the problem of evil and pain 3. the explanation of leibniz: the best of all possible worlds

The Problem of Evil The Problem of Evil and Painand Pain

3. The Explanation of Leibniz: 3. The Explanation of Leibniz: The Best of All Possible WorldsThe Best of All Possible Worlds

Opening PrayerOpening Prayer

Almighty and everlasting God, you Almighty and everlasting God, you made the universe with all its made the universe with all its marvelous order, its atoms, worlds, and marvelous order, its atoms, worlds, and galaxies, and the infinite complexity of galaxies, and the infinite complexity of living creatures: Grant that, as we living creatures: Grant that, as we probe the mysteries of your creation, probe the mysteries of your creation, we may come to know you more truly, we may come to know you more truly, and more surely fulfill our role in your and more surely fulfill our role in your eternal purpose; in the name of Jesus eternal purpose; in the name of Jesus Christ our Lord.Christ our Lord.

Gottfried LeibnizGottfried Leibniz


Born 1646 into pious Lutheran family, near the end of Born 1646 into pious Lutheran family, near the end of the 30 Years War in Germany, which had left the 30 Years War in Germany, which had left Germany in ruins. Died in 1716 in Hanover.Germany in ruins. Died in 1716 in Hanover.

Father was Professor of Moral Philosophy at Leipzig, Father was Professor of Moral Philosophy at Leipzig, GermanyGermany Father died when Gottfried was 6 years oldFather died when Gottfried was 6 years old

As a child, he was largely self-taught from the books As a child, he was largely self-taught from the books in his father’s libraryin his father’s library

1661-1666: studied law in at University of Leipzig. 1661-1666: studied law in at University of Leipzig. 1667: received doctorate in jurisprudence from the 1667: received doctorate in jurisprudence from the University of AltdorfUniversity of Altdorf


Declined offer of a professorship at AltdorfDeclined offer of a professorship at Altdorf For most of his life, he earned a living by For most of his life, he earned a living by

working for royalty as librarian, judge, working for royalty as librarian, judge, minister, political advisor, historian and minister, political advisor, historian and genealogistgenealogist

At the same time he wrote on the side and At the same time he wrote on the side and made astonishing contributions to made astonishing contributions to mathematics, science, and philosophymathematics, science, and philosophy


Mathematics:Mathematics: Independently developed differential and integral Independently developed differential and integral

calculus the same time as Isaac Newton, devising a calculus the same time as Isaac Newton, devising a

superior notation (superior notation (dxdx and and ∫∫) ) that is still used todaythat is still used today Described the binary number system (base 2)Described the binary number system (base 2) Proposed the basis for the branch of mathematics Proposed the basis for the branch of mathematics

now known as general topologynow known as general topology Proposed the basis for the modern branch of Proposed the basis for the modern branch of

mathematics known as symbolic logicmathematics known as symbolic logic


Science:Science: Developed a new classical theory of motion based Developed a new classical theory of motion based

on kinetic and potential energy (dynamics)on kinetic and potential energy (dynamics) Anticipated Einstein by arguing against Newton Anticipated Einstein by arguing against Newton

that space, time and motion were not absolute, but that space, time and motion were not absolute, but relativerelative

One of the founders of modern science of geology. One of the founders of modern science of geology. Proposed that the earth had a molten coreProposed that the earth had a molten core


Engineering:Engineering: Worked on design of hydraulic presses, windmills, Worked on design of hydraulic presses, windmills,

lamps, submarines, clockslamps, submarines, clocks Proposed a method for desalination of waterProposed a method for desