a c a m p a i g n t o



62 MARTIN F. HERZ

ral l y th e America n peopl e behind their government at th e time of

the Christmas bombing w ould ha ve fa iled. Such a campaign should

ha ve been s tarted much earlier, an d s us tained throughout the war .

If the Administration ha d fough t ba ck, it woul d not ha ve reversed

the tide of publ ic opinion, b ut it woul d h av e given h eart to its

su pporters a nd probab ly increas ed the nu mber of th e und ecided .

Simil arl y, inf ormation to disprove the ch arges of " ca rpet-

bombing" c oul d h av e been releas ed earl ier if th e Administration

ha d not virtua ll y given u p on the prestige media .

The memoirs rev eal a d istinct d ifferenc e between Nixon a nd

Kiss inger in their incl ination to compromise . The Presiden t w a s

not onl y l oath to conf ront the America n pub lic with an explan ation

for the bombin g ; h e was al so less certain that the United States

sh oul d persevere in trying to improve the October ag reement .

The record of mess ag es a s refl ected in the two memoirs sh ows

qu ite cl early tha t Nixon was more eager tha n Kissinger to settle on

min imu m terms , i . e . , o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e e a r l i e r , v i r t u a l l y c o n c l u d e d

a greement . In l ate November he ca bl ed Kissinger tha t "we must

recognize the fu nd amental reality tha t we ha ve no choice bu t to

reac h ag reement al ong the l ines of th e October 8 principles"

(W h ite Hou se Years , p . 1421) . The next morning , how ever, he

rev ersed himself . Kiss inger reports th at h e telegraph ed the Presi-

dent tha t "I did not see how we coul d a cc ept returning to the

October text (not to speak of one even worse, as Hanoi proposed) .

Though I cons idered the a greement a g ood one then , interven ing

events [obv ious ly , the tab ling b y th e United States of Thieu's

requ ested cha nges] w oul d turn a cceptan ce of it into a debacl e" (p.

1429) . But as l ate as December 10, General Alexand er Haig,

Kissinger's deputy, ca bl ed from Was hington that "if even this

[compromise] fails , the President, a s we predicted, would even b e

willing to cav e completely with the hopes tha t we can s till bring

Thieu aroun d" (p . 1439 ; italics a dded) .

However, the North Vietna mese w ent into a s tal l an d effectively

ha lted th e negotiations in the s econd w eek of December . C l e a r l y ,

Han oi ha d developed doub ts ab out the w hole enterprise . No one

can sa y w ha t wo u l d h a v e happened if the United States h ad not

proceeded to bomb the Han oi a nd Haiphong areas an d to resu me




t h e m i n i n g o f N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e p o r t s . H o w e v e r , t h e f a c t t h a t t h e

a g r e e m e n t c o n c l u d e d t h e f o l l o w i n g m o n t h , J a n u a r y 1 9 7 3 , w a s

f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f S o u t h V i e t n a m b e t t e r t h a n t h e O c t o b e r

d r a f t - i t i n c l u d e d a l l t h e i m p r o v e m e n t s a n d c l a r i f i c a t i o n s o b t a i n e d

i n N o v e m b e r a n d e a r l y D e c e m b e r - s u g g e s t s v e r y s t r o n g l y t h a t t h e

b o m b i n g i n f l u e n c e d t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e d e c i s i o n t o s e t t l e o n a

m u t u a l l y s a t i s f a c t o r y b a s i s .

S o m e r e a d e r s w i l l w o n d e r w h e t h e r a n y o f t h i s m a t t e r s , s i n c e

e v e n t u a l l y t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e w o n t h e w a r . B u t t h e y w o n i t

o n l y i n 1 9 7 5 , a f t e r m a n y o t h e r t h i n g s h a d h a p p e n e d , i n c l u d i n g t h e

w e a k e n i n g a n d d e m o r a l i z a t i o n o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d S o u t h

V i e t n a m c a u s e d b y W a t e r g a t e a n d t h e c o n g r e s s i o n a l c u t b a c k o f

f u n d s f o r m i l i t a r y a i d t o S a i g o n , b o t h o f w h i c h e m b o l d e n e d t h e

e n e m y t o l a u n c h t h e f i n a l o f f e n s i v e .



CHAPTER FIVE

Images v s . R e a l i t y :

Sev en Conc l u s ions

Martin F . Herz

As WE DRAW CONCLUSIONS ABOUT the performance of

t h e p r e s t i g e m e d i a i n r e p o r t i n g a n d c o m m e n t i n g o n t h e C h r i s t m a s

b o m b i n g i n Vi e t n a m , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o r e c a l l t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f

t h e p r e s s i n a f r e e s o c i e t y . W e c a n n o t a n d d o n o t e x p e c t p e r f e c t i o n

f r o m j o u r n a l i s t s , n e w s p a p e r s , a n d T V n e w s p r o g r a m s , w h i c h g e n -

e r a l l y m u s t o p e r a t e w i t h t i g h t d e a d l i n e s a n d w i t h o u t a l l t h e f a c t s .

B u t A m e r i c a n c i t i z e n s h a v e a r i g h t t o e x p e c t a r e a s o n a b l e d e g r e e o f

f a i r n e s s , b a l a n c e , a n d h o n e s t y f r o m t h e i r m a j o r s o u r c e s o f n e w s .

T h e b r o a d c a s t m e d i a s h o u l d s t r i v e t o l i v e u p t o t h e F a i r n e s s D o c -

t r i n e a n d t h e i r o w n i n d u s t r y c o d e s . W h i l e t h e p r i n t m e d i a a r e n o t

o b l i g a t e d b y l a w t o b e f a i r i n r e p o r t i n g c o n t r a s t i n g v i e w s , t h e y t o o

h a v e c o d e s t h a t c a l l u p o n t h e m t o p r o v i d e a b a l a n c e d p i c t u r e o f t h e

d a y ' s n e w s .

T h e s e w e r e t h e g e n e r a l s t a n d a r d s w e u s e d t o a n a l y z e T i m e ,

News week, t h e New York Times, t h e W a s h i n g t o n P o s t , a n d t h e

CBS thirty-minu te evening TV news program . I f r e e l y a c k n o w l -

e d g e t h a t c o n t e n t a n a l y s i s i s f a r f r o m b e i n g a n e x a c t s c i e n c e , t h a t a n

e l e m e n t o f s u b j e c t i v i t y i s a l w a y s p r e s e n t . B u t I b e l i e v e t h a t a n y

c o m p e t e n t p e r s o n g o i n g o v e r t h e s a m e m a t e r i a l w i t h o r d i n a r y

s t a n d a r d s o f f a i r n e s s w o u l d c o m e t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e s a m e c o n -

c l u s i o n s .

L o n g b e f o r e t h e c o n t r o v e r s i a l b o m b i n g o f D e c e m b e r 1 9 7 2 , m o s t

o f t h e p r e s t i g e m e d i a w e r e c l e a r l y o n r e c o r d a g a i n s t U . S . i n v o l v e -

m e n t i n t h e V i e t n a m w a r : t h e y s a w i t a s a m i s t a k e , a s a n e x e r c i s e i n

6 4



IMAGES VS . REALITY : SEVEN CONCLUSIONS 6 5

f u t i l i t y , o r e v e n a s a c r i m e . (Time an d News week, w h i l e s h a r p l y

c r i t i c a l o f t h e C h r i s t m a s b o m b i n g , w e r e p r e v i o u s l y l e s s h o s t i l e t o

U. S . i n v o l v e m e n t t h a n t h e Times, t h e Post, a n d W a l t e r C r o n k i t e o f

C B S e v e n i n g n e w s . ) T h e r e f o r e t o s a y t h a t t h e s e m e d i a o p p o s e d t h e

C h r i s t m a s b o m b i n g i s t o s t a t e o n l y t h e o b v i o u s . T h e i r o p p o s i t i o n

w a s e x p l i c i t i n t h e d a i l y n e w s p a p e r s , i m p l i c i t f o r t h e m o s t p a r t i n

t h e n e t w o r k n e w s b r o a d c a s t s .

M o r e o v e r , o n e d i d n o t h a v e t o b e a n i n v e t e r a t e o p p o n e n t o f U . S .

i n v o l v e m e n t t o s u s p e c t t h a t t h e B - 5 2 w a s a n i n a p p r o p r i a t e a i r c r a f t

f o r b o m b i n g i n o r n e a r m a j o r u r b a n a r e a s i n N o r t h V i e t n a m o r t o

q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r t h i s b o m b i n g w a s a n a p p r o p r i a t e r e s p o n s e t o t h e

b r e a k d o w n o f t h e P a r i s t a l k s . B u t t h e f a c t s a d d u c e d b y t h e p r e s t i g e

p r e s s i n s u p p o r t o f t h e i r p o s i t i o n w e r e o f t e n w r o n g . T h e r e w a s n o

" c a r p e t - b o m b i n g , " a n d t h e b o m b i n g d i d n o t s t i f f e n H a n o i ' s s t a n d

i n t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s , a n y m o r e t h a n t h e b o m b i n g c a m p a i g n i n t h e

s p r i n g h a d s t i f f e n e d i t s s t a n d . T h e b o m b i n g w a s m u c h m o r e a c c u -

r a t e a n d p o l i t i c a l l y e f f e c t i v e t h a n t h e c r i t i c s - a n d a l s o , p e r h a p s ,

s o m e m e m b e r s o f t h e N i x o n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n - h a d e x p e c t e d . A l l

t h i s i s b y n o w p r e t t y o b v i o u s . L e s s o b v i o u s a r e t h e f o l l o w i n g

o b s e r v a t i o n s .

1 . T h e e d i t o r i a l p o s i t i o n o f t h e p r e s t i g e p r e s s d o u b t l e s s a f f e c t e d

t h e s e l e c t i o n o f n e w s s t o r i e s o n t h e C h r i s t m a s b o m b i n g . T h i s i s

m o r e t r u e o f t h e Times, t h e P o s t , a n d C B S N e w s t h a n o f Time and

Newsweek . G r a n t e d , s u p p o r t e r s o f a n u n p o p u l a r m i l i t a r y a c t i o n d o

n o t u s u a l l y f e e l s t r o n g l y e n o u g h a b o u t t h e i r p o s i t i o n t o d e m o n -

s t r a t e i n i t s b e h a l f ; o p p o n e n t s o f t h e a c t i o n a r e m o r e a p t t o a d v e r -

t i s e t h e i r p o s i t i o n a n d t h e i r a v a i l a b i l i t y f o r c o m m e n t . B u t e v e n

w h e n a l l o w a n c e i s m a d e f o r t h i s , i t i s c l e a r i n r e t r o s p e c t t h a t t h e

n e w s r e p o r t i n g w a s h i g h l y s e l e c t i v e . N o n e o f t h e p r e s t i g e m e d i a

m a n a g e d t o f i n d m u c h p o s i t i v e r e a c t i o n . S i x t i m e s a s m u c h n e g a t i v e

a s p o s i t i v e U . S . r e a c t i o n w a s c a r r i e d b y C B S N e w s a n d New s w eek,

n i n e t e e n t i m e s a s m u c h i n Time, t w e n t y - o n e t i m e s a s m u c h i n t h e

New York Times , a n d t w e n t y - f i v e t i m e s a s m u c h i n t h e Wa shington

Post . A n d i n t h e c o v e r a g e o f f o r e i g n r e a c t i o n s , t h e r a t i o w a s 1 1 : 1 i n

th e Times, 16 : 1 i n t h e Post, 19 : 1 i n Time, a n d n o f a v o r a b l e i t e m s

a t a l l i n C B S N e w s a n d Newsweek . Y e t m u c h c o m m e n t f a v o r a b l e

t o t h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s d e c i s i o n w a s a v a i l a b l e , b o t h a b r o a d a n d



6 6 MARTIN F . HERZ

a t h o m e . I t i s h a r d t o e s c a p e t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t t h e r e p o r t e r s o r

e d i t o r s s e l e c t e d a n d s o u g h t n e w s u n f a v o r a b l e t o t h e g o v e r n m e n t

a n d m a d e l i t t l e e f f o r t t o s e e k o u t c o m m e n t w i t h w h i c h t h e y - o r

t h e i r b o s s e s ( o r t h e i r i d e o l o g i c a l p e e r s ) - d i s a g r e e d . A n e x a m p l e i s

t h e c o m m e n t e l i c i t e d f r o m C h i n e s e p r e m i e r C h o u E n - l a i , w h o t i l l

t h e n h a d r e f r a i n e d f r o m s u c h p o i n t e d l y a d v e r s e c o m m e n t .

O p e n e d i t o r i a l c o m m e n t i s t h e m e d i a ' s p r i v i l e g e a n d r e s p o n s i b i l -

i t y ; b u t t h e r e c o r d p r e s e n t e d h e r e r a i s e s t h e q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r t h e

d e l i b e r a t e s h a p i n g o f n e w s , t h e s e e k i n g o u t a n d s t i m u l a t i o n o f

c o m m e n t s t h a t b u t t r e s s t h e p o l i t i c a l p o s i t i o n o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r

m e d i u m , d o e s n o t v i o l a t e j o u r n a l i s m ' s o w n s t a n d a r d s . I t a p p e a r s t o

m e t o b e a d u b i o u s p r a c t i c e , e s p e c i a l l y i n a t i m e o f n a t i o n a l c r i s i s .

C o m m e n t m u s t a l w a y s b e f r e e , b u t e d i t o r i a l i z i n g t h r o u g h n e w s -

m a k i n g a n d n e w s s e l e c t i o n s e e m s t o m e t o b e a s u r r e p t i t i o u s m e a n s

o f i n f l u e n c i n g t h e r e a d e r a n d v i e w e r a n d m a y t h u s b e d a m a g i n g t o

t h e f r e e f o r m a t i o n o f o p i n i o n t h a t i s i m p o r t a n t t o a d e m o c r a c y .

2 . T h e W a s h in gton Pos t w a s c o n s i s t e n t l y t h e m o s t n e g a t i v e

t o w a r d t h e U . S . p o s i t i o n . I n r e p o r t i n g a b o u t r e a c t i o n s t o t h e P a r i s

t a l k s , t h e Times c a r r i e d r o u g h l y a n e q u a l n u m b e r o f s t o r i e s c o n -

d e m n i n g H a n o i a n d s t o r i e s c o n d e m n i n g W a s h i n g t o n . T h e P o s t ,

p r e s u m a b l y w o r k i n g w i t h t h e s a m e m a t e r i a l , d e v o t e d t w i c e a s

m u c h s p a c e t o n e w s m a k e r s w h o b l a m e d W a s h i n g t o n a s t o t h o s e

w h o b l a m e d H a n o i . I n r e p o r t i n g c o m m e n t s o n t h e l i k e l y e f f i c a c y o f

t h e b o m b i n g i n b r i n g i n g p e a c e , t h e Times, Time, a n d C B S h a d p r o

a n d c o n i t e m s i n r o u g h b a l a n c e , w h e r e a s t h e Post and Newsweek( t h e l a t t e r i s o w n e d b y t h e P o s t ) r e p o r t e d t h r e e t i m e s a s m u c h

n e g a t i v e a s p o s i t i v e c o m m e n t i n t h e i r n e w s c o l u m n s .

3 . T h e r e l a t i v e s i l e n c e o f t h e U . S . g o v e r n m e n t i n s t a t i n g i t s c a s e

o n t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s a n d t h e b o m b i n g d e p r i v e d t h e m e d i a o f s o m e

i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t w o u l d h a v e e n a b l e d t h e m t o p r e s e n t a m o r e

b a l a n c e d p i c t u r e h a d t h e y b e e n s o d i s p o s e d . T h i s t i g h t - l i p p e d

p o s t u r e d u r i n g t h e c r u c i a l D e c e m b e r 1 8 t o 3 0 p e r i o d w a s , a s w e

h a v e s e e n , a d o p t e d a g a i n s t t h e a d v i c e o f H e n r y K i s s i n g e r . T h e r e

m a y h a v e b e e n s o m e m e r i t i n t h e p o s i t i o n K i s s i n g e r a t t r i b u t e s t o

N i x o n , t h a t " s i l e n c e e n a b l e d h i m t o a v o i d g i v i n g o u r a c t i o n s t h e

c h a r a c t e r o f a n u l t i m a t u m a n d t h u s p e r m i t t e d H a n o i t o r e t u r n t o

t h e c o n f e r e n c e t a b l e w i t h o u t l o s s o f f a c e , " b u t t h e s i l e n c e i n D e -




c e m b e r 1 9 7 2 w a s o n l y a n e x t r e m e o f w h a t h a d p r e v a i l e d f o r s o m e

t i m e . T h e N i x o n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n n e v e r m a d e t h e m a j o r e f f o r t r e -

q u i r e d t o d o b a t t l e o n a c o n t i n u i n g b a s i s w i t h t h e p r e s t i g e m e d i a

a n d t h e i d e o l o g i c a l o p p o n e n t s o f U . S . i n v o l v e m e n t i n V i e t n a m .

E v e n s o , d e s p i t e t h e g o v e r n m e n t ' s v i r t u a l s i l e n c e , s u p p o r t e r s o f t h e

d e c i s i o n t o u n d e r t a k e t h e b o m bi n g c a m p a i g n d i d n o t f i n d i t i m p o s -

s i b l e t o p r e s e n t a p l a u s i b l e d e f e n s e o f t h a t a c t i o n . ( T w o e x a m p l e s

a p p e a r a s A p p e n d i x e s G a n d H . )

4 . T h e p r o p o s i t i o n s t h a t t h e b o m b i n g w a s e f f e c t i v e i n b r i n g i n g

t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e b a c k t o t h e c o n f e r e n c e t a b l e a n d t h a t i t

c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e e a r l y c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e a r m i s t i c e i n 1 9 7 3 c a n n o t

b e p r o v e d o r d i s p r o v e d . B u t t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t b y e a r l y D e c e m b e r

t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e h a d l o s t i n t e r e s t i n t h e n e g o t i a t e d a g r e e -

m e n t i s p l a u s i b l e w h e n o n e r e v i e w s t h e s a l i e n t f a c t s i n t h e s i t u a t i o n

a t t h a t t i m e . C e r t a i n l y t h e y s e e m e d e a g e r t o c o m e t o t e r m s a f t e r t h e

b o m b i n g , a n e a g e r n e s s t h e y h a d c o n s p i c u o u s l y f a i l e d t o d i s p l a y

b e f o r e . ( W h e t h e r t h e i r " l o s s o f f a c e " w o u l d h a v e be e n s i g n i f i c a n t l y

g r e a t e r i f N i x o n h a d g i v e n a p u b l i c e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e r a t i o n a l e f o r

t h e b o m b i n g i s a n o t h e r q u e s t i o n t h a t c o u l d b e a n s w e r e d a u t h o r i t a -

t i v e l y o n l y b y a h i g h - r a n k i n g N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e d e f e c t o r . ) A t a n y

r a t e , t h o s e w h o p r e d i c t e d t h a t t h e b o m b i n g w o u l d d e l a y c o n c l u s i o n

o f t h e t r e a t y w e r e w r o n g .

5 . T h e r e i s n o e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e U . S . A i r F o r c e e n g a g e d i n t h e

" c a r p e t - b o m b i n g " o f c i v i l i a n c e n t e r s . S u c h c h a r g e s , w h i c h w e r e

p r o m i n e n t l y f e a t u r e d i n t h e p r e s t i g e p r e s s , w e r e w i t h o u t f o u n d a -

t i o n . T h e c r e d i b i l i t y a c c o r d e d t o H a n o i p r o p a g a n d a b y k e y s e c t o r s

i n t h e p r e s t i g e p r e s s a n d t h e b i a s o f t h e s e m e d i a a g a i n s t U . S .

i n v o l v e m e n t m a d e i t a l m o s t i n e v i t a b l e t h a t H a n o i ' s c h a r g e s w o u l d

b e p r e s e n t e d a s f a c t . B u t a s w e n o t e d i n c h a p t e r 1 , e v e n u n b i a s e d

p e r s o n s c o u l d r e a s o n a b l y b e l i e v e t h a t u s e o f t h e B - 5 2 a u t o m a t i -

c a l l y m e a n t " c a r p e t - b o m b i n g . " I n a n y c a s e , t h e d i s t o r t e d r e p o r t i n g

l e d t o t h e u n f o r t u n a t e s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h t h e U . S . m i l i t a r y w e r e

c o n t i n u a l l y t r y i n g t o c o r r e c t f a l s e h o o d s a n d e x a g g e r a t i o n s t h a t h a d

b e e n p r i n t e d o r b r o a d c a s t . A m e r i c a n " p e a c e " a c t i v i s t s w h o w e r e i n

H a n o i a t t h e t i m e c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e d i s t o r t i o n , s o m e t i m e s u n w i t -

t i n g l y . I t i s h a r d t o s e e w h y t h e U . S . A i r F o r c e w a i t e d t h r e e m o n t h s

t o p r e s e n t p r o o f t h a t t h e r e h a d b e e n n o c a r p e t - b o m b i n g o f H a n o i .



6 8 MARTIN F . HERZ

I n t h i s i n s t a n c e , a g a i n , t h e U . S . g o v e r n m e n t d i d n o t d e f e n d i t s e l f

w e l l a g a i n s t i t s c r i t i c s .

6 . J u d g e d b y a c c e p t e d p r a c t i c e s o f w a r f a r e , t h e C h r i s t m a s

b o m b i n g w a s n o t d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e ; m u c h l e s s w a s i t a " w a r c r i m e . "

I n e v e r y w a r t h e q u e s t i o n i s p r o p e r l y r a i s e d a s t o w h e t h e r a p a r t i c u -

l a r m i l i t a r y a c t i o n i s e x c e s s i v e , m e a s u r e d b y t h e o b j e c t i v e s i t w a s

u n d e r t a k e n t o a c h i e v e . T h e p r i n c i p l e o f " p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y " i s a n

i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e c l a s s i c d o c t r i n e o f t h e j u s t w a r . T e l f o r d T a y l o r ,

f o r m e r c h i e f c o u n s e l a t t h e N u r e m b e r g W a r C r i m e s T r i a l a n d a n

opponent of U . S . i n v o l v e m e n t i n V i e t n a m , t h r o w s s o m e l i g h t o n

t h i s p r o b l e m . I n a l e c t u r e t o t h e C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y C l u b o f

Wa sh ington (F eb . 2 1 , 1 9 8 0 ) , h e a d d r e s s e d t h e c h a r g e t h a t t h e

U n i t e d S t a t e s s o u g h t t o d e s t r o y H a n o i :

D e s p i t e t h e e n o r m o u s w e i g h t o f b o m b s t h a t w e r e d r o p p e d , I

q u i t e r a p i d l y b e c a m e c o n v i n c e d t h a t w e w e r e m a k i n g n o e f f o r t t o

d e s t r o y H a n o i . T h e c i t y r e m a i n e d l a r g e l y i n t a c t , a n d i t s e e m e d

q u i t e a p p a r e n t t h a t i f t h e r e w e r e a n e f f o r t t o d e s t r o y H a n o i i t

c o u l d h a v e b e e n d o n e v e r y r e a d i l y i n t w o o r t h r e e n i g h t s . S o I

t h i n k a n y s u g g e s t i o n t h a t t h e o b j e c t o f t h e r a i d w a s t o w i p e o u t o r

r a z e H a n o i i s q u i t e m i s t a k e n .

T a y l o r s t a t e d t h a t t h e b o m b i n g o f N o r t h V i e t n a m u n d e r t h e c i r -

c u m s t a n c e s p r e v a i l i n g i n D e c e m b e r 1 9 7 2 c a n n o t b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d

a s a w a r c r i m e ; b u t h e r a i s e d t h e q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r u s e o f t h e B - 5 2

w a s j u s t i f i e d i n v i e w o f t h e f a c t t h a t " t h e r e w e r e f e w m i l i t a r y t a r g e t s

l e f t . " H e s a w t h e p u r p o s e o f t h e b o m b i n g a s , e s s e n t i a l l y , t o

" f r i g h t e n t h e d e v i l o u t o f N o r t h V i e t n a m "

T h i s w a s p r i m a r i l y a p s y c h o l o g i c a l a f f a i r , t o c a u s e t h e m s u c h

w o r r y a n d a n g u i s h t h a t t h e y w o u l d h a s t e n b a c k t o t h e n e g o t i a -

t i o n s . A n d t h a t , o f c o u r s e , r a i s e s t h e q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r t h e p u r -

p o s e o f t h e b o m b i n g i s r e l e v a n t w h e n w e t a l k a b o u t l i m i t a t i o n s .

T a y l o r c i t e d o t h e r j u r i s t s w h o t a k e t h e v i e w t h a t " y o u c a n o n l y

b o m b f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f h i t t i n g m i l i t a r y o b j e c t i v e s a n d y o u s h o u l d

n o t b e a l l o w e d t o b o m b f o r p o l i t i c a l p u r p o s e s . " I n r e p l y , h e s a i d :

I t i s a v i e w w h i c h I m u s t c o n f e s s I f i n d d i f f i c u l t y i n a c c e p t i n g . O n e

c a n ' t h e a r t h a t w i t h o u t t h i n k i n g o f C l a u s e w i t z a n d t h e g e n e r a l

i d e a t h a t w a r i s a n e x t e n s i o n o f d i p l o m a c y a n d p o l i t i c s . M o s t

p e o p l e d o n ' t g o t o w a r j u s t f o r t h e f u n o f w a r , b u t t o a c h i e v e

a i m s , a n d t h o s e a i m s a r e g e n e r a l l y p o l i t i c a l .




I s h o u l d e m p h a s i z e t h a t f o r T a y l o r t h e m a t t e r d o e s n o t e n d t h e r e .

H e w e n t o n t o r a i s e t h e q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r b o m b i n g f o r t h e p u r p o s e

o f " t e r r o r i z i n g t h e p o p u l a t i o n " ( a s d i s t i n c t , p r e s u m a b l y , f r o m

" k i l l i n g t h e p o p u l a t i o n " ) s h o u l d b e p e r m i s s i b l e . S t i l l , h i s p o i n t t h a t

b o m b i n g f o r " p o l i t i c a l p u r p o s e s " i s l e g i t i m a t e , s i n c e w a r s t h e m -

s e l v e s a r e f o u g h t f o r p o l i t i c a l p u r p o s e s , s e e m s e m i n e n t l y s e n s i b l e

a n d r i g h t .

7 . T h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e C h r i s t m a s b o m b i n g l a y n o t i n t h e

a m o u n t o f p h y s i c a l d e s t r u c t i o n i t c a u s e d b u t i n t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l

a n d p o l i t i c a l p r e s s u r e i t p l a c e d o n t h e e n e m y . T h e m i l i t a r y e ff e c t

a l o n e c o u l d p r o b a b l y h a v e b e e n a c h i e v e d w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l y l e s s

bombing ; t h e t a r g e t s o n t h e l i s t r e l e a s e d b y U . S . a u t h o r i t i e s o n

D e c e m b e r 2 8 c o u l d v e r y l i k e l y h a v e b e e n p u t o u t o f c o m m i s s i o n

w i t h l e s s t o n n a g e . I t d o e s i n d e e d a p p e a r , a s T a y l o r s a i d , t h a t t h e

b o m b i n g w a s p u r s u e d l a r g e l y f o r p s y c h o l o g i c a l p u r p o s e s . A n d i t

a c h i e v e d t h e s e p u r p o s e s . T h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e w e r e n o t s o m u c h

h u r t a s i m p r e s s e d . T h e b o m b i n g w a s a m e s s a g e , a n d t h e y g o t t h e

mess age .

W h e t h e r P r e s i d e n t N i x o n f u l l y u n d e r s t o o d t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f

t h e b o m b i n g i n t h e s e t e r m s i s u n c e r t a i n . I n h i s m e m o i r s h e r e p o r t s '

t h a t o n D e c e m b e r 1 4 h e c a l l e d A d m i r a l T h o m a s M o o r e r , c h a i r -

m a n o f t h e J o i n t C h i e f s o f S t a f f , a n d t o l d h i m : " I d o n ' t w a n t a n y

m o r e o f t h i s c r a p a b o u t t h e f a c t t h a t w e c o u l d n ' t h i t t h i s t a r g e t o r

t h a t o n e . T h i s i s y o u r c h a n c e t o u s e m i l i t a r y p o w e r e f f e c t i v e l y t o w i n

t h i s w a r , a n d i f y o u d o n ' t , I ' l l c o n s i d e r y o u r e s p o n s i b l e " (RN, p .

734 ; i t a l i c s a d d e d ) . B u t t h e b o m b i n g o f H a n o i a n d H a i p h o n g w a s

n o t a g o o d e x a m p l e o f w h a t s t r a t e g i c b o m b i n g c a n a c c o m p l i s h . I t

d i d n o t i n f l i c t u n a c c e p t a b l e m i l i t a r y d a m a g e , a n d i t c e r t a i n l y d i d

n o t " w i n [ t h e ] w a r ." By December 29 not onl y h ad the North

V i e t n a m e s e r u n o u t o f s u r f a c e - t o - a i r m i s s i l e s , b u t U . S . f o r c e s h a d

r u n o u t o f p l a u s i b l e t a r g e t s . O n e m o r e d a y o f b o m b i n g w o u l d h a v e

m a d e t h e s y m b o l i c n a t u r e o f t h e e n t i r e o p e r a t i o n e v e n m o r e g l a r -

i n g l y a p p a r e n t .

A s a n i n v i t a t i o n t o r e s u m e s e r i o u s n e g o t i a t i o n s , t h e b o m b i n g

w a s n o t a s u b t l e m o v e ; i t w a s n o t a m i l i t a r i l y e f f e c t i v e m o v e ; i t w a s

c e r t a i n l y n o t a p o p u l a r m o v e ; b u t i t a p p e a r s t o h a v e b e e n a d i p -

l o m a t i c a l l y e f f e c t i v e o n e . R e g r e t t a b l y , t h i s r e a l i t y h a s n e v e r b e e n



70 MARTIN F . HERZ

a c k n o w l e d g e d b y t h e p r e s t i g e p r e s s , w h i c h d i d s o m u c h t o o b s c u r e

t h e i s s u e s a t t h e t i m e . A c k n o w l e d g m e n t o f e r r o r d o e s n o t c o m e

e a s i l y t o h u m a n b e i n g s . I t m a y c o m e e s p e c i a l l y h a r d t o l e a d e r s o f

t h e m e d i a , w h o s o m e t i m e s o p e r a t e a s t h o u g h t h e y s h o u l d b e f r e e

f r o m t h e c r i t i c i s m t o w h i c h t h e y s u b j e c t t h e g o v e r n m e n t a n d a l l

o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s i n s o c i e t y .



APPENDIXA

Kissinger's Statement

On the Paris Talks

December 16,1972

The foll owing statement and excerpts from the question-a nd- ans wer

period are from National Security Adv iser Henry Kis singer's press

conference in W as hington a s reported in the " New York Times"

December 17, 1972 (su bhead s ad ded) .

LADIES AND GENTLEMEN : As YOU K NOW, I h a v e b e e n r e p o r t i n g t o t h e

P r e s i d e n t a n d m e e t i n g w i t h t h e S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e , t h e V i c e P r e s i d e n t , S e c r e t a r y

o f D e f e n s e , C h a i r m a n o f t h e J o i n t C h i e f s , a n d o t h e r s e n i o r o f f i c i a l s , a n d I ' m

meeting with you today becau se we wa nted to give you an ac count of the

n e g o t i a t i o n s a s t h e y s t a n d t o d a y .

I ' m s u r e y o u w i l l a p p r e c i a t e t h a t I c a n n o t g o i n t o d e t a i l s o f p a r t i c u l a r i s s u e s , b u t

I w i l l g i v e y o u a s f a i r a n d h o n e s t a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e g e n e r a l t r e n d o f t h e

n e g o t i a t i o n s a s I c a n .

F i r s t l e t m e d o t h i s i n t h r e e p a r t s : W h a t l e d u s t o b e l i e v e a t t h e e n d o f O c t o b e r

t h a t p e a c e w a s i m m i n e n t ? S e c o n d , w h a t h a s h a p p e n e d s i n c e ? T h i r d , w h e r e d o w e

g o f r o m h e r e ?

A t t h e e n d o f O c t o b e r w e h a d j u s t c o n c l u d e d t h r e e w e e k s o f n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h

the North Vietnamese . As y ou all know, on October 8 the North Vietnamese

p r e s e n t e d t o u s a p r o p o s a l w h i c h a s i t l a t e r b e c a m e e l a b o r a t e d a p p e a r e d t o u s t o

r e f l e c t t h e m a i n p r i n c i p l e s t h a t t h e P r e s i d e n t h a s a l w a y s e n u n c i a t e d a s b e i n g p a r t

o f t h e A m e r i c a n p o s i t i o n .

T h e s e p r i n c i p l e s w e r e t h a t t h e r e h a d t o b e a n u n c o n d i t i o n a l r e l e a s e o f A m e r i -

c a n p r i s o n e r s t h r o u g h o u t I n d o c h i n a .

S e c o n d l y , t h a t t h e r e s h o u l d b e a c e a s e - f i r e i n I n d o c h i n a , b r o u g h t i n t o b e i n g b y

v a r i o u s m e a n s s u i t a b l e t o t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e c o u n t r i e s c o n c e r n e d .

T h i r d , t h a t w e w e r e p r e p a r e d t o w i t h d r a w o u r f o r c e s u n d e r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s i n a

t i m e p e r i o d t o b e m u t u a l l y a g r e e d u p o n .

F o u r t h , t h a t w e w o u l d n o t p r e j u d g e t h e p o l i t i c a l o u t c o m e o f t h e f u t u r e o f S o u t h

Vietna m . W e w o u l d n o t i m p o s e a p a r t i c u l a r s o l u t i o n . W e w o u l d n o t i n s i s t o n o u r

p a r t i c u l a r s o l u t i o n .

Reprinted by permiss ion from the New York Times, December 17,1972 ; © 1 9 7 2 b y t h e

New York Times Compan y .

7 1



72 KISSINGER'S STATEMENT ON THE PARIS TALKS

The agreement as it wa s d eveloped du ring October seemed to us to reflec t these

principles precisely .

Then towards the end of October we encoun tered a nu mber of difficu lties . Now

at th e time, beca us e we wa nted to maintain the atmosphere lead ing to A rapid

settlement, we mentioned them at our briefings bu t we did n ot ela borate on th em .

But let me sum u p wh at the probl ems were at the end of October .

It became apparent that th ere was in preparation a mas sive Communist eff ort

to lau nch an attack through out South Vietnam to begin s everal day s b efore the

ceas e-fire woul d ha ve been decla red an d to continu e for some weeks a fter the

ceas e-fire came into being .

Second, there was an interview b y the North Vietna mese prime minister wh ich

implied tha t the political s olution tha t we had al wa ys insisted wa s part of our

principl es, namely , that w e would not impose a coal ition government, was not as

cl ear-cu t as our record of the negotiations indica ted .

And thirdly , as no one could miss , we encoun tered s ome specific objections

from Saigon .

`ONE MORE ROUND'

In these c onditions w e proposed to Hanoi tha t there shoul d b e one other roun d

of negotiations to clear u p these difficu lties . W e were convinced tha t with good

will on both sides these difficulties coul d be rela tively easily s urmounted, and that

if we cond uc ted ourselves, on both s ides, in the spirit of the October negotiations,

a s ettlement woul d be very rapid . It wa s our conv iction that if w e were going to

bring to an end ten y ears of warfa re, we shou ld not do so with a n armistice, but

with a peace that had a cha nce of la sting .

And th erefore we proposed th ree ca tegories of cl arifica tions in the a greement :

First, we wa nted the so-ca ll ed linguistic difficul ties cl eared up so that they

woul d n ot provide the seed for unending dispu tes and an other eruption of the wa r .

I will s peak about those in a minu te .

Secondly , the agreement a lw ay s ha d provided tha t international machinery be

put in pla ce immediately a fter the cease-f ire was decla red . W e wanted to spell out

the operationa l mean ing of the word "immediately " b y d eveloping the protocols

tha t were requ ired to bring the internationa l mac hinery into being simul taneous ly

with the ceas e-fire agreement . This, to us , seemed a l argely techn ical matter .

And, thirdly , we w an ted some reference in th e agreement-h owever vagu e,

however elu sive, however indirect-wh ich did n ot, wh ich woul d make clear that

the two parts of Vietnam woul d l ive in peac e with each other and that n either side

woul d impose its sol ution on the other by force .

These seemed to us modest requ irements, rela tively eas ily a ch ieva bl e .

Let me now tell you th e sequ ence of events since tha t time .

We al l know of the disa greements tha t hav e existed b etween Saigon an d

Washington. These disagreements are to some extent u nderstand abl e . I t i s i n e v i t -

ab le that a people on wh ose territory the war ha s b een f ought an d tha t for

twenty-five years ha s been exposed to deva station a nd s uff ering and a ss ass ination



KISSINGER'S STATEMENT ON THE PARIS TALKS 7 3

wou ld look at the prospects of a s ettlement in a more, in a more detailed wa y a nd

in a more angu ished w ay than w e who are 10,000 miles aw ay .

Many of the provisions of the agreement, inevitabl y, w ere seen in a d ifferent

context in Vietnam tha n in Wa sh ington . A n d I t h i n k i t i s s a f e t o s a y t h a t w e f a c e d ,

with respec t to both Vietnamese parties, this probl em . The people of Vietna m,

North and South, ha ve fough t for so long tha t the risks and perils of wa r, however

difficu lt, s eem sometimes more bearabl e to them than the un certainties an d th e

risks a nd perils of peace .

Now it is no secret either tha t the United States h as not agreed w ith al l th e

objections tha t were raised by Saigon . In particu la r, the Un ited States position

with respect to the ceas e-fire ha d b een mad e clear in October, 1970 . I t h a d b e e n

reiterated in the President's proposal s of Ja nu ary 2 5, 1972 . I t w a s r e p e a t e d a g a i n

in the President's proposal of May 8, 1972 . None of these proposa ls ha d a sked for

a w ithdraw al of North Vietnamese forces .

And therefore we coul d n ot agree with our al lies in South Vietnam w hen they

ad ded cond itions to the establ ished position af ter an agreement h ad been reac hed

that reflected these establ ished positions .

And a s w as made cl ear in the press conf erence here on October 26, as th e

President ha s reiterated in his s peech es, the United States w ill n ot continu e the

wa r one da y l onger tha n it believes is n ecessa ry to reac h a n ag reement we

consider just and fair . So, we wan t to leav e no doub t about the fac t that if an

agreement is reach ed tha t meets the stated c onditions of the President-if an

agreement is reach ed that w e consider ju st-tha t no other party will ha ve a veto

over our action .

But I am al so-today this qu estion is moot becau se we hav e not yet reach ed an

agreement tha t the President considers ju st an d fa ir . And therefore I wan t to

expla in to you th e process of th e negotiations s ince they resumed on November 20

and where we are . The three obj ectives tha t we were seeking in these negotiations

were stated in th e press c onferenc e of October 26, in many speech es by the

President af terwa rds, an d in every communica tion to Hanoi sinc e . They could not

hav e been a su rprise .

THE `LINGUISTIC DIFFICULTIES'

Now l et me sa y a word first ab out wha t were call ed linguistic difficul ties, wh ich

were cal led th ese in order not to infl ame the situation . How did they arise?

They arose becau se the North Vietnamese presented u s a docu ment in English

wh ich we then discus sed with them, and in many pla ces throughout this docu ment

the original wording was ch an ged as th e negotiations proceeded and th e phras es

were frequ ently weakened c ompared to the original formula tion .

It was not un til we received th e Vietnamese text af ter those negotiations were

concl ud ed that we foun d that wh ile the Engl ish terms ha d been cha nged the

Vietnamese terms had been l eft unch anged, an d s o we sudd enly f ound ourselves

engaged in two negotiations, one ab out the English text, the other about the

Vietna mese text .



7 4 KISSINGER'S STATEMENT ON THE PARIS TALKS

H a v i n g c o n d u c t e d m a n y n e g o t i a t i o n s , I m u s t s a y t h i s w a s a n o v e l p r o c e d u r e ,

a n d i t l e d t o t h e v i e w t h a t p e r h a p s t h e s e w e r e n o t s i m p l y l i n g u i s t i c d i f f i c u l t i e s b u t

s u b s t a n t i ve d i f f i c u l t i e s . N o w I m u s t s a y t h a t a l l o f t h e s e e x c e p t o n e h a v e n o w b e e n

e l i m i n a t e d .

THE PROBLEM OF PROTOCOLS

T h e s e c o n d c a t e g o r y o f p r o b l e m s c o n c e r n e d b r i n g i n g i n t o b e i n g t h e i n t e r n a -

t i o n a l m a c h i n e r y s o t h a t i t c o u l d o p e r a t e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h t h e c e a s e - f i r e a n d s o

a s t o a v o i d a s i t u a t i o n w h e r e t h e c e a s e - f i r e r a t h e r t h a n b r i n g p e a c e w o u l d u n l e a s h

a n o t h e r f r e n z y o f w a r f a r e . T o t h a t e n d w e s u b m i t t e d o n N o v e m b e r 2 0 , t h e f i r s t

d a y t h a t t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s r e s u m e d , a l i s t o f w h a t a r e c a l l e d p r o t o c o l s - t e c h n i c a l

i n s t r u m e n t s t o b r i n g t h i s m a c h i n e r y i n t o b e i n g .

T h e s e p r o t o c o l s - I w i l l n o t g o i n t o t h e d e t a i l s o f t h e s e p r o t o c o l s a n d t h e y ' r e

n o r m a l l y t e c h n i c a l d o c u m e n t s - a n d o u r s w e r e c e r t a i n l y i n t e n d e d t o c o n f o r m t o

n o r m a l p r a c t i c e d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t t h i s o c c u r r e d f o u r w e e k s a f t e r w e h a d m a d e

c l e a r t h a t t h i s w a s o u r i n t e n t i o n a n d t h r e e w e e k s a f t e r H a n o i h a d p r e s s e d u s t o s i g n

a c e a s e - f i r e a g r e e m e n t . T h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e r e f u s e d t o d i s c u s s o u r p r o t o c o l s

a n d r e f u s e d t o g i v e u s t h e i r p r o t o c o l s , s o t h a t t h e q u e s t i o n o f b r i n g i n g t h e

i n t e r n a t i o n a l m a c h i n e r y i n t o b e i n g c o u l d n o t b e a d d r e s s e d .

T h e f i r s t t i m e w e s a w t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e p r o t o c o l s w a s o n t h e e v e n i n g o f

D e c e m b e r 1 2 , t h e n i g h t b e f o r e I w a s s u p p o s e d t o l e a v e P a r i s , s i x w e e k s a f t e r w e

h a d s t a t e d w h a t o u r e n d w a s , f i v e w e e k s a f t e r t h e c e a s e - f i r e w a s s u p p o s e d t o b e

s i g n e d - a c e a s e - f i r e w h i c h c a l l e d f o r t h i s m a c h i n e r y t o b e s e t u p i m m e d i a t e l y .

T h e s e p r o t o c o l s r e o p e n e d - t h e y ' r e n o t t e c h n i c a l i n s t r u m e n t s - b u t r e o p e n e d a

w h o l e l i s t o f i s s u e s t h a t h a d b e e n s e t t l e d - o r w e t h o u g h t h a d b e e n s e t t l e d - i n t h e

ag reement . T h e y c o n t a i n e d p r o v i s i o n s t h a t w e r e n o t i n t h e o r i g i n a l a g r e e m e n t a n d

t h e y e x c l u d e d p r o v i s i o n s t h a t w e r e i n t h e o r i g i n a l a g r e e m e n t . T h e y a r e n o w i n t h e

p r o c e s s o f b e i n g d i s c u s s e d b y t h e t e c h n i c a l e x p e r t s i n P a r i s , b u t s o m e e f f o r t w i l l b e

n e e d e d t o r e m o v e t h e p o l i t i c a l p r o v i s i o n s f r o m t h e m , a n d t o r e t u r n t h e m t o a

t e c h n i c a l s t a t u s .

S e c o n d l y , I t h i n k i t i s s a f e t o s a y t h a t t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e p e r c e p t i o n o f

i n t e r n a t i o n a l m a c h i n e r y a n d o u r p e r c e p t i o n o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l m a c h i n e r y i s a t

d r a s t i c v a r i a n c e . A n d t h a t , l a d i e s a n d g e n t l e m e n , i s a n u n d e r s t a t e m e n t .

W e h a d t h o u g h t t h a t a n e f f e c t i v e m a c h i n e r y r e q u i r e d , i n e f f e c t , s o m e f r e e d o m

of movement . A n d o u r e s t i m a t e w a s t h a t s e v e r a l t h o u s a n d p e o p l e w e r e n e e d e d t o

m o n i t o r t h e m a n y p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e a g r e e m e n t .

T h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e p e r c e p t i o n i s t h a t t h e t o t a l f o r c e s h o u l d b e n o m o r e t h a n

2 5 0 , o f w h i c h n e a r l y h a l f s h o u l d b e l o c a t e d a t h e a d q u a r t e r s , t h a t i t w o u l d b e

d e p e n d e n t f o r i t s c o m m u n i c a t i o n , l o g i s t i c s , a n d e v e n p h y s i c a l n e c e s s i t i e s e n t i r e l y

o n t h e p a r t y i n w h o s e a r e a i t w a s l o c a t e d . S o i t w o u l d h a v e n o j e e p s , n o t e l e -

p h o n e s , n o r a d i o s o f i t s o w n ; t h a t i t c o u l d n o t m o v e w i t h o u t b e i n g a c c o m p a n i e d b y

l i a i s o n o f f i c e r s o f t h e p a r t y t h a t w a s t o b e i n v e s t i g a t e d - i f t h a t p a r t y d e c i d e d t o

g i v e i t t h e j e e p s t o g e t t o w h e r e t h e v i o l a t i o n w a s t a k i n g p l a c e , a n d i f t h a t p a r t y

w o u l d t h e n l e t i t c o m m u n i c a t e w h a t i t f o u n d .



KISSINGER'S STATEMENT ON THE PARIS TALKS 75

It is our impress ion th at th e members of this commission w ill not exert them-

sel ves in frenzies of ac tivity if this procedu re were ad opted .

Now, third ly , the s ub stan ce of the agreement . The negotiations sin ce

November 20 real ly hav e taken plac e in two phases : t h e f i r s t p h a s e , w h i c h l a s t e d

for three day s, continu ed the spirit and the attitud e of th e meetings in October.

We presented our proposal s- some were ac cepted, others w ere rejected . But by

the end of the third day we had made very s ub stan tial progress. And wethought-al l of us thought-that w e were within a day or two of c ompleting the

arran gements .

WITHIN REACH, BEYOND REACH

We do not know wh at decisions w ere mad e in Hanoi at tha t point, bu t from tha t

point on the negotiations ha ve ha d the cha racter wh ere a settlement was al wa ys

ju st within our reach, and wa s al way s pull ed just beyond our reach when we

attempted to gras p it . I d o n o t t h i n k i t i s p r o p e r f o r m e t o g o i n t o t h e d e t a i l s o f t h e

specific iss ues, bu t I think I shoul d give you a general a tmosphere and a general

sens e of the procedu res th at w ere followed .

Wh en we returned on December 4, w e were-w e of th e American team-

thought that the meetings c ould not las t more than two or three day s b ecaus e

there were onl y tw o or three issu es l eft to be resolv ed .

You a ll know that the meetings la sted nine day s . They began with Han oi

withdraw ing every ch an ge tha t had been agreed to two weeks previous ly . W e then

spent the rest of the week getting b ac k to where we ha d a lready been two weeks

before, and by Saturday we thought we had narrowed the issu es su fficiently

wh ere, if the other side had ac cepted a gain one section tha t they had al read y

agreed to two weeks previousl y, the agreement coul d h av e been c ompleted .

At that point the President ordered General Haig to return to Was hington so

that he woul d be ava ilab le for the mission tha t would th en follow of presenting the

agreement to our a ll y . At that point we though t we were suf ficiently cl ose so that

experts cou ld meet to conform the texts s o that we w oul d n ot again encou nter the

linguistic difficulties w hich w e had experienced previously and so that w e could

make sure that the cha nges that ha d b een n egotiated in English would al so be

refl ected in Vietnamese .

Wh en the experts met they w ere presented with s eventeen n ew ch an ges in the

guise of linguistic c han ges . W hen I met aga in with the special ad viser, the one

problem which w e though t remained on Saturday ha d grown to two an d a new

demand w as presented . W hen we accepted that it was withdrawn the next day an d

s h a rpened u p . So we spent our time going through the sev enteen lingu istic

cha nges an d redu ced them again to two .

Then on the la st d ay of the meeting we asked our experts to meet to compare

wh ether the fifteen ch an ges that h ad b een settled of the seventeen tha t had b een

proposed, wh ether those n ow c onformed in the two texts . At tha t point w e were

presented with sixteen new ch an ges, inc lu ding f our sub stan tive ones, some of

wh ich now still remain un settled .



7 6 KISSINGER'S STATEMENT ON THE PARIS TALKS

N o w I w i l l n o t g o i n t o t h e d e t a i l s o r i n t o t h e m e r i t s o f t h e s e c h a n g e s. T h e m a j o r

d i f f i c u l t y t h a t w e n o w f a c e i s t h a t p r o v i s i o n s t h a t w e r e s e t t l e d i n t h e a g r e e m e n t

a p p e a r a g a i n i n a d i f f e r e n t f o r m i n t h e p r o t o c o l s , t h a t m a t t e r s o f t e c h n i c a l

i m p l e m e n t a t i o n w h i c h w e r e i m p l i c i t i n t h e a g r e e m e n t f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g h a v e

n o t b e e n a d d r e s s e d a n d w e r e n o t p r e s e n t e d t o u s u n t i l t h e v e r y l a s t d a y o f a s e r i e s

o f s e s s i o n s t h a t h a d b e e n s p e c i f i c a l l y d e s i g n e d t o d i s c u s s t h e m , a n d t h a t a s s o o n a s

o n e i s s u e w a s s e t t l e d a n e w i s s u e w a s r a i s e d .

I t w a s v e r y t e m p t i n g f o r u s t o c o n t i n u e t h e p r o c e s s w h i c h i s s o c l o s e t o

e v e r y b o d y ' s h e a r t i m p l i c i t i n t h e m a n y m e e t i n g s o f i n d i c a t i n g g r e a t p r o g r e s s . B u t

t h e P r e s i d e n t d e c i d e d t h a t w e c o u l d n o t e n g a g e i n a c h a r a d e w i t h t h e A m e r i c a n

people .

A n d w e a r e n o w i n t h i s c u r i o u s p o s i t i o n . G r e a t p r o g r e s s h a s b e e n m a d e i n t h e

t a l k s . T h e o n l y t h i n g t h a t i s l a c k i n g i s o n e d e c i s i o n i n H a n o i t o s e t t l e t h e r e m a i n i n g

i s s u e s i n t e r m s t h a t t w o w e e k s p r e v i o u s l y t h e y h a d a l r e a d y a g r e e d t o - s o w e a r e

n o t t a l k i n g o f a n i s s u e o f p r i n c i p l e t h a t i s t o t a l l y u n a c c e p t a b l e - a n d s e c o n d l y t o

c o m p l e t e t h e w o r k t h a t i s r e q u i r e d t o b r i n g t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l m a c h i n e r y i n t o b e i n g

i n t h e s p i r i t t h a t b o t h s i d e s h a v e a n i n t e r e s t o f n o t e n d i n g t h e w a r i n s u c h a w a y t h a t

i t i s j u s t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a n o t h e r r o u n d o f c o n f l i c t .

S o w e a r e i n a p o s i t i o n w h e r e p e a c e c a n b e n e a r b u t p e a c e r e q u i r e s a d e c i s i o n .

A n d t h i s i s w h y w e w a n t e d t o r e s t a t e o n c e m o r e w h a t o u r b a s i c a t t i t u d e i s :

W i t h r e s p e c t t o S a i g o n w e h a v e s y m p a t h y a n d c o m p a s s i o n f o r t h e a n g u i s h o f

t h e i r p e o p l e a n d f o r t h e c o n c e r n s o f t h e i r g o v e r n m e n t . B u t i f w e c a n g e t a n

a g r e e m e n t t h a t t h e P r e s i d e n t c o n s i d e r s j u s t w e w i l l p r o c e e d w i t h i t .

W i t h r e s p e c t t o H a n o i o u r b a s i c o b j e c t i v e w a s s t a t e d i n t h e p r e s s c o n f e r e n c e o f

October 26 . W e w a n t a n e n d o f t h e w a r t h a t i s s o m e t h i n g m o r e t h a n a n a r m i s t i c e .

W e w a n t t o m o v e f r o m h o s t i l i t i e s t o n o r m a l i z a t i o n a n d f r o m n o r m a l i z a t i o n t o

c o o p e r a t i o n . B u t w e w i l l n o t m a k e a s e t t l e m e n t w h i c h i s a d i s g u i s e d f o r m o f

c o n t i n u e d w a r f a r e a n d w h i c h b r i n g s a b o u t b y i n d i r e c t i o n w h a t w e h a v e a l w a y s

s a i d w e w o u l d n o t t o l e r a t e .

W e h a v e a l w a y s s t a t e d t h a t a f a i r s o l u t i o n c a n n o t p o s s i b l y g i v e e i t h e r s i d e

e v e r y t h i n g t h a t i t w a n t s . W e h a v e - w e a r e n o t c o n t i n u i n g a w a r i n o r d e r t o g i v e

t o t a l v i c t o r y t o o u r a l l i e s . We want to give them a reasonable opportunity to

p a r t i c i p a t e i n a p o l i t i c a l s e t t l e m e n t . B u t w e a l s o w i l l n o t m a k e a s e t t l e m e n t w h i c h

i s a d i s g u i s e d f o r m o f v i c t o r y f o r t h e o t h e r s i d e .

T h e r e f o r e w e a r e a t a p o i n t w h e r e w e a r e a g a i n - p e r h a p s w e a r e c l o s e r t o a n

a g r e e m e n t t h a n w e w e r e a t t h e e n d o f O c t o b e r i f t h e o t h e r s i d e i s w i l l i n g t o d e a l

w i t h u s i n g o o d f a i t h a n d w i t h g o o d w i l l .

B u t i t c a n n o t d o t h a t e v e r y d a y a n i s s u e i s s e t t l e d a n e w o n e i s r a i s e d , t h a t w h e n

a n i s s u e i s s e t t l e d i n a n a g r e e m e n t i t i s r a i s e d a g a i n a s a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d i f i t i s

s e t t l e d i n a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g i t i s r a i s e d a g a i n a s a p r o t o c o l . We will not be

bl ackmailed into an a greement. We will not be stampeded into an agreement .

A n d , i f I m a y s a y s o , w e w i l l n o t b e c h a r m e d i n t o a n a g r e e m e n t , u n t i l i t s c o n d i t i o n s

a r e r i g h t .

F o r t h e P r e s i d e n t , a n d f o r a l l o f u s w h o h a v e b e e n e n g a g e d i n t h e s e n e g o t i a -




tions, nothing tha t we ha ve done ha s meant more than attempting to bring a n end

to the war in Vietnam . Nothing that I ha ve done since I am in this position ha s

made me feel more the trus tee of so many hopes as the negotiations w hich I

hav e-in w hich I hav e recently participated .

And it was painfu l a t times to think of the hopes of mill ions -a nd ind eed of the

hopes of many of you l adies an d gentlemen who were stand ing outside these

va rious meeting pl ac es-expecting momentous events to b e occu rring, wh ile

inside one frivolous issue af ter another was su rfaced in the las t three days .

And so wh at w e are sa ying to Han oi is : W e a r e p r e p a r e d t o c o n t i n u e i n t h e s p i r i t

of the n egotiations tha t were started in October . W e are prepared to mainta in an

agreement tha t provides f or the u nconditional releas e of al l American and al lied

prisoners, that imposes n o political solu tion on either side, that b rings ab out an

international ly su pervised cease-fire an d the withdraw al of al l American forces

within sixty day s .

I t i s a s e t t l e m e n t t h a t i s j u s t t o b o t h s i d e s , a n d t h a t r e q u i r e s o n l y a d e c i s i o n t o

maintain provisions that h ad al ready been a ccepted, an d a n end to procedu res

that ca n only mock the hopes of hu manity . And on that basis we can h ave a peace

that j us tifies the hopes of mankind and the sense of ju stice of al l pa rticipants .

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

Now I'll be gla d to ans wer some of y our qu estions .

Q . Wha t do you think Hanoi's motive was in playing su ch a c harade?

A. I don't wan t to specula te on Hanoi's motives, and I hav e no doubt that

b e f o r e t o o l o n g w e w i l l h e a r a v e r s i o n o f e v e n t s t h a t d o e s n o t e x a c t l y c o i n c i d e w i t h

ours . I hav e attempted to give you as honest an a cc ount as I'm capabl e of. I

believe-and this is pure specul ation-tha t for a people that h av e fought for so

l o n g , i t i s p a r a d o x i c a l l y p e r h a p s e a s i e r t o f a c e t h e r i s k s o f w a r t h a n t h e u n c e r t a i n -

t i e s o f p e a c e . A n d i t m a y b e t h a t t h e y a r e w a i t i n g f o r a f u r t h e r a c c e n t u a t i o n o f t h e

divisions between u s and Saigon, for more pub lic pressu res on us , or perhaps they

simply c an not make up their minds .

Q. Dr. Kiss inger, from your ac coun t, one could concl ud e tha t the talks a re now

ended in terms o f the series y ou h av e completed . I s t h a t t r u e ? A n d , s e c o n d l y , i f i t i s

not true, on w ha t bas is will they be resu med?

A. W e do not consider the talks completed . W e believe that it would be a

rela tively simple matter to conc lu de the agreement b ecau se many of the issu es

tha t I mentioned in the press conference on October 26 h av e either been s ettled or

su bs tantial progress toward settling them ha s been made .

Therefore, if th ere were a determination to reach an agreement, it coul d be

reach ed relatively q uickly . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f r a i s i n g t e c h n i c a l

objections is endles s . So if we hav e-as Le Duc Tho said yesterda y- we woul d

remain in contac t through mess ages . W e can then decide whether, or when, to

meet aga in .

Q. You ha ve not discus sed at a ll the proposal s tha t the United States made on

beha lf of Saigon, wh ich required ch an ges in the existing a greement that ha d been




n e g o t i a t e d . C a n y o u d i s c u s s w h a t t h e y w e r e a n d w h a t e f f e c t t h e y h a d o n s t i m u l a t i n g

Hanoi-if they did-to making further proposal s .

A . A s I p o i n t e d o u t , t h e r e w e r e t w o c a t e g o r i e s o f o b j e c t i o n s o n t h e p a r t o f

Saigon : o b j e c t i o n s w h i c h w e a g r e e d w i t h , a n d o b j e c t i o n s w h i c h w e d i d n ' t a g r e e

w i t h .

T h e o b j e c t i o n s t h a t w e a g r e e d w i t h a r e e s s e n t i a l l y c o n t a i n e d i n t h e l i s t t h a t I

p r e s e n t e d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g , a n d t h o s e w e r e t h e o n e s w e m a i n t a i n e d . A l l o f t h o s e , I

b e l i e v e , d i d n o t r e p r e s e n t c h a n g e s i n t h e a g r e e m e n t b u t e i t h e r c l a r i f i c a t i o n s ,

r e m o v a l o f a m b i g u i t i e s , o r s p e l l i n g o u t t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f a g r e e d p o s i t i o n s .

In the first sequence of meetings, between November 20 an d November 26,

most of those w ere-or many of those-were taken ca re of . S o t h a t w e h a v e

l i t e r a l l y - a s I h a v e p o i n t e d o u t b e f o r e - b e e n i n t h e p o s i t i o n w h e r e e v e r y d a y w e

t h o u g h t i t c o u l d a n d i n d e e d a l m o s t h a d t o b e t h e l a s t d a y .

T h e c o u n t e r p r o p o s a l s t h a t H a n o i h a d m a d e w e r e , a g a i n , i n t w o c a t e g o r i e s . O n e

s e t o f c h a n g e s t h a t w o u l d h a v e t o t a l l y d e s t r o y e d t h e b a l a n c e o f t h e a g r e e m e n t a n d

w h i c h , i n e f f e c t , w i t h d r e w t h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t c o n c e s s i o n s t h e y h a d m a d e . I d i d

n o t m e n t i o n t h o s e i n m y s t a t e m e n t b e c a u s e i n t h e p r o c e s s o f n e g o t i a t i o n s t h e y

t e n d e d t o d i s a p p e a r . T h e y t e n d e d t o d i s a p p e a r f r o m t h e a g r e e m e n t , t o r e a p p e a r i n

u n d e r s t a n d i n g s , a n d t h e n t o d i s a p p e a r f r o m u n d e r s t a n d i n g s t o r e a p p e a r i n p r o -

t o c o l s . B u t I s u s p e c t t h a t t h e y w i l l , i n t i m e , a f t e r t h e n e r v o u s e x h a u s t i o n o f o u r

t e c h n i c a l e x p e r t s , d i s a p p e a r f r o m t h e p r o t o c o l s a s w e l l .

B u t t h e n t h e r e w e r e a w h o l e s e r i e s o f t e c h n i c a l c o u n t e r p r o p o s a l s w h i c h w e r e

a b s o l u t e l y u n e n d i n g a n d w h i c h h i n g e d o n s u c h p r o f o u n d q u e s t i o n s w h e t h e r i f y o u

s t a t e a n o b l i g a t i o n i n t h e f u t u r e t e n s e y o u w e r e t h e r e f o r e l e a v i n g o p e n t h e

qu estion wh en it would come into operation a nd whether you-a matter that

reach ed the metaphy sical at moments a nd w hich a s s oon a s one of them was

settled another one appeared and wh ich made one believe tha t one wa s not

e n g a g e d i n a n e f f o r t t o s e t t l e f u n d a m e n t a l i s s u e s b u t i n a d e l a y i n g a c t i o n f o r

wh atever reason .

N o w i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e i n t e r p l a y b e t w e e n S a i g o n a n d H a n o i i s o n e o f t h e

c o m p l i c a t i n g f e a t u r e s o f t h i s n e g o t i a t i o n . B u t t h e b a s i c p o i n t t h a t w e w a n t t o m a k e

c l e a r i s t h i s : W e h a v e h a d o u r d i f f i c u l t i e s i n S a i g o n . B u t t h e o b s t a c l e t o a n

agreement a t this moment is not Saigon becau se we do not as yet ha ve a n

a g r e e m e n t t h a t w e c a n p r e s e n t t o t h e m .

Q. C a n a n a g r e e m e n t b e m a d e o p e r a t i v e w i t h o u t S a i g o n ' s s i g n a t u r e ?

A. W e l l , t h i s i s a q u e s t i o n t h a t h a s n o t y e t h a d t o b e f a c e d b u t - a n d w h i c h w e

h o p e w i l l n o t h a v e t o b e f a c e d .

Q. M u s t t h e r e b e , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s t e r m s , a s u b s t a n t i a l w i t h d r a w a l o f

N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e t r o o p s f r o m t h e S o u t h ?

A. T h e q u e s t i o n o f N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e f o r c e s i n t h e S o u t h h a s t w o e l e m e n t s :

t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e f o r c e s n o w t h e r e - i t h a s t h r e e e l e m e n t s - t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e

f o r c e s n o w t h e r e , t h e i r f u t u r e , a n d t h e g e n e r a l c l a i m t h a t N o r t h V i e t n a m m a y

m a k e w i t h r e s p e c t t o i t s r i g h t t o i n t e r v e n e c o n s t a n t l y i n t h e S o u t h.




With respect to the la st q ues tion, we ca nn ot accept the proposition tha t North

Vietnam ha s a right of consta nt intervention in the South . W i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e f i r s t

qu estion of the forces now in th e South, the Un ited States ha s mad e three

cease-fire proposals since October 1970, a ll of them based on the de f acto

situa tion a s it existed a t the time of the ceas e-fire, al l of th em approved b y th e

government of South Vietna m, and th erefore we did n ot ad d th at con dition of

withdraw al to our present proposa l, w hich reflected exactly the positions w e had

taken on Jan ua ry 25 a nd on May 9 of this year, both of wh ich ha d been agreed to

by the Government of the Repub lic of Vietnam .

Q. Are we bac k to the beginning n ow in negotiations?

A. No, we hav e an a greement that is 99 per cent completed a s f ar as the text of

the agreement is c oncerned . We al so ha ve an agreement whose ass ociated im-

plementations a re very simple to concl ud e if one takes the bas ic provisions of

interna tiona l su pervision tha t are in the text of the agreement, provisions tha t

ha ppen to be s pell ed out in greater detail in the a greement than al most a ny other

as pect, and th erefore we are one decision aw ay from a s ettlement, an d Hanoi can

settle this any day by an excha nge of messa ges after which there would be requ ired

a c ertain a moun t of work on the agreement wh ich is n ot very muc h a nd s ome work

in bringing th e implementing ins truments into being .

Q. Could y ou tell us wh at that 1 per cent is?

A. You know, I hav e found that I get into troubl e when I give figures . Let me

not insist on 1 per cent . It is a n a greement tha t is s ub stan tial ly completed, bu t I

ca nnot go into that . B u t t h a t i n a n y e v e n t i s n o t t h e - t h a t a l o n e i s n o t t h e p r o b l e m .

Q. Of wh at remains, woul d you d escribe it as fu nd amental or one of these

technica l problems? Beca us e you've ranged between the two, I'm a l ittle lost as to

w h a t i s l e f t .

A. The tech nical implementing instruments that they h av e presented are to-

tally una cceptable for the reasons which I gav e . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , I c a n n o t r e a l l y

b e l i e v e t h a t t h e y a r e s e r i o u s . W ha t remains on the agreement itself is a fu nda men-

tal point . It is, howev er, a point that ha s b een a cc epted al read y two weeks

previous ly and la ter withdrawn , so we are not raising a n ew fu ndamental point .

We are raising the acc eptance of something that h ad al ready once been a ccepted.

Q. I s i t p o l i t i c a l ?

A. I r e a l l y d o n ' t w a n t t o g o i n t o t h e f u t u r e o f t h e P a r i s p e a c e t a l k s . I t h i n k t h a t

the sort of discu ss ions tha t hav e been going on in the Paris peac e talks a re not

aff ected by su ch temporary u ps a nd downs as the private peace tal ks, so I'm sure

that Minister Xuan Thu y a nd Ambas sad or Porter will find many su bj ects for

mutu al recrimina tion .

Q. Isn't the fu nd amental point the one you raised ab out the right of North

Vietna mese troops to intervene in th e fu ture of South Vietna m?

A. I w ill not go into the sub stan ce of the negotiations .

Q. I t i s t h e U. S. i n s i s t e n c e t h a t t h e t w o p a r t s o f V i e t n a m s h o u l d l i v e i n p e a c e w i t h

eac h oth er . Is that not the fu nda mental disagreement here?




A. I c a n ' t c o n s i d e r i t a n e x t r e m e l y o n e r o u s d e m a n d t o s a y t h a t t h e p a r t i e s o f a

p e a c e s e t t l e m e n t s h o u l d l i v e i n p e a c e w i t h o n e a n o t h e r , a n d w e c a n n o t m a k e a

s e t t l e m e n t w h i c h b r i n g s p e a c e t o N o r t h V i e t n a m a n d m a i n t a i n s t h e w a r i n S o u t h

Vietna m .

Q I s n ' t i t t h a t V i e t n a m i s o n e c o u n t r y a n d t h i s p e a c e a g r e e m e n t i s s u p p o s e d t o

r a t i f y t h a t p o i n t ?

A. T h e q u e s t i o n i s w h e t h e r t h e i r p o s i t i o n i s n ' t t h a t V i e t n a m i s o n e c o u n t r y a n d

t h i s a g r e e m e n t i s s u p p o s e d t o r a t i f y t h a t p o i n t .

[ A n o t h e r v o i c e ] T h i s w i l l b e t h e f i n a l q u e s t i o n a s H e n r y h a s t o l e a v e n o w .

A. I w a s w o n d e r i n g h o w h e w o u l d c o n c l u d e t h i s t h i n g .

Q. D i d y o u t e l l H a n o i a h e a d o f t i m e t h a t y o u w o u l d t a l k t o u s ?

A. T h e a n s w e r t o t h a t i s n o , b u t I s u s p e c t y o u w i l l g e t t h a t m e s s a g e f r o m t h e m

v e r y q u i c k l y .

Q. W a s t h e r e a n y u n d e r s t a n d i n g i n P a r i s b e f o r e y o u l e f t t h a t e a c h s i d e w o u l d b e

f r e e t o e x p r e s s i t s e l f w i t h o u t d a m a g i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f f u t u r e t a l k s ?

A. L e D u c T h o c o r r e c t l y s t a t e d o u r a g r e e m e n t a t t h e a i r p o r t - t h a t w e w o u l d

n o t g o i n t o t h e s u b s t a n c e o f t h e t a l k s . N o w I r e c o g n i z e t h a t w h a t I ' m d o i n g h e r e

g o e s t o t h e e d g e o f t h a t u n d e r s t a n d i n g . B u t t h e P r e s i d e n t f e l t t h a t w e c o u l d n o t

p e r m i t a s i t u a t i o n t o c o n t i n u e i n w h i c h t h e r e w a s d a i l y s p e c u l a t i o n a s t o s o m e t h i n g

t h a t w a s a l r e a d y a c c o m p l i s h e d w h i l e t h e r e c o r d w a s s o c l e a r l y c o n t r a r y , a n d

t h e r e f o r e w e o w e d y o u a n e x p l a n a t i o n n o t o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r i s s u e s b u t o f t h e

p r o g r e s s o f n e g o t i a t i o n s a n d e x a c t l y w h e r e t h e y s t o o d .



APPENDIX B

North Vietnam's Statements

O n t h e P a r i s T a l k s

December 17 and 21, 1972

These three comments on the Kiss inger press c onference (s ee

Appendix A) an d the breakdown o f n egotiations were broadc as t by the

(North) Vietnam News Agency and recorded by the Foreign Broadca st

Information Service .

1 Broadc as t in Engl ish, December 17 ; d a t e l i n e P a r i s ,

December 16 :

Comments of Mr. Nguy en Than h Le, spokesman for the Delega tion of the Demo-

cratic Repub lic of Vietnam Government to the Pa ris Conferenc e on Vietna m, on the

statements mad e by Dr. Kis sing er at h is press conf erenc e on December 16, 1972 .

We wou ld like to make the fol low ing preliminary remarks on the sta tements

made by Dr. K issin ger at his press c onference on December 16, 1972 .

W e h a v e n o t y e t t h e o f f i c i a l f u l l t e x t o f D r . K i s s i n g e r ' s s t a t e m e n t s t o t h e p r e s s . I f

the reports of the news agenc ies are correct, we feel it regrettabl e that the U . S .

side has acted once aga in at va rianc e with the agreement that both parties s ha ll not

publ icly comment on the su bs tanc e of th e private tal ks between th e Democratic

Repub lic of Vietnam [DRV] an d th e United States .

Moreov er, the U . S . s ide has d eliberately distorted the fact, cl aiming that the

DRV side had demand ed chan ges to many q uestions a nd tha t it had thus created

obstac les to the concl us ion of the a greement . That is completely u ntrue .

It is known to everyone that in th e October 20, 1972 , mess age a ddress ed on

beh al f of President Nixon to the Prime Minis ter of the DRV, the U . S . s i d e

ac knowledged th at th e text of the agreement might be cons idered completed, a nd

it proposed Oc tober 31, 1972 , as the da te for the signing of the agreement .

Afterwards, the United States ha s insisted on ch ang ing many su bs tantive ques-

tions, inclu ding many q uestions of principle .

The position of the DRV side is th at th e text of the agreement agreed u pon on

October 20, 1972, sh ould be maintained . B u t i f t h e U . S . s i d e i n s i s t s o n c h a n g i n g i t ,

our side will ha ve al so to propose necessa ry cha nges . The negotiations are

81



82 NORTH VIETNAM'S STATEMENTS ON THE PARIS TALKS

prolong ed, th e wa r increases its violence, [and ] the responsibility for such a

situation befall s on the U . S . s i d e .

The Government of the DRV and the Vietnamese entire people ha ve a lw ay s

desired a peacef ul settlement of the Vietna m problem on the ba sis of respect for

the fu nda mental na tiona l rights of the Vietnamese people an d the right to self-

determina tion of th e South Vietnam popul ation . The Vietna mese people wil l

resol utely maintain th eir correct position a nd, at th e sa me time, show their

constant good will .

I f t h e U . S . Government reall y d esires to peac eful ly settle the Vietnam probl em,

respond to the as pirations of the America n people an d th e world people, to ensu re

the America n c aptu red s ervicemen's early return to their families, an d to repa-

triate al l American sold iers participating in the w ar, it shoul d sign the agreement

agreed upon, wit hout de la y a n d wit hout a n y c h a n ge .

For its part, the DRV side will strictly respect th e entire text of the agreement

an d is prepared to sign it w ith the U . S . s ide, the sooner the better .

2 Broad ca st in Vietnamese, December 17 (tra ns la tion) :

Commenting on K iss inger's 16 December press c onf erenc e, VNA [Vietna m

News Agency ] pointed out cl early tha t all attempts by the U . S . s ide to deceive

publ ic opinion a nd s hrug off its respons ibility w ill certainly be doomed .

On 16 December Kissing er, as sis tan t to U . S . President Nixon f or national

security a ffa irs, su ddenly held a press conference to try to explain the reason w hy

the United States ha d d elay ed signing the agreement on ending the wa r and

restoring peace in Vietnam wh ich it ha s reach ed with th e DRV on 20 October .

In his speech as well as in his an swers to newsmen, Kiss inger held the DRV

completely respons ible for the negative resu lts of the latest meetings in Paris an d

for the agreements n ot yet signed . W hile wa iting to stud y th e whole text of this

press c onference so we may h av e a more complete anal ys is, it is n ow necessa ry to

stress again the basic truth of this matter . W e c a n a s s e r t t h a t K i s s i n g e r ' s j u s t i f i c a -

tions a nd d enials at this press conference were completely un true . No one ca n

b e l i e v e h i s e f f o r t t o c a s t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e d e l a y i n t h e s i g n i n g o f t h e a g r e e m e n t

on th e DRV sid e .

Sinc e 26 October everyone in the world h as cl early s een tha t than ks to the good

wil l a nd s eriou sn ess of th e Vietna mese side, [the DRV Government,] with th e

conc urrence of the PRGRSV [Provisiona l Revolu tiona ry Government of the

Republ ic of South Vietnam], initiated an important step by putting forth the draf t

of an agreement on end ing the wa r and restoring peac e to Vietnam. Everyone

knows that this initiative wa s disc us sed in great detail, an d l ater the delegates of

the DRV Government a n d the U . S . Government approved the d raft agreement

on ending th e war a nd restoring peac e to Vietnam . U . S . President Nixon himself

conf irmed, in his messa ge to the DRV premier la te in October, that th e text of th e

ag reement might b e considered complete, an d proposed 31 October 1972 a s th e

da te for signing the a greement .

The DRV Government, in its 2 6 October statement, pointed out c learl y how



NORTH VIETNAM'S STATEMENTS ON THE PARIS TALKS 83

the Nixon administration h ad un ilateral ly delay ed signing of the agreement and at

the sa me time tried to soothe and d eceive pu bl ic opinion, sa ying th at the remain-

ing questions w ere only q uestions of techn ical details w hich coul d be solved in a

new meeting of a few da ys .

Later the U . S . s ide proposed tha t the two sides meet aga in for further discu s-

sion, an d tw ice the DRV side met the as sista nt to the U . S . P r e s i d e n t f o r n a t i o n a l

sec u rity a f f a irs, on 2 0 November an d on 4 December . This again sh owed

maximum good will an d the very s erious attitude of our delegation . At a time

w hen the U . S . s ide adopted a n a bout-fac e attitude in delay ing the signing of the

agreement a nd demand ing reexamination of many ba sic points of the a greement,

Kiss inger held a press conf erence in the United States wh ich ga ve to the press a

f a l s e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e f a c t s a n d a t t h e s a m e t i m e l a i d t h e b l a m e a t t h e d o o r o f

the Vietnamese side . Nevertheless, a ll these attempts by the U . S . s i d e c a n f o o l n o

one and can never su cceed .

Everyone real izes that the DRV has a lw ay s a ss erted its read iness to sign

immediately the a greement a greed in the month of October 1972 . Everyone als o

r e a l i z e s t h a t t h e U . S . Government ha s a dopted a d oubl e-cross attitud e towa rd the

agreement, den ied th e U . S . President's c onfirmation that the text of the agree-

ment w as cons idered completed, an d ignored the da y f or signing th e agreement

set forth by the U . S . P r e s i d e n t . Although Mr . Kissinger has repeatedl y ca st the

bl ame on the DRV side, everyone knows tha t sinc e the meeting of 2 0 November

the U . S . s i d e h a s i n s i s t e d o n c h a n g i n g a w h o l e s e t o f p o i n t , p o i n t s w h i c h a r e b a s i c

a n d e s s e n t i a l a n d h a v e t h e f o r c e o f p r i n c i p l e s a n d n o t l i n g u i s t i c , t e c h n i c a l d e t a i l s

an d so forth .

Moreover, al ong with its negative attitude a t the conference tabl e, the U . S .

ad ministration h as given pu ppet Nguy en Van Th ieu f ree rein to oppose the

agreement, in words a nd deeds, an d h as su pplied the Saigon pu ppet administra-

tion w ith more weapons to step up th e war an d c rack down more violently on the

people u nd er its control . More seriousl y, th e U . S . side has al so sought to

strengthen the military apparatus in South Vietna m by s ending tens of thousa nds

of disgu ised military a dv isers to provide c ommand for the Saigon army . In

add ition, it is us ing B-52 s trategic b ombers to la y w as te to many popul ous a reas in

South Vietna m, inc lu ding th e areas su rround ing Saigon . At the s ame time it is

using U . S . a ir an d na va l f orces to attack the DRV and B-52 s to carpet-bomb many

areas f rom Tha nh Hoa to Vinh Linh z one .

I t i s t h u s c l e a r t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a s n o t g i v e n u p i t s d e s i g n t o p e r p e t u a t e i t s

neocolonialist rul e of South Vietnam, tha t it is s triving to ca rry ou t its pl an to

Vietnamize the wa r there wh ile prompting Ngu yen Va n Thieu to resist s igning th e

peace agreement a nd even to reject the ess ential s of this a greement .

Wh atever sophistry the Un ited States may indu lge in, it can not av oid its

respons ibility for the present s ituation in the Vietnam peac e talks . I t s a b o u t - f a c e

attitud e in deman ding reexamina tion of the ba sic points of the ag reement is the

only obstac le to the agreement on end ing the wa r and restoring peac e in Vietnam,

which thu s fa r has not been signed .



84 NORTH VIETNAM'S STATEMENTS ON THE PARIS TALKS

Once again the DRV side serious ly demand s th at the U . S . s ide adhere to the

context of the agreement mutu al ly agreed to on 20 October and sign th at a gree-

ment without fu rther dela y . More than th at, the U . S . s i d e m u s t s e e t o i t t h a t t h e

agreement, once signed, is implemented s crupul ousl y so that th ere will be a la sting

peace in Vietna m and the rest of Indochina .

3 Broadc as t in Engl ish, December 21 :

At the 171st plenary s ession of the Paris c onference on Vietna m this morning, Dinh

Ba Thi, who deputized for the head d elegation of th e PRGRSV [Prov isiona l

Revol utionary Government of the Repub lic of South Vietnam] delegation, strongl y

denou nc ed the Nixon ad ministration for the extremely serious steps of war escal a-

tion it has made in the past few d ay s a gains t the whole territory of the DRV, an d

d em a n d e d t he U . S . to put a n immediate end to these crimina l acts .

Refu ting the U . S . d i s t o r t i o n s of t h e p r e s e n t s t a t e of negotiations , he pointed out :

It is the U . S . side that ha s obstructed the talks . Wa shington ha s prompted

Nguyen Van Thieu to make extremely a bs urd c la ims, wh ich, in essenc e, is a

revision of al l the points a greed . The pu rpose is to bl ur th e line between the

Un ited States-th e aggressor-an d th e Vietna mese people, wh o resist it, and to

deny the holy resis tan ce of the South Vietnamese people and the PRGRSV, whil e

making the U . S .- rigged ad ministration "the only l egitimate, constitutional " one .

These cla ims are als o mean t to turn the temporary military demarcation l ine at the

seventeenth pa rall el into a territorial boun da ry to perpetua te the partition of

Vietnam, and South Vietnam into a s eparate state und er the neocolonialis t rule of

the Un ited States .

After cond emning the Nixon ad ministration for pumping tens of thousa nds of

tons of weapons a nd w ar mean s into South Vietnam, maintaining disgu ised military

ad visers an d introdu cing new ones to continu e providing command to the Saigon

army, and making the Nguy en Van Thieu c liq ue condu ct one terror campaign af ter

an other against patriots and a dv ocates ofpeace a nd national concord, Dinh Ba Th i

pointed ou t :

It is c lear tha t the United States does not wan t peac e . It is stepping u p the

"Vietnamization" policy an d prolonging an d expand ing its involv ement in Viet-

nam . An irrefuta bl e proof of this is th e hectic, reckless w ar esca la tion it is

un dertaking now .

Dinh Ba Thi said in conclu sion :

The adventurous a cts a nd war esca la tion of the United States will provoke due

riposts a nd pun ishment from the entire Vietnamese people f rom the sou th to th e

north . The Vietnamese people wan t peac e and independenc e and freedom. The

more the United States prolongs an d intens ifies the war, the more resol utel y th e

Vietnamese people, united mill ions as one man a nd c los ely s iding with the brother

peoples of Cambodia an d Laos, wil l s tep up their wa r of resistanc e for na tiona l

sa lv ation, till complete victory .

Nguy en Minh Vy, on behal f of the DRV delegation, sa id :

It is pu blic knowl edge that al though the United States ha s not'kept its w ord b y



NORTH VIETNAM'S STATEMENTS ON THE PARIS TALKS 85

not signing the agreement reac hed on October 20 at th e date fixed for October 31

proposed by the Un ited States itself , the DRV Government, as well -meaning a s

ever, continued to take part in th e priva te meetings on the requ est of th e United

States . Y e t , w h i l e t h e t a l k s w e r e g o i n g o n , t h e U . S . side, on December 16, pla yed a

different tu ne, making groun dl ess cha rges aga inst the DRV side in an attempt to

l a y a t t h e l a t t e r ' s d o o r t h e b l a m e f o r t h e o b s t r u c t i o n o f t h e t a l k s . Immediately a fter

tha t, the Un ited States esca la ted the war aga inst North Vietna m in a n extremely

serious man ner, on an u nprecedented sca le, and w ith rare violenc e .

Refu ting the al legations made by the Nixon administration to ju stify the resu mp-

tion of the bombing of North Vietnam, h e pointed out :

T h e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e U . S . w a r i s t h e l o g i c a l s e q u e l o f w h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s

ha s d one in the pas t month-the delay ing of the signing of the mutual ly reach ed

agreement, the prolonging of the tal ks, the demand for a revision of th e essential

points of the agreement, the intensifica tion of military operations a gain st th e

liberation f orces, the la un ching of many terror campaigns aga inst the people, and

the preparations for the sa botage of th e agreement .

Nguy en Minh Vy stress ed :

The DRV Government a nd the RSV Prov isional Revol utiona ry Government

ha ve sh own the maximum good will . If th e United States opts for the path of

peace, it mus t negotiate serious ly , an d promptly sign the agreement reac hed on

October 20 . Shoul d th e United States stu bbornly continue the "Vietnamization"

policy in South Vietna m and the bombing, mining, a nd bl ockading of North

Vietnam, it would ha ve to bear al l th e serious consequ ences of these criminal acts .

A f t e r r e a d i n g t h e t e x t o f h is speech an d proposing December 28 as the date for the

next session, Nguy en Minh Vy decl ared:

As a protest to the war esca la tion a nd th e about-f ac e of the United States in

negotiations , the DRV Government del egation with th e conc urrence of the PRG

Government decl ares the 171st sess ion c losed n ow .

And the del egation of the DRV an d tha t of the PRG wal ked out of the conf erence

h a l l a t 1 1 :30 A . M. P a r i s t i m e .



APPENDIX C

North Vietnam's Statement

On the Bombing

December 2 7 ,1972

T h i s s t a t e m e n t b y t h e F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y o f t h e D e m o c r a t i c R e p u b l i c o f

Vietnam was b roadca st in English b y the (North) Vietna m News

A g e n c y a n d r e c o r d e d b y t h e F o r e i g n B r o a d c a s t I n f o r m a t i o n S e r v i c e .

THE DRV FOREIGN MINISTRY TODAY ISSUED t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t r e -

g a r d i n g t h e e x t e r m i n a t i o n B - 5 2 b o m b i n g s c o n d u c t e d o n t h e n i g h t o f D e c e m b e r 2 6

b y t h e U . S . i m p e r i a l i s t s a g a i n s t m a n y d e n s e l y p o p u l a t e d a r e a s i n t h e c a p i t a l c i t y o f

H a n o i , t h e p o r t c i t y o f H a i p h o n g a n d o t h e r p l a c e s i n N o r t h V i e t n a m :

C o n t i n u i n g t h e f r e n z i e d w a r e s c a l a t i o n a g a i n s t t h e D R V t h e U . S . i m p e r i a l i s t

a g g r e s s o r s o n t h e n i g h t o f D e c e m b e r 2 6 , 1 9 7 2 , a g a i n s e n t m a n y f l i g h t s o f B - 5 2

s t r a t e g i c b o m b e r s a n d d o z e n s o f o t h e r p l a n e s f o r e x t e r m i n a t i o n b o m b i n g s a g a i n s t

m a n y a r e a s i n s i d e a n d a r o u n d H a n o i , i n H a i p h o n g c i t y , T h a i N g u y e n c i t y , a n d

m a n y o t h e r p l a c e s . T h e s e a r e b r u t a l a c t s a i m e d a t m a s s a c r i n g c i v i l i a n s , a c r i m e

t h a t f a r e x c e e d s i n b a r b a r i t y t h e o n e s p e r p e t r a t e d i n t h e p a s t b y t h e H i t l e r i t e

f a s c i s t s .

B y c o n d u c t i n g B - 5 2 c a r p e t - b o m b i n g s a n d i n d i s c r i m i n a t e r a i d s b y o t h e r a i r c r a f t

a g a i n s t t h e d e n s e l y p o p u l a t e d a r e a s , t h e N i x o n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n h a s i n f l i c t e d

t h o u s a n d s o f c a s u a l t i e s a n d d e s t r o y e d t h o u s a n d s o f h o u s e s a n d d o z e n s o f m e d i c a l

s t a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g t h e B a c h M a i h o s p i t a l , o n e o f t h e l o n g e s t - s t a n d i n g c e n t e r s f o r

m e d i c a l r e s e a r c h i n N o r t h V i e t n a m , m a n y s c h o o l s , i n c l u d i n g t h e E c o n o m i c a n d

Planning College and the Poly technics in Hanoi, many cu ltu ral works, many

p u b l i c u t i l i t y i n s t a l l a t i o n s, e t c . U . S . b o m b s a n d r o c k e t s h a v e a l s o c a u s e d d a m a g e

t o e i g h t e m b a s s i e s i n H a n o i a n d a n u m b e r o f f o r e i g n s h i p s a n c h o r e d a t H a i p h o n g

h a r b o r .

W h i l e f r a n t i c a l l y e s c a l a t i n g t h e w a r , t h e N i x o n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i s a t t e m p t i n g t o

d e c e i v e p u b l i c o p i n i o n w i t h e n d l e s s c o n t e n t i o n s a b o u t i t s " d e s i r e t o n e g o t i a t e

s e r i o u s l y " a n d " t o f i n d o u t a t a n e a r l y d a t e a s o l u t i o n t o t h e w a r " w h i l e , i n f a c t ,

r e s o r t i n g t o a c t s o f w a r e s c a l a t i o n t o b l o c k t h e r o a d t o a s e t t l e m e n t . T h e N i x o n

a d m i n i s t r a t i o n p r e t e n d s t h a t i t i s c o n c e r n e d a b o u t t h e c a p t u r e d U. S

. m i l i t a r y m e n

a n d d o i n g e v e r y t h i n g t o b r i n g t h e m h o m e , w h i l e , b y m a s s i v e b o m b i n g s , t h r e a t e n -

i n g t h e f a c t [ s i c ] t h e l i v e s a n d l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s o f h u n d r e d s o f U . S . p i l o t s b e i n g

86



NORTH VIETNAM'S STATEMENT ON THE BOMBING 87

detained a nd f urther lengthening the list of ca ptured U . S . military men .

The Nixon a dministration's internationa l b rigan da ge acts an d policy to

negotiate on a position of strength ha ve aroused profound ha tred a mong th e

Vietnamese people and high ind ignation among the world people . The whole

progressive mankind is un an imous ly raising its voice to demand th e Nixon admin-

istration to stop immediately th e cu rrent frantic wa r esca l ation step aga inst the

DRVLet the U . S . i m p e r i a l i s t a g g r e s s o r s h a r b o r n o i l l u s i o n a b o u t s u b d u i n g t h e h e r o i c

Vietnamese nation b y the f orce of bombs a nd shell s . The U . S . a g g r e s s o r s w i l l

certainly b e dul y pun ished for every step of their wa r esc al ation . On the night of

December 26, 1972 , the armed forces an d people in Hanoi, Haiphong, a nd Thai

Nguyen fought va liantly a nd stau nch ly , and shot down eight B-52 s and w iped out

or ca ptured many America n pilots . All in al l, in more than a week, the armed

forces an d people of North Vietnam h av e shot down sixty-two U . S . a i r c r a f t

incl ud ing twenty-s ix B-52 s an d wiped out or ca ptured man y air pirates . T h i s i s a n

ignominious fa ilure of the U . S . imperial ist aggressors, and a b ig victory of our

people .

So long a s th e Nixon a dministration pursu es its bruta l w ar policy, the Viet-

na mese people will resolu tely c arry out the testa ment of venerated President Ho

Chi Minh , persis t in an d promote their fight aga inst U . S . a g g r e s s i o n , f o r n a t i o n a l

s a l v a t i o n i n t h e m i l i t a r y , p o l i t i c a l , a n d d i p l o m a t i c f i e l d s t i l l t o t a l v i c t o r y s o a s t o

liberate the south, defend an d b uild up the social ist north, and proceed towa rd a

peacefu l reun ification of the coun try . The Vietna mese people are resol ved to

sta nd s houl der to shoul der with the brother peoples of Laos and Cambod ia,

fu rther tighten their ran ks, an d promote the fight so a s to drive th e U . S . i m -

perial ists out of the Indoch inese peninsu la , and regain na tional independence and

freedom for eac h c oun try .

The Government of the Democratic Republ ic of Vietnam onc e aga in s everely

denoun ces to world pub lic opinion the new, extremely serious s tep of wa r esc al a-

tion ta ken by the U . S . imperial ist aggress ors a gains t North Vietnam . I t r e s o l u t e l y

demand s tha t the Nixon administration put a n end to the bomba rdments , the

bl ockade, and a ll other acts of encroachment upon the sovereignty a nd s ecurity of

the DRV, stop its a ggressiv e war in Vietna m, and give up its " Vietnamization of

the war" policy .

The Government of th e Democratic Repub lic of Vietna m an d the Vietna mese

people tha nk the governments an d peoples of the other socialist c ountries, th e

governments an d peoples of the peac e- and j us tice-loving coun tries in the world,

the va rious internationa l organ izations , an d the American people for hav ing

timely an d firmly cond emned the Nixon ad ministration's f renzied w ar ac ts . The

DRV Government an d th e Vietna mese people earnestl y c al l on th eir friends in al l

the five continents to continue to struggl e in order to check the bl oods tained

han ds of the U . S . i m p e r i a l i s t a g g r e s s o r s , w h o a r e d e l i b e r a t e l y m a s s a c r i n g c i v i l i a n s

an d exterminating towns a nd popul ous a reas in the DRV, and to lend stronger

su pport to the Vietnamese people's j us t ca us e till complete victory .



APPENDIX D

" T e r r o r F r o m t h e S k i e s "

A New York Times Editoria l

December 22,1972

ASKED WHETHER CIVILIAN CENTERS w o u l d n o t i n e v i t a b l y b e h i t d u r i n g t h e

r e s u m e d m a s s i v e a i r a s s a u l t o n N o r t h V i e t n a m , a P e n t a g o n s p o k e s m a n r e p l i e d ,

" N o , w e d o n o t s t r i k e c i v i l i a n t a r g e t s ." He then amended his comment to sa y :

" W e d o n o t t a r g e t c i v i l i a n t a r g e t s . "

T h e d i f f e r e n c e i s c r u c i a l .

T h e b i g B - 5 2 b o m b e r s t h a t a r e b e i n g u s e d f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e o v e r t h e h e a v i l y

p o p u l a t e d H a n o i - H a i p h o n g a r e a a r e n o t p r e c i s i o n w e a p o n s . N o r m a l l y t h e y o p e r -

ate in f lights of three that l ay down a pattern of bombs- twenty tons to a

p l a n e - w h i c h s c a t t e r o v e r a n a r e a m o r e t h a n h a l f a m i l e w i d e a n d m o r e t h a n a

m i l e a n d a h a l f l o n g .

E v e n i f t h e " t a r g e t s " w e r e s t r i c t l y m i l i t a r y , a g r e a t d e a l m o r e t h a n m i l i t a r y

w o u l d i n e v i t a b l y b e c a u g h t u p i n s u c h s w e e p i n g d e v a s t a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y i n a b l i t z

t h a t i n t h e f i r s t t w o d a y s i s e s t i m a t e d t o h a v e d r o p p e d 2 0 , 0 0 0 t o n s o f e x p l o s i v e s -

t h e e q u i v a l e n t o f t h e H i r o s h i m a b o m b . I m a g i n e w h a t w o u l d h a p p e n t o N e w Y o r k

o r a n y o t h e r A m e r i c a n c i t y i f a c o m p a r a b l e e n e m y w e r e u n l e a s h e d t o a t t a c k s u c h

t a r g e t s o n t h e P e n t a g o n ' s a u t h o r i z e d l i s t a s r a i l y a r d s , s h i p y a r d s , c o m m a n d a n d

c o n t r o l f a c i l i t i e s , w a r e h o u s e a n d t r a n s s h i p m e n t a r e a s , c o m m u n i c a t i o n s f a c i l i t i e s ,

v e h i c l e - r e p a i r f a c i l i t i e s , p o w e r p l a n t s , r a i l w a y b r i d g e s , r a i l w a y r o l l i n g s t o c k , t r u c k

p a r k s , a i r b a s e s , a i r - d e f e n s e r a d a r s , a n d g u n a n d m i s s i l e s i t e s .

I t r e q u i r e s n o h o r r o r s t o r i e s f r o m H a n o i r a d i o t o d e d u c e t h a t t h e d e s t r u c t i o n

a n d h u m a n s u f f e r i n g m u s t b e v e r y e x t e n s i v e i n d e e d . A n d t o w h a t e n d ?

O f f i c i a l s i n W a s h i n g t o n a n d S a i g o n h a v e s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e r a i d s a r e i n t e n d e d

t o d i s r u p t a C o m m u n i s t o f f e n s i v e . B u t m i l i t a r y m e n i n S a i g o n s a y t h e y h a v e s e e n

n o i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e a r e p r e p a r i n g f o r s u c h a s t r i k e .

A d m i n i s t r a t i o n s p o k e s m e n h a v e a l s o r e p o r t e d t h a t t h i s b r u t a l a s s a u l t i s i n -

t e n d e d t o c o n v e y t o N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e l e a d e r s P r e s i d e n t N i x o n ' s d i s p l e a s u r e o v e r

H a n o i ' s i n t r a n s i g e n c e a t t h e P a r i s p e a c e t a l k s . O n l y l a s t w e e k , h o w e v e r , a r e s p o n -

s i b l e A m e r i c a n o f f i c i a l i n P a r i s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e i m p a s s e c e n t e r e d o n P r e s i d e n t

T h i e u ' s i n s i s t e n c e , b a c k e d b y P r e s i d e n t N i x o n , t h a t a n y a g r e e m e n t s p e c i f i c a l l y

R e p r i n t e d b y p e r m i s s i o n f r o m t h e New York Times, December 22, 1972 ; ©1972 b y t h e

New York Times Company .

. 8 8



TERROR FROM THE SKIES 89

recognize Saigon's a uthority over all of South Vietnam . This amoun ts to a

d e m a n d t h a t t h e C o m m u n i s t s a c k n o w l e d g e a d e f e a t t h e y h a v e n o t s u f f e r e d o n t h e

b a t t l e f i e l d .

N o m a t t e r w h o i s t o b l a m e f o r t h e b r e a k d o w n i n t a l k s , t h e m a s s i v e , i n d i s c r i m i -

n a t e u s e o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ' o v e r w h e l m i n g a e r i a l m i g h t t o t r y t o i m p o s e a n

A m e r i c a n s o l u t i o n t o V i e t n a m ' s p o l i t i c a l p r o b l e m s i s t e r r o r i s m o n a n u n p r e c e -

d e n t e d s c a l e , a r e t r e a t f r o m d i p l o m a c y w h i c h t h i s n a t i o n w o u l d b e t h e f i r s t a n d

l o u d e s t t o c o n d e m n i f i t w e r e p r a c t i c e d b y a n y o t h e r m a j o r p o w e r . I n t h e n a m e o f

c o n s c i e n c e a n d c o u n t r y , A m e r i c a n s m u s t n o w s p e a k o u t f o r s a n i t y i n W a s h i n g t o n

a n d p e a c e i n I n d o c h i n a .



APPENDIX E

" Terror Bombing

In the Name of Pea ce"

A W a s hington Pos t E d i t o r i a l

December 28, 1972

How DID WE GET IN A FEW s h o r t w e e k s f r o m a p r o s p e c t f o r p e a c e t h a t

" y o u c a n b a n k o n , " i n t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s w o r d s , t o t h e m o s t s a v a g e a n d s e n s e l e s s a c t

o f w a r e v e r v i s i t e d , o v e r a s c a n t t e n d a y s , b y o n e s o v e r e i g n p e o p l e u p o n a n o t h e r ?

A n d p e r h a p s m o r e t o t h e p o i n t , w h a t i s t h e l o g i c a n d w h e r e a r e t h e l e s s o n s o f

h i s t o r y t h a t s a y w e c a n r u n t h i s r e e l b a c k w a r d a f t e r a t i m e a n d p r o c e e d f r o m t e r r o r

b o m b i n g t o " p e a c e " - t h a t t h e r e i s , i n o t h e r w o r d s , s o m e r a t i o n a l c a u s e a n d e f f e c t

h e r e , r u n n i n g e i t h e r w a y ?

T h e s a d , h a r d a n s w e r i s t h a t w h i l e t h e r e a r e f e w c o n c l u s i v e l e s s o n s f r o m h i s t o r y

i n t h i s m a t t e r , t h e s u p p o s e d " l o g i c " o f p r o c e e d i n g f r o m b a r g a i n i n g t o b o m b i n g

and back to bargaining, in the name of peace, ha s been f un damental to this

c o u n t r y ' s V i e t n a m s t r a t e g y o f " l i m i t e d w a r " b y " g r a d u a t e d r e s p o n s e " o v e r m o r e

t h a n e i g h t y e a r s a n d t w o a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s . I n t h e b e g i n n i n g , i t w a s a c c e p t e d , w i t h

p r e c i o u s l i t t l e p r o t e s t , b y D e m o c r a t s a n d R e p u b l i c a n s a l i k e ; a n d i t w a s q u i e t l y

a c q u i e s c e d i n b y a g o o d m a n y o f t h e p e o p l e w h o n o w t a l k o f " g e n o c i d e " a n d " w a r

c r i m e s " a n d o f t h e i n t o l e r a b l e " i m m o r a l i t y " o f o u r c u r r e n t p o l i c y .

T h a t w e r e c i t e t h i s b a c k g r o u n d i s i n n o w a y t o s u g g e s t t h a t w e t h i n k M r . N i x o n i s

s o m e h o w m a n d a t e d t o c o n t i n u e t o c o m p o u n d p a s t f o l l i e s . O n t h e c o n t r a r y , h a v i n g

p r o m i s e d u s s o m a n y t i m e s t o e n d t h i s w a r w i t h i n h i s f i r s t f o u r y e a r s a n d h a v i n g

f a i l e d s o d i s m a l l y , f o r a l l t h a t h e m i g h t h a v e l e a r n e d f r o m r e c e n t h i s t o r y , h e i s

u n d e r g r e a t e r o b l i g a t i o n t h a n a n y o f h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s w e r e t o r e - e v a l u a t e t h e

m i s s i o n , t o r e a s s e s s o u r c a p a b i l i t i e s , t o r e c o g n i z e o u r l i m i t a t i o n s - a n d t o c h a n g e

o u r s t r a t e g y . B u t t h e c h a n g e t h a t i s n e e d e d i s n o t l i k e l y t o b e e n c o u r a g e d b y

d e n o u n c i n g t h e h o r r o r n o w u n f o l d i n g i n t h e s k i e s o v e r N o r t h V i e t n a m a s s o m e -

t h i n g e n t i r e l y n e w a n d d i f f e r e n t a n d e s s e n t i a l l y N i x o n i a n . I f t h i s s t r a t e g y i s

c o n t r a r y t o a l l w e h o l d s a c r e d , i t w o u l d s e e m t o f o l l o w t h a t i n s o m e m e a s u r e i t

always was . I n s h o r t , w e a r e n o t g o i n g t o f i n d i t e a s y t o w o r k o u r w a y o u t o f a

t e n - y e a r - o l d w a r e f f o r t t h a t h a s d e m o n s t r a b l y f a i l e d o f i t s e a r l y h i g h h o p e s u n l e s s

R e p r i n t e d b y p e r m i s s i o n f r o m T h e W a s h i n g t o n P o s t , December 2 8 , 1 9 7 2 ; © T h e W a s h -

i n g t o n P o s t .

90



TERROR BOMBING IN THE NAME OF PEACE 9 1

w e a r e p r e p a r e d t o b e g i n b y a d m i t t i n g t h a t t h i s i s s o ; t h a t w e ar e a ll c a ug h t up , i n

o n e d e g r e e o r a n o t h e r , w i t h t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r a w a r p l a n g o n e h o r r i b l y w r o n g ;

t h a t t h i s c o u n t r y u n d e r t o o k a n e n t e r p r i s e i t c o u l d n o t h a n d l e , a t l e a s t i n a n y t i m e

f r a m e a n d a t a n y e x p e n d i t u r e o f l i v e s a n d r e s o u r c e s w o r t h y o f t h e o b j e c t i v e ; a n d

t h a t i t w o u l d b e t h e m a r k o f a b i g p o w e r t o c u t o u r l o s s e s a n d s e t t l e f o r t h e o n l y

r e a s o n a b l e o u t c o m e t h a t w e n o w m u s t k n o w c o u l d e v e r h a v e b e e n r e a l i s t i c a l l y

expected .

W e s h o u l d b e g i n , i n o t h e r w o r d s , n o t s i m p l y b y s h o u t i n g a b o u t t h e i m m o r a l i t y

o f w h a t w e a r e n o w d o i n g , b u t b y f i r s t a c k n o w l e d g i n g t h e t r a g i c i m p r a c t i c a l i t y o f

w h a t w e s e t o u t t o d o , a n d t h e e n o r m i t y o f t h e m i s c a l c u l a t i o n s a n d m i s j u d g m e n t s

t h a t h a v e b e e n m a d e , h o w e v e r h o n e s t l y , f r o m t h e v e r y s t a r t . F o r o n l y f r o m t h i s

a d m i s s i o n c a n w e p r o c e e d r a t i o n a l l y t o d e a l w i t h t h e m o n u m e n t a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n i n

t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s c u r r e n t s t r a t e g y . T h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n b e g i n s w i t h t h e a d m i n i s -

t r a t i o n ' s s e e m i n g i n s i s t e n c e o n a f u l l y - e n f o r c e a b l e , g u a r a n t e e d s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e

war on the old, familiar, original terms-"freedom" an d "independence" an d

" e n d u r i n g p e a c e " f o r S o u t h V i e t n a m ; a n y t h i n g s e r i o u s l y s h o r t o f t h a t , M r . N i x o n

w o u l d h a v e u s b e l i e v e , w o u l d b e a b j e c t s u r r e n d e r , t h e a b a n d o n m e n t o f a n a l l y ,

a n d a " s t a i n u p o n t h e h o n o r " o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .

L e a v i n g a s i d e t h e c l i c h e s w h i c h h a v e c o m e t o b e s o i n e v i t a b l y a p a r t o f e v e r y

s e r i o u s p r e s e n t a t i o n o f o u r p o l i c y , t h e r e a r e t w o t h i n g s t r a g i c a l l y w r o n g a b o u t t h i s

s t a t e m e n t o f o u r a i m s , a n d t h e f i r s t i s t h a t s u c h o b j e c t i v e s a r e d e m o n s t r a b l y

unobtainabl e . T h e v i o l e n t a n d e m b i t t e r e d c o n f l i c t t h a t h a s e n g u l f e d I n d o c h i n a f o r

s e v e r a l d e c a d e s i s n o t g o i n g t o b e " s e t t l e d " b y a n y p i e c e o f p a p e r t h a t D r . H e n r y

Kissinger coul d conceiva bl y persu ade both North and South Vietnam to sign .

T h a t i s t h e l o u d l e s s o n o f t h e c o l l a p s e o f t h e l a s t p e a c e p l a n ; i t a s k e d t o o m u c h o f a

s i t u a t i o n w h i c h c a n o n l y b e r e s o l v e d i n a m b i g u i t y . S u c h i s t h e c o n f l i c t o f p u r p o s e

o n b o t h s i d e s , i n f a c t , t h a t i t c a n f a i r l y b e s a i d t h a t i n n e g o t i a t i n g a " s e t t l e m e n t " w e

a r e i n f a c t m e r e l y w r i t i n g t h e r u l e s o f e n g a g e m e n t f o r a c o n t i n u i n g s t r u g g l e f o r

c o n t r o l o f S o u t h V i e t n a m b y o t h e r l e s s o p e n l y m i l i t a r y m e a n s .

S o w e a r e n o t t a l k i n g a b o u t " p e a c e , " a n d s t i l l l e s s a b o u t " a b a n d o n i n g a n a l l y , "

f o r t h e r e c a n b e n o r e s o l u t i o n o f t h e f i g h t i n g w h i c h w i l l n o t p r e s e n t e a c h s i d e b o t h

w i t h r i s k s a n d w i t h o p p o r t u n i t i e s o f l o s i n g - o r w i n n i n g - i n l a r g e m e a s u r e w h a t

e a c h h a s b e e n f i g h t i n g f o r . T o p r e t e n d t h a t w e a r e d o i n g o t h e r w i s e - t h a t w e a r e

making "end uring peace" by c arpet-bombing our way ac ross downtown Hanoi

w i t h B - 5 2 s - i s t o p r a c t i c e y e t o n e m o r e c r u e l d e c e p t i o n u p o n a n A m e r i c a n p u b l i c

a l r e a d y c r u e l l y d e c e i v e d . I t i s , i n b r i e f , t o c o m p o u n d w h a t i s p e r h a p s t h e r e a l

i m m o r a l i t y o f t h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s p o l i c y - t h e c o n t i n u i n g r e a d i n e s s t o d i s s e m -

b l e ; t o t a l k o f " m i l i t a r y t a r g e t s " w h e n w h a t w e a r e h i t t i n g a r e r e s i d e n t i a l c e n t e r s

a n d h o s p i t a l s a n d c o m m e r c i a l a i r p o r t s ; t o s p e a k o f o u r d e d i c a t i o n t o t h e r e t u r n o f

o u r P O W s a n d o u r m i s s i n g i n a c t i o n e v e n w h i l e w e a d d m o r e t h a n s e v e n t y t o t h e i r

n u m b e r i n l i t t l e m o r e t h a n a w e e k .

W e t h i n k t h e A m e r i c a n p e o p l e c o u l d f a c e t h e t r u t h o f h o w l i t t l e t h e r e i s w e c a n

real ly count on ac complishing in Vietnam-if they were to hear it from the

P r e s i d e n t . B u t w e h a v e n o t h e a r d f r o m t h e P r e s i d e n t - n o t s i n c e " p e a c e w a s a t



92 TERROR BOMBING IN THE NAME OF PEACE

hand. " Instead , we hav e heard f rom su rrogates and spokesmen an d military

headq ua rters, cryptical ly , about the loss of men an d aircraft a nd the al leged

m i l i t a r y s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e r a i d s . It is from others, a roun d the world , that w e hear

ab out the hav oc our bombers a re wreaking on innocent civilians with the heav iest

aerial onsl au ght of this or any other war . All this we are presumabl y d oing to

redeem the "h onor of America," a nd th is is the second pa rt of w ha t's wrong-a nd

contradictory-ab out the President's b ombing policy . F or it is h ard to envisa ge

an y settlement that we could realistica ll y hope to negotiate wh ich coul d ju stify the

effort now being expended to ac hieve it or was h a wa y the stains on this country's

honor of the pas t ten da ys .



APPENDIX F

Commentary by Eric Sev areid

CBS Ev ening News

December 29, 1972

AN INNOVATTON OF THISa d m i n i s t r a t i o n h a s b e e n t h e a n n u a l s t a t e - o f -

t h e - w o r l d m e s s a g e . L a s t w i n t e r t h i s N i x o n - K i s s i n g e r d o c u m e n t s a i d : " V i e t n a m

n o l o n g e r d i s t r a c t s o u r a t t e n t i o n f r o m t h e f u n d a m e n t a l i s s u e s o f g l o b a l d i p l o m a c y

o r d i v e r t s o u r e n e r g i e s f r o m p r i o r i t i e s a t h o m e . " T h a t i s t h e w a y i t w a s b e g i n n i n g

t o l o o k t h e n . T h e r e w e r e t h e g i a n t s t e p s t a k e n t o w a r d C h i n a a n d R u s s i a , a n d t h e

r e l e n t l e s s p e a c e n e g o t i a t i o n s i n P a r i s i n a n a t m o s p h e r e o f d r a m a , t h e n e l a t i o n ,

t h e n n o t h i n g .

T h e y e a r e n d s i n t h e s t a r k e s t o f c o n t r a s t s w i t h a g r a p h i c d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f t h e

t w o d e e p - s e a t e d p a r a d o x i c a l s t r e a m s i n t h e A m e r i c a n p o l i t i c a l t e m p e r w h i c h s o

p u z z l e s t h e w o r l d - k i n d n e s s a n d b e l l i g e r e n c e . T h e P r e s i d e n t h a s o r d e r e d a n

a l l - o u t e f f o r t t o s a v e t h e l i v e s o f t h e s t r i c k e n p e o p l e o f M a n a g u a r i g h t a f t e r h i s

o r d e r f o r a n a l l - o u t b o m b i n g o f V i e t n a m ' s i n d u s t r i a l b a s e , w h i c h h a s t o m e a n t h e

m a s s k i l l i n g o f c i v i l i a n s . H o w m a n y w e d o n o t k n o w , b u t a g o v e r n m e n t s t u d y t h r e e

y e a r s a g o e s t i m a t e d t h a t a t t h e p e a k o f o u r b o m b i n g o f N o r t h V i e t n a m i n p r e v i o u s

y e a r s , a b o u t a t h o u s a n d p e o p l e w e r e k i l l e d o r i n j u r e d e a c h w e e k . T h e m o s t

i n t e n s i v e b o m b i n g c a m p a i g n s i n t h a t ' 6 5 - ' 6 8 p e r i o d d i d n o t m a t c h t h e i n t e n s i t y o f

t h e c u r r e n t c a m p a i g n .

C o n g r e s s m e n a r e b e g i n n i n g t o f i l t e r b a c k t o W a s h i n g t o n , a n d t h e i r q u e s t i o n s

a r e n o w f i l l i n g t h e n e w s v a c u u m h e r e . I s i t p o s s i b l e t o g e t w h a t t h e P r e s i d e n t c a l l s

a n h o n o r a b l e p e a c e b y d i s h o n o r a b l e m e a n s ? H o w i s i t p o s s i b l e t o p r e s e r v e

A m e r i c a n l e a d e r s h i p a n d c r e d i b i l i t y i n t h e w o r l d , w h i c h t h e P r e s i d e n t s a y s i s t h e

i m p o r t a n t g o a l , w h e n t h e m o r a l b a s e f o r t h a t n a t i o n a l p o s t u r e i s b e i n g h a c k e d

awa y? Wh en Mr. N i x o n s p e a k s o u t , a s h e w i l l h a v e t o d o s o o n , w e m a y a l l k n o w

m o r e t h a n w e d o a b o u t w h a t w e n t w r o n g a n d w h a t o p t i o n s r e m a i n .

I f p r o d u c t i v e n e g o t i a t i o n s a r e n o t r e s u m e d , t h r e e a l t e r n a t i v e s o c c u r t o o b s e r -

v e r s h e r e . O n e i s m o r e p u n i s h i n g o f N o r t h V i e t n a m . T h e s e c o n d i s j u s t t o g e t o u t

w i t h n o n e g o t i a t e d a g r e e m e n t a t a l l , k e e p i n g a i r p o w e r i n T h a i l a n d a n d o f f e r i n g

e c o n o m i c h e l p t o H a n o i i n a c a r r o t - a n d - s t i c k a p p r o a c h t o g e t t h e p r i s o n e r s h o m e .

A n d i t m a y b e s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t c e r t a i n w r i t e r s w h o h a v e g e n e r a l l y a p p r o v e d t h e

© 1 9 7 2 , C B S I n c o r p o r a t e d ; a l l r i g h t s r e s e r v e d .

9 3



94 COMMENTARY BY ERIC SEVAREID

a d m i n i s t r a t i o n l i n e a r e n o w s u g g e s t i n g t h i s , e v e n t h o u g h w e ' v e a l l b e e n t o l d f o r

y e a r s t h a t a n e g o t i a t e d p o l i t i c a l s e t t l e m e n t w a s t h e o n l y w a y . T h e t h i r d c o n c e i v -

a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e i s f o r t h e P r e s i d e n t t o l e t t h e C o n g r e s s t a k e t h e b a l l a n d t h e

p r o b l e m a w a y f r o m h i m b y v o t i n g t o c u t o f f t h e w a r f u n d s .

T h e r e w i l l b e s u c h a c o n g r e s s i o n a l e f f o r t i n a n y c a s e . A l r e a d y s o m e s e n a t o r s a r e

r e s u r r e c t i n g a n o l d a n d b a s i c p o i n t - a r g u i n g t h a t t h e P r e s i d e n t h a s n o l e g a l

a u t h o r i t y f o r m a k i n g w a r . T h e T o n k i n G u l f r e s o l u t i o n h a s b e e n r e p e a l e d . T h e

au thority th e President ha s b een going on is the inherent right of the

Commander-in-Chief to protect American troops . V e r y f e w s u c h t r o o p s r e m a i n

i n V i e t n a m , a n d t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e i r s a f e t y a n d t h e H a n o i b o m b i n g h a s

n o t b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d .



APPENDIX G

" Ab ou t th e Bombin g"

A W a l l S t r e e t J o u r n a l Editorial

December 27,1972

WE THINK THERE ARE CERTAIN p o i n t e d q u e s t i o n s t o b e a s k e d a b o u t t h e

r e n e w e d b o m b i n g o f N o r t h V i e t n a m , b u t i t s e e m s t o u s i n t e l l i g e n t q u e s t i o n i n g

o u g h t t o s t a r t b y r e c o g n i z i n g t h a t M r . N i x o n w a s r i g h t a b o u t C a m b o d i a a n d r i g h t

ab out Haiphong .

T h e i n v a s i o n o f t h e C a m b o d i a n s a n c t u a r i e s , s o w i d e l y a n d w i l d l y d e c r i e d a t t h e

t i m e , s p e e d e d t h e n o w n e a r l y c o m p l e t e w i t h d r a w a l o f A m e r i c a n g r o u n d t r o o p s .

The mining of Haiphong an d a ss ociated bombings in the North helped, wh en

combined with th e peacefu l overtures to Peking a nd Moscow, to bring North

V i e t n a m i n t o t h e f i r s t t r u l y s e r i o u s n e g o t i a t i o n s o f t h e w a r . I n b o t h c a s e s t h e

P r e s i d e n t ' s b o l d m i l i t a r y g a m b l e s u l t i m a t e l y c o n t r i b u t e d n o t t o e x p a n d i n g t h e w a r

bu t to winding it down . T h u s i t s e e m s t o u s f o o l i s h t o d i s m i s s e n t i r e l y t h e

p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t h e m a y b e l u c k y a t h i r d t i m e .

M a n y o f t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s c r i t i c s m a d e u p t h e i r m i n d s i n 1 9 6 7 a n d h a v e n o t b e e n

p a y i n g a t t e n t i o n s i n c e . S o t h e i r s t a r t i n g p r e m i s e i s n o t t h a t t h e H a i p h o n g m i n i n g

a n d b o m b i n g w o r k e d , b u t t h a t b o m b i n g i s a n u t t e r l y d i s c r e d i t e d a n d w o r t h l e s s

i n s t r u m e n t. A n y o n e s t a r t i n g w i t h t h i s p r e m i s e p r o c e e d s n a t u r a l l y t o " b a r b a r i s m , "

" s t o n e - a g e , " " s h a m e , " a n d t h e o t h e r t i r e s o m e r h e t o r i c w e h a v e h e a r d t h i s l a s t

w eek. O f c o u r s e t h e b o m b i n g i s i m m o r a l i f t h e f i r s t g i v e n c o n d i t i o n i s t h a t i t h a s n o

h o p e o f s p e e d i n g t h e e n d o f t h e w a r . B u t w h e t h e r i t w i l l s p e e d t h e e n d o f t h e w a r i s

n o t a " g i v e n " b u t t h e i s s u e i t s e l f .

A f t e r a l l t h a t i s s a i d , o f c o u r s e , t h e r e r e m a i n s p l e n t y o f r o o m f o r q u e s t i o n i n g .

O n e p e r t i n e n t l i n e o f i n q u i r y c o n c e r n s t h e p r e c i s e r a t i o n a l e f o r t h e b o m b i n g . T h e

a d m i n i s t r a t i o n h a s b e e n e x c e p t i o n a l l y s i l e n t o n t h i s i s s u e , a n d t h e b o m b i n g s c a m e

s o s u d d e n l y e v e n s o m e o f t h e u s u a l s u p p o r t e r s a r e w o n d e r i n g w h e t h e r i n f a c t

t h e r e i s a c o g e n t r a t i o n a l e b e h i n d t h e m , o r w h e t h e r t h e y a r e c h i e f l y a n e x p r e s s i o n

o f f r u s t r a t i o n .

E s p e c i a l l y s o s i n c e , c o n t r a r y t o t h e s t y l e o f M r . N i x o n ' s p r e v i o u s m i l i t a r y

m o v e s , t h e p r e s u m e d p u r p o s e o f t h e r a i d s c a n n o t b e a c c o m p l i s h e d u n i l a t e r a l l y .

T h e i n v a s i o n o f C a m b o d i a n e u t r a l i z e d t h e s a n c t u a r i e s , t h e m i n i n g o f H a i p h o n g

c l o s e d t h e p o r t , r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e C o m m u n i s t r e a c t i o n . S u c c e s s i n t h e n e w b o m b -

R e p r i n t e d b y p e r m i s s i o n f r o m t h e Wal l Street Journal , December 27,1972 ; ©Dow Jones

a n d C o m p a n y , I n c o r p o r a t e d , 1972 ; a l l r i g h t s r e s e r v e d .

9 5



96 ABOUT THE BOMBING

i n g s d e p e n d s o n a r e a c t i o n f r o m H a n o i , n a m e l y t h e r e t u r n t o s e r i o u s n e g o t i a t i o n .

Wha t will Mr . N i x o n d o i f t h i s r e a c t i o n i s n o t f o r t h c o m i n g ? H a v e t h e r a i d s

f o r e c l o s e d m o r e o p t i o n s t h a n t h e y h a v e o p e n e d ?

A second a nd even more importan t line of qu estioning c oncerns American

p u r p o s e s a t t h i s j u n c t u r e . A t h i s p r e s s c o n f e r e n c e j u s t b e f o r e t h e b o m b i n g w a s

r e s u m e d , H e n r y K i s s i n g e r t a l k e d q u i t e a b i t a b o u t w a n t i n g a s e t t l e m e n t t h a t i s

" m o r e t h a n a n a r m i s t i c e , " a n d r e f u s i n g o n e t h a t i s " a d i s g u i s e d f o r m o f c o n t i n u e d

w a r f a r e . " W e w o n d e r w h e t h e r t h i s r e p r e s e n t s a n e s c a l a t i o n o f A m e r i c a n p u r p o s e s

i n t h e c o n c l u d i n g s t a g e s o f t h e w a r .

I s t h e p u r p o s e a c t u a l l y t o s e t t l e t h e w a r a n d b r i n g p e a c e t o I n d o c h i n a ? I s t h a t

wh y the bombing is necess ary? W e have us ua ll y taken the objective of Mr .

N i x o n ' s V i e t n a m i z a t i o n p o l i c y t o b e s e c u r i n g a n h o n o r a b l e A m e r i c a n e x i t f r o m

t h e w a r , w i t h t h e u l t i m a t e o u t c o m e t o b e d e t e r m i n e d b y s o m e k i n d o f s t r u g g l e

b e t w e e n t h e V i e t n a m e s e p a r t i e s . W e h a v e t h o u g h t , a n d c o n t i n u e t o t h i n k , t h a t a n

o b j e c t i v e o f g u a r a n t e e i n g p e a c e i s a n u n r e a l i s t i c o n e , g i v e n t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e

c o n f l i c t , a n d b y f a r a n o v e r l y a m b i t i o u s o n e , g i v e n t h e c o s t o f t h e w a r t o A m e r i c a n

s o c i e t y .

I t ' s e a s y t o p u t t o o f i n e a p o i n t o n t h i s d i f f e r e n c e , o f c o u r s e , s i n c e a n y n e g o t i a -

t i o n s t h a t w o u l d a l l o w a n A m e r i c a n e x i t w o u l d i n e v i t a b l y b e c o m e i n v o l v e d w i t h

t h e g r o u n d r u l e s f o r a n e n s u i n g s t r u g g l e . And even Mr. K i s s i n g e r t o l d u s r e l a t i v e l y

l i t t l e a b o u t t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f n e g o t i a t i o n t h a t p r o v i d e s t h e c o n t e x t f o r t h e

renew ed bombing. L a c k i n g k n o w l e d g e o f t h e d e t a i l s o f t h a t b a c k g r o u n d , w e f i n d

o u r s e l v e s n o t s o m u c h d i s t r a u g h t a s p u z z l e d , n o t c o n d e m n i n g b u t q u e s t i o n i n g .

T h e n e g o t i a t i o n s c a m e s o c l o s e t o a s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e w a r t h e s e p a s t f e w m o n t h s

i t i s a l m o s t u n i m a g i n a b l e i t w i l l n o w s l i p a w a y , o r w o u l d b e a l m o s t u n i m a g i n a b l e

w e r e i t n o t f o r t h e l o n g h i s t o r y o f t r a g e d y i n V i e t n a m . W e c a n o n l y h o p e t h a t t h e

l a t e s t b o m b i n g i s n o t t h e o p e n i n g o f a n e w c h a p t e r i n t h a t t r a g e d y b u t a s t e p i n t h e

d e n o u e m e n t o f t h e o l d o n e . M r . N i x o n ' s s u c c e s s w i t h h i s f i r s t t w o g a m b l e s s u g g e s t s

t h a t h o p e i s n o t a n i m p o s s i b l e o n e , b u t w e c e r t a i n l y p r a y t h a t h i s l u c k d o e s n o t t u r n

s o u r t h e t h i r d t i m e a r o u n d .



APPENDIXH

"The Peace That Wa sn't"

F rom Th e Economist (London)

Dec ember 2 3,197 2

THERE IS NO REASON THAT A LIBERAL sh ould acc ept wh y the two Viet-

nams ought to be reun ited un til it has been sh own tha t a maj ority of th e people in

b o t h o f t h e m , o r a t l e a s t o f t h o s e i n t h e s o u t h , w i s h i t t o b e s o . Until that happens, a

liberal woul d ad d, South Vietnam sh ould ha ve a government of its own b as ed on

some sort of reasona bl y a ccu rate measu rement of the preferenc es of the South

Vietna mese . Most people in the w est woul d a ccept those principles ; a f t e r a l l , i t i s

wha t they say about that other divided nation, Germany , and they would be

outraged if one ha lf of German y s ent its army into the other hal f in order to insist

on pu tting its own preferred sort of government into power there . The d ifference

in Vietnam is th e reluc tanc e of s o man y people to apply these principles as the

necessa ry test of the terms on wh ich the wa r is ended . It w as imprecision in

applying this test tha t led Mr . Kiss inger to sa y on October 26th tha t "peace is at

han d," wh en it turns out that it was not . The s ame imprecision is n ow making

many bone-weary people sa y tha t he coul d n evertheless embrace in December

the conseq uenc es of wha t he let his eye slide over too easil y in October .

By sending h is bombers ba ck north of the twentieth paral lel th is week, and

losing q uite a l ot of them, President Nixon ha s reverted to the argu ment of force to

end the war . He is us ing the means at his d isposal , as th e North Vietna mese us ed

the mean s a t their disposal wh en they s ent their army over the seventeenth

paral lel in the spring . Th ey employed th e firepower carried by their army ; h e i s

u s i n g t h e f i r e p o w e r o f h i s a i r f o r c e . The pictures from An Loc an d Qu an g Tri sh ow

tha t there is not much difference between them in wha t they do to the pla ces

where the artill ery s hell s or the bombs fal l . But there is a f un damental d ifference,

and it shoul d b e recognized, between the purposes for which Mr . Nixon and the

North Vietnamese politbu ro are us ing the diff erent sorts of power av aila bl e to

them. Mr. Nixon is u sing the argument of force to try to get the North Vietnamese

to ag ree that the next government of South Vietnam sh oul d be ch osen by a more

or les s violence-f ree election . Th e North Vietna mese a re usin g their sort of f orce

to try to insist th at tha t government shoul d itself be the produc t of the further

violence wh ich they a nd their friends in th e south w ould bring to bear after a

Reprinted by permiss ion from The Economist, London, December 23, 197 2 .

97



98 THE PEACE THAT WASN'T

nomina l ceas efire . These are the two very d ifferent meanings tha t la y c oncealed

beneath the skin of the ag reement tha t seemed so cl ose in October .

Mr. Kiss inger, and those wh o hoped he wa s right, had their eyes fixed on the

pass age in cla us e 4 of the agreement which s aid that " the internal matters" of

South Vietnam were to be settl ed between " the two South Vietnamese parties . "

By sa ying th at, North Vietna m seemed to be renou nc ing its own cl aim to decide

wha t should happen in the south ; a nd if the North Vietna mese kept out of it al l

there was l ittle doubt tha t the non-c ommunists w ould win a l arge maj ority in the

election President Thieu ha s long been offering to hold af ter the ceas efire . I t i s

true, of course, tha t cl au se 1 of the a greement paid du e respect to the unity of

Vietnam . But it was h oped that that w as the equ ival ent of the letter the west

German s h av e sent to the east German s a bout German u nity, a formal bu t at the

moment non-operative remind er of their right to bring th e su bj ect up a ga in la ter

on. If North Vietnam carried out its promise (cl au se 7) to withdraw its troops from

Laos and Cambodia, an d if its men in South Vietnam ha d a real team of truce

su pervisors w atch ing over them, it seemed th at th e North Vietnamese army cou ld

be more or les s n eutral ised . And f rom 1965 onwa rds th e removal of the North

Vietnamese intervention ha s b een the main argu ment u sed to ju stify the Ameri-

ca n intervention .

That wa s th e pattern Henry Kiss inger thought h e saw in the agreement, but Le

Duc Tho pla inly s aw a different one . It ha s b een known f or some time-f rom

Cosv n- 6, the docu ment the c ommunist h eadq ua rters issu ed in mid-September-

that th e Vietcong ha s b een tell ing its men to organise u ndercover sq ua ds for a

campaign of "tyrant elimination, ab du ction a nd ass as sination" after the ceasefire .

Mr. Thieu's a rmy a nd police force coul d proba bl y c ope with tha t if North Viet-

nam's fou rteen regul ar divisions reall y did s tay out of the war . Bu t the sort of

interna tiona l inspection sy stem the North Vietna mese tu rn out to ha ve b een

ca ll ing for makes it highly un likely that they ever intended to stay out of it . They

apparently proposed a total of 250 men for the whole of Indochina, only hal f of

wh om woul d ac tual ly b e al lowed to trav el around the coun tryside, and even those

few w ould ha ve ha d to rely for transport on the people they w anted to inspect .

TWO STATES IN ONE NATION

It would be a ba d joke, if the old control c ommiss ion s et up in 1954 h ad not

stopped people la ugh ing about s upervisors w ho su pervise nothing . Such a handfu l

of inspectors coul d n ot poss ibly know wh at General Giap's men were doing in

South Vietna m, let alone check that th ey ha d got out of Laos and Cambodia . T h i s

is not the proposal of men w ho, in the Guardian's bl and phrase on Wednesday,

"know tha t they . . . can not win ." It seems only too likely th at North Vietna m's

lead ers w an ted nobody wa tching their army wh ile it pursued its own d efinition of

victory in the south a fter the la st American h ad l eft . The qu estion of the su pervis-

ory force is not in itself the one las t decision that Mr . K issinger says the North

Vietnamese still ha ve to take . T h a t d e c i s i o n i s t o l e a v e t h e p o l i t i c s o f t h e s o u t h t o

the south erners, within the procedu res a lready agreed to in October ; but the



THE PEACE THAT WASN'T 99

powers of the supervisors are a decisively important test of whether North

V i e t n a m i s r e a l l y r e a d y f o r t h a t .

Wh at Mr . N i x o n i s s t i l l t r y i n g t o g e t i s t h e V i e t n a m e s e v e r s i o n o f w h a t H e r r

B r a n d t h a s s e t t l e d f o r i n G e r m a n y - t h e a c c e p t a n c e b y N o r t h V i e t n a m ' s l e a d e r s

t h a t t h e r e a r e " t w o s t a t e s w i t h i n o n e n a t i o n . " T h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e w e n t p a r t o f

t h e w a y t o a c c e p t i n g t h a t i n O c t o b e r , w h e n t h e y d r o p p e d t h e i d e a t h a t t h e U n i t e d

States should remove Mr . T h i e u f r o m p o w e r , a n d p u t a c o a l i t i o n g o v e r n m e n t i n

h i s p l a c e , b e f o r e t h e y w o u l d a g r e e t o a c e a s e f i r e . B u t t h e y w i l l s t i l l b e e v a d i n g t h e

c e n t r a l i s s u e s o l o n g a s t h e y r e f u s e t o a c c e p t a n y r e a l l i m i t a t i o n s o n w h a t t h e i r

a r m y c a n d o a f t e r a c e a s e f i r e . P e r h a p s t h e y a r e t r y i n g t o t a k e a d v a n t a g e o f t h e

difficu lt moment Mr . N i x o n h a s c r e a t e d f o r h i m s e l f j u s t b e f o r e C h r i s t m a s , b y

a l l o w i n g t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s o f p e a c e t o o u t r u n r e a l i t y a n d t h e w i v e s a n d m o t h e r s t o

t h i n k t h a t t h e A m e r i c a n p r i s o n e r s w e r e a s g o o d a s h o m e . P e r h a p s t h e y b e l i e v e

t h a t t h e n e w S e n a t e , w i t h t w o m o r e D e m o c r a t s i n i t , w i l l c u t o f f f u n d s f o r t h e w a r .

B u t t h e y k n o w t h a t , i f t h a t d o e s n o t h a p p e n , M r . N i x o n i s p r e t t y w e l l f r e e f r o m

p o l i t i c a l c o n s t r a i n t s a t h o m e u n t i l 1 9 7 4 o r 1 9 7 5 , w h e n h e w i l l w a n t t o s t a r t m a k i n g

h i s p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r A m e r i c a ' s b i c e n t e n a r y ; a n d a l t h o u g h h e i s n o t g o i n g t o m a k e

i t h i s p o l i c y t o b o m b t h e m b a c k i n t o t h e s t o n e a g e - t h a t b r u t a l p h r a s e u s e d y e a r s

a g o b y o n e f o o l i s h A m e r i c a n g e n e r a l , a n d s o o f t e n p u t i n t o o t h e r A m e r i c a n s '

m o u t h s s i n c e t h e n - h e c a n c a u s e a g r e a t d e a l o f d a m a g e t o N o r t h V i e t n a m . T h e y

h a v e t h e i r c a l c u l a t i o n s t o m a k e .

THE BREZHNEV CALCULATION

So do the Russians . W hat happens now will be a meas ure of w hether there

r e a l l y i s a n e w r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e S o v i e t U n i o n a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . I t i s

R u s s i a n - s u p p l i e d m i s s i l e s , a n d R u s s i a n t r a i n i n g i n u s i n g t h e m , t h a t s h o t d o w n s i x

B-52s by Thursday ; s i n c e t h e B - 5 2 s s e e m e d a l m o s t i n v u l n e r a b l e u n t i l r e c e n t l y , i t

i s e v e n p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e e q u i p m e n t w h i c h b r o u g h t t h e m d o w n w a s s e n t i n t o N o r t h

V i e t n a m d u r i n g t h e t w o - m o n t h h a l t o f b o m b i n g n o r t h o f t h e t w e n t i e t h p a r a l l e l . I t

i s a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y R u s s i a n o i l p u m p e d i n o v e r t h e C h i n e s e b o r d e r t h a t k e e p s

N o r t h V i e t n a m ' s w a r m a c h i n e i n a c t i o n .

There is a ss umed to be a tacit un derstanding between Mr . Nixon a nd Mr .

Brezh nev . I f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s p r o v i d e s t h e h e l p t h a t R u s s i a n e e d s t o o v e r c o m e

t h e i n e f f i c i e n c y o f i t s e c o n o m y , a n d u n d e r w r i t e s t h e p o l i t i c a l d i v i s i o n o f E u r o p e ,

t h e a s s u m p t i o n i s t h a t t h e S o v i e t U n i o n w i l l h e l p , a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s , t o e n d t h e

Vietna m war in a w ay compatible with Mr . N i x o n ' s d e f i n i t i o n o f p e a c e w i t h

honour . I t i s h a r d t o i m a g i n e M r . N i x o n q u i e t l y p r o c e e d i n g w i t h h i s p a r t o f t h a t

u n d e r s t a n d i n g i f t h e R u s s i a n s c o n t i n u e t o h e l p t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e t o m a k e t h e

o t h e r p a r t i m p o s s i b l e : i f t h e c e n t r e p i e c e o f M r . N i x o n ' s s e c o n d t e r m h a s t o b e a

c h o i c e b e t w e e n c o n t i n u e d w a r i n V i e t n a m a n d t h e a c c e p t a n c e o f d e f e a t . T h a t i s

not how Mr . N i x o n w a n t e d h i s n e x t f o u r y e a r s t o b e . T h e V i e t n a m w a r s t r e t c h e s

o u t i t s c o n s e q u e n c e s i n t o m a n y p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d . T h a t i s w h y i t h a s b e e n s o l o n g

a n d t e r r i b l e a w a r , a n d w h y i t i s s o d i f f i c u l t t o e n d ; and wh y Mr . B r e z h n e v , o n

r e f l e c t i o n , m a y n o t c h o o s e t o u s e i t a s a r u g t o w h i p f r o m u n d e r M r . N i x o n ' s f e e t .



Index of Names

ABC, 5,18,19, 4 2

A l s o p , S t e w a r t , 5 1

A m e r i c a n A s s o c i a t i o n f o r t h e

A d v a n c e m e n t o f S c i e n c e , 2 2 - 2 3

A m i r ( s o n o f I n d i a n o f f i c i a l ) , 2 8

An Duong, 26

A n L o c , 8 , 5 7

Arbu ckle, Tammy, 58

A r m s t r o n g , H a m i l t o n F i s h , 4 1

A s a h i , 36

A s s o c i a t e d P r e s s , 5 5

A u r o r e , L ' , 36

A u s p i t z , J o s i a h L e e , 5 1

A u s t r a l i a , 3 4

B a b i Y a r , 3 6

B a c h M a i h o s p i t a l , 2 4 - 2 8 , 5 6 , 5 8 , 5 9

B a l t i m o r e S u n , 58

B a n g l a d e s h , 3 4

B e l g i u m , 3 5

B e r g e r , M a r i l y n , 3 8

B e r l i n , W e s t , 3 4 , 3 7

B e r r i g a n , P h i l i p , 4 1

B i n h , M m e N g u y e n T h i , 2 1 , 3 8 , 3 9

B o s t o n G l o b e , 4 1

B r a d y , P h i l , 2 6 , 2 8

B r e z h n e v , L e o n i d , 8 , 3 5

B r o n f m a n , F r e d , 5 1

B r o o k e , E d w a r d , 4 1

Browne, Malc olm W . , 5 7 , 5 8

B u c k l e y , W i l l i a m F . , 4 1

B u e n o s A i r e s , 3 7

Cambodia, 34

C a n a d a , 3 4

C a s e , C l i f f o r d , 4 1

C a s t r o , F i d e l , 3 5

C B S , 5 , 1 5 , 1 8 , 2 0 - 2 2 , 2 6 , 2 7 , 3 0 , 3 1 ,

3 4 , 4 0 , 4 1 , 4 4 , 5 2 , 6 4 - 6 6

C h i n a , P e o p l e' s R e j u b li c o f , 3 , 7 , 8 , 3 4 ,

37- 39,50

C h i P e n g - f e i , 3 8 , 3 9

C h o u E n - l a i , 3 8 , 6 6

C o d e o f B r o a d c a s t N e w s E t h i c s , 4

C o v e n t r y , 2 3

C e n t r a l H i g h l a n d s , 7

C l a u s e w i t z , C o u n t v o n , 6 8

C r a w f o r d , K e n n e t h , 5 0

C r o n k i t e , W a l t e r , 2 6 , 3 1 , 3 5 , 4 4

D a i l y M i r r o r ( L o n d o n ) , 1 7 , 3 5

D a i l y T e l e g r a p h ( L o n d o n ) , 1 7

DeHann , Dal e S . , 5 9

Denmark, 34

D M Z ( D e m i l i t a r i z e d Z o n e ) , 1 1 , 1 9 , 2 0

D r e s d e n , 3 , 2 3 , 4 9

D r i n a n , R o b e r t , 4 1

E c o n o m i s t , T h e ( L o n d o n ) , 3 6

E i s e n d r a t h , M a u r i c e , 4 1

E n g l a n d , 3 6

E x p r e s s , L ' , 36

Federal Commun ications Commission

( F C C ) , 4 , 4 4

F i g a r o , L e , 36

F i n l a n d , 3 4

F r a n c e , 2 2 , 3 6

F r a n k f u r t e r A l l g e m e i n e Z e i t u n g , 36

F r i e d h e i m , J e r r y , 2 4

G a l s t o n , A r t h u r , 2 2

G e l b , L e s l i e , 4 7

G e r m a n y , W e s t , 3 4 , 3 6 , 5 4

G i a L a m , 2 5 , 2 9

G i a p , V o N g u y e n ( G e n e r a l ) , 2 2

G u e r n i c a , 2 3 , 3 6 , 4 7

H a i g , A l e x a n d e r , 6 2

H a i p h o n g , 1 , 6 , 8 , 1 0 , 1 2 , 2 3 , 2 5 , 3 0 , 3 1 ,

3 2 , 4 2 , 4 6 , 5 4 , 5 5 , 6 9

Hamburg, 3

H a n o i , 1 , 6 , 8 , 1 2 , 1 9 , 2 3 - 3 2 , 4 2 , 4 6 , 4 9 ,

54- 60,69

H a r r i m a n , A v e r e l l , 4 1

Hayd en, Tom, 21

H e b e r t , F . E d w a r d , 4 0

H i r o s h i m a , 4 2 , 4 6 , 4 9

H o n g , T r a n D u y , 5 5

H o p e , B o b , 4 1

H u g h e s , H a r o l d , 4 1 , 4 2

Humphrey, Hubert, 41

10 1



1 0 2 INDEX OF NAMES

I n d i a , 3 4

I n d o c h i n a , 4 6

I n s t i t u t e o f D e f e n s e A n a l y s i s , 2 1

I r a n , 1 1

J a p a n , 3 6 , 5 4

J a v i t s , J a c o b, 2 2 , 4 1 , 4 2

J e n k i n s , R o y , 3 5

K a t y n , 3 6

K e n n e d y , E d w a r d , 4 1 , 5 9

K h a m T h i e n , 2 6 , 3 3 , 5 8 , 5 9

K h e S a n h , 5 7

Kim No, 56

K i r k p a t r i c k , C a r r o l l , 1 8

K i s s in g e r , H e n r y, 2 , 4 , 6 , 7 , 9 , 1 1 , 1 3 ,

1 5 , 1 6 , 1 8 - 2 0 , 4 5 , 4 7 , 4 8 , 5 0 - 5 2 ,

60-62,66

K o c h , E d w a r d , 4 1

L a i r d , M e l v i n , 1 5

L a k e , A n t h o n y , 4 7

L e , N g u y e n T r i n h , 2 1

L e f e v e r , E r n e s t W . , 5 n

L e w i s , A n t h o n y , 4 0 , 4 7 , 4 9

L e w y , G u e n t e r , 5 6

L i d i c e , 3 6

L i v i n g s t o n , D a v i d , 2 1

L o n d o n , 3 7 , 4 0

L o s A n g e l e s T i m e s , 41

L u r i a , S a l v a d o r e , 2 2

M c G o v e r n , G e o r g e , 9 , 4 1 , 4 2 , 5 0 , 5 1

M a i n i c h i , 36

M a n s f i e l d , M i k e , 4 1 , 4 2

M a r d e r , M u r r a y , 3 4 , 5 1

M a t h i a s , C h a r l e s , 4 1 , 4 3

M i d d l e t o n , D r e w , 5 9

M i l w a u k e e J o u r n a l ,4 1

Monde, Le, 46

M o o r e r , T h o m a s , 6 0 , 6 9

M o s c o w , 8 , 9

Moss, Robert V. , 4 1

Muskie, Edmun d, 41

N a g a s a k i , 4 2

" N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l o f N a t i o n a l

R e c o n c i l i a t i o n a n d C o n c o r d , " 1 0 , 1 3

N B C , 5 , 1 8 , 2 7 , 4 2

N e t h e r l a n d s , t h e , 3 4

Newsw eek, 2 , 1 7 , 2 1 , 2 2 , 3 0 , 3 4 , 3 6 , 3 7 ,

52,64-66

N e w Y o r k , 2 2 , 4 6

N e w Y o r k T i m e s , 1 , 5 , 1 5 , 1 8 n , 1 9 , 2 1 ,

2 2 , 2 4 , 2 5 , 3 0 , 3 2 - 3 4 , 3 6 , 3 7 , 3 9 , 4 0 ,

4 1 , 4 4 - 5 0 , 5 2 , 5 4 , 5 8 , 5 9 , 6 4 - 6 6

N i x o n , R i c h a r d , 6 , 8 , 9 , 1 2 , 1 3 , 1 5 , 2 1 ,

3 0 , 3 6 , 3 8 , 4 1 , 4 2 , 4 5 - 4 8 , 5 0 , 5 1 , 5 8 ,

6 0 - 6 2 , 6 5 , 6 6 , 6 9

N u r e m b e r g , 2 6 , 6 8

O p e r a t i o n s E n h a n c e a n d E n h a n c e - P l u s ,

11,13

O p i n i o n , L a , 37

O r a d o u r , 3 6

P a l m e , O l o f , 3 6

P a r i s , 1 1 , 1 2 , 1 5 , 1 6 , 1 9 , 2 0 , 4 5 , 5 0 , 6 5 ,

66

P e a r l H a r b o r , 5 3

P e k i n g , 2 1 , 3 8

P i e r p o n t , R o b e r t , 1 5

P o l a n d , 3 4

P o p e P a u l V I , 3 5

Q u a n g T r i , 7 , 2 3

Q u i n t , B e r t , 2 7

R a d i o H a n o i , 1 1 , 2 2 , 2 7 , 5 3

R i c h a r d s o n , E l l i o t t , 1 5

R i e g l e , D o n a l d , 4 1

S a b l o n , J e a n L e c l e r c d e , 2 6 , 3 3

S a i g o n , 1 4 , 1 5 , 2 0 , 2 2 , 2 3 , 3 0 , 4 5 , 6 3

S a n F r a n c i s c o C h r o n i c l e , 4 1

S a n k e i S h i m b u n , 36

S a x b e , W i l l i a m , 4 1 , 4 2

S c o t t , H u g h , 4 1

S e v a r ei d , E r i c , 5 2 , 5 3

S h a r p e v i l l e , 3 6

S h a s h a n k ( I n d i a n d i p l o m a t ) , 2 7 , 2 8

S i n g a p o r e , 3 4

Smith, Howa rd K . , 1 9

S o u t h K o r e a , 1 1 , 3 4

S o v i e t U n i o n , 3 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 2 1 , 3 4 , 3 8 , 5 0

S w e d e n , 3 4

S z e n t - G y o r g y i , A l b e r t , 2 2

S z u l c , T a d , 2 n

T a i w a n , 1 1 , 3 4

T a s s , 2 7 , 5 4

T a y l o r , M a x w e l l , 4 7

T a y l o r , T e l f o r d , 2 6 , 5 8 , 6 8

T e l e v i s i o n N e w s I n d e x a n d A b s t r a c t s

( V a n d e r b i l t U n i v e r s i t y ) , 1 8

T e t o f f e n s i v e , 7



T h a i N g u y e n , 2 8 , 5 6

Thanh Hoa, 8

T h i e u , N g u y e n V a n , 4 , 9 , 1 0 , 1 2 , 1 3 , 4 5 ,

51

T h o , L e D u c , 6 , 1 2

T h o m p s o n , W i l l i a m , 4 1

T h u y , X a n , 2 1

T i m e , 2 , 1 7 , 2 0 - 2 2 , 2 8 , 3 0 , 3 4 , 3 6 , 5 2 ,

64-66

Timmons, Will iam E . , 4 1

T o k y o , 3 , 4 9

T r e b l i n k a , 3 6

T u n n e y , J o h n , 4 1

U n i t e d S t a t e s C a t h o l i c C o n f e r e n c e , 4 1

V i e n t i a n e , 2 7

V i e t C o n g , 7 , 9 , 1 1 , 2 0 , 3 8

Note: T h i s i n d e x w a s p r e p a r e d b y R i c h a r d E . S i n c e r e .

W a l d , G e o r g e , 2 2

W a l d h e i m , K u r t , 3 5

W a r d , P e t e r , 5 8

Wa shington Post, 2 , 5 , 1 6 - 1 8 , 2 2 , 2 5 , 2 6 ,

2 8 , 3 0 , 3 2 , 3 4 - 4 4 , 4 8 - 5 2 , 5 5 , 5 8 , 5 9 ,

64-66

Was hington Star, 58

W a t e r g a t e , 6 3

W e s t , R o b e r t N e l s o n , 4 1

W h i t e m a n , G i l b e r t , 1 6

Wicker, Tom, 47 ,49

W o l f f , L e s t e r , 4 1

Y o s t , C h a r l e s W . , 5 0

Y u g o s l a v i a , 3 4

Z i e g l e r , R o n a l d , 6 , 1 5 , 1 6

Z o r z a , V i c t o r , 5 0

INDEX OF NAMES 1 0 3



E t h i c s a n d P u b l i c P o l i c y R e p r i n t s

1 . N u c l e a r E n e r g y P o l i t i c s : Moral ism vs . E t h i c s , Marga ret N. Maxey

2 . The World Council of Churches a nd Radical Chic, Richard Neuhaus

3 . Western Guilt an d Third World Poverty, P . T . Bauer

4 . The United States in Opposition : Anti-Americanism in the United Nations

D a n i e l P a t r i c k M o y n i h a n

5 . P a t t e r n s o f B l a c k E x c e l l e n c e , Thomas Sowell

6 . Wh y Arms Control Has F ailed, Edward N . L u t t w a k

7 . Environmentalism an d the Leisure Cla ss , W i l l i a m T u c k e r

8 . A Search f o r S a n i t y i n A n t i t r u s t , W a l t e r G u z z a r d i , J r

9 . Ethics a nd the New Clas s, P e t e r L . B e r g e r

1 0 . Will Lawy ering Strangle Capitalism? L a u r e n c e H . S i l b e r m a n

1 1 . Is Capital Pu nishment J u s t ? E r n e s t v a n d e n H a a g

1 2 . The Case for Doing Busines s in South A f r i c a , Herman Nickel

1 3 . Regulation and the New Class, Paul H . W e a v e r

1 4 . Trend ier Tha n Th ou : The Episcopal Church a nd the Secula r World , P a u l S e a b u r y

1 5 . The Press an d America n Politics

J . W i l l i a m F u l b r i g h t , R a y m o n d P r i c e , a n d I r v i n g K r i s t o l

16 . I s .th e New Morality Destroying America ? C l a r e B o o t h e L u c e

17 . P o l i t i c i z i n g C h r i s t i a n i t y : F o c u s o n S o u t h A f r i c a , Edwa rd Norman

1 8 . Aliena tion an d U . S . F o r e i g n P o l i c y , P a u l C r a i g R o b e r t s

1 9 . The Cost o f A m e r i c a ' s R e t r e a t , B e n J . W a t t e n b e r g

I n t h e w a k e o f V i e t n a m , A m e r i c a ' s p o w e r a n d i n f l u e n c e h a v e d a n g e r o u s l y r e c e d e d . We must

d e f e n d f r e e d o m b y a p o s t u r e o f " p e a c e t h r o u g h s t r e n g t h . "

2 0 . The Soul of Man U nder Social ism, V l a d i m i r B u k o v s k y

A n e x i l e w h o s p e n t t w e l v e y e a r s i n S o v i e t p r i s o n s v i v i d l y p o r t r a y s t h e i m p a c t o f a t o t a l i t a r i a n

s y s t e m o n h u m a n d i g n i t y a n d s e l f - r e s p e c t .

2 1 . W ha t It Mean s to Be Number Two

F r e d C h a r l e s I k l e , W i t h a R e s p o n s e b y R a d o m i r B o g d a n o v a n d L e v S e m e i k o

A f o r m e r t o p S A L T n e g o t i a t o r s a y s A m e r i c a n w e a k n e s s , b o r d e r i n g o n i n f e r i o r i t y , e n c o u r a g e s

S o v i e t e x p a n s i o n . T w o S o v i e t o f f i c i a l s d i s p u t e h i s c l a i m s .

2 2 . Dictatorships and Doubl e Stand ards : A C r i t i q u e o f U . S . P o l i c y , J e a n e K i r k p a t r i c k

A c a r e f u l l y d o c u m e n t e d i n d i c t m e n t o f t h e C a r t e r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s s e l e c t i v e i n d i g n a t i o n t o w a r d

a l l i e d a n d f r i e n d l y T h i r d W o r l d r e g i m e s .

2 3 . Taiwa n : P a w n o r P i v o t ? P a r r i s H . C h a n g , G e r a l d M c B e a t h , and Ralph N. C l o u g h

T w o p r o f e s s o r s a n d a f o r m e r d i p l o m a t a n a l y z e T a i w a n ' s p a s t , p r e s e n t , a n d f u t u r e p r o s p e c t s .

2 4 . Crus ad e Against the Corporation : Church Militants on the March, Herman Nickel

C h u r c h a c t i v i s t s , w o r k i n g t h r o u g h t h e I n t e r f a i t h C e n t e r o n C o r p o r a t e R e s p o n s i b i l i t y , a r e l e a d i n g

a c a m p a i g n t o c u r b t h e p o w e r o f m u l t i n a t i o n a l c o r p o r a t i o n s . A m a j o r o b j e c t i v e i s t o s t o p t h e s a l e o f

i n f a n t f o r m u l a i n t h e T h i r d W o r l d ; t h e i r m a j o r t a c t i c i s t o b o y c o t t N e s t l e p r o d u c t s .

2 5 . America the Enemy : P r o f i l e o f a R e v o l u t i o n a r y T h i n k T a n k , R a e l J e a n I s a a c

A thorough e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e I n s t i t u t e f o r P o l i c y S t u d i e s s u g g e s t s t h a t i t i s t h e h u b o f a

r e v o l u t i o n a r y p o l i t i c a l n e t w o r k m a s q u e r a d i n g a s a n a u t h e n t i c " t h i n k t a n k . "

Reprints a r e $ 1 each . Postpaid if payment ac companies order .

O r d e r s o f $ 1 0 o r m o r e , 1 0 p e r c e n t d i s c o u n t .



Ethics an d Pu bl ic Policy Studies

Solz henitsyn a t Harva rd :

T h e A d d r e s s , T w e l v e E a r l y R e s p o n s e s , a n d S i x L a t e r R e f l e c t i o n s

edited b y Rona ld Berman 1980 160 pages c l o t h , $ 9 .50 , paper $5

N e w e s s a y s b y M i c h a e l N o v a k , W i l l i a m H . M c N e i l l , S i d n e y H o o k , H a r o l d J .

B e r m a n , R i c h a r d P i p e s , a n d R o n a l d B e r m a n a n d a s a m p l i n g o f e a r l i e r c o m m e n t b y

George F . W i l l , A r t h u r S c h l e s i ng e r , J r . , A r c h i b a l d M a c L e i s h , J a m e s R e s t o n , M a r y

M c G r o r y , a n d o t h e r s .

The CIA an d th e America n Ethic : An Un finished Deba te

Ernest W . L e f e v e r a n d

Roy Gods on 1980 176 pages c l o t h $ 9 .50 , paper $5

A n e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e d e b a t e o v e r t h e r o l e o f U . S . f o r e i g n i n t e l l i g e n c e , w i t h s p e c i a l

r e f e r e n c e t o t h e C o n g r e s s , T V , a n d p r e s s u r e g r o u p s

Will Capital ism Survive?

A Cha ll enge by Pau l John son With Twelv e Respons es

edited by Ernest W . L e f e v e r 1979 79 pages $ 3

A d e f e n s e o f t h e m a r k e t w i t h r e p l i e s b y E u g e n e M c C a r t h y , H e r m a n K a h n , M i c h a e l

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How the Cold W ar Is Tau ght :

Six America n History Textbooks Examined

Martin F Hen 1978 82 pages $ 3

A n e x a m i n a t i o n o f s i x w i d e l y u s e d h i g h s c h o o l t e x t b o o k s .

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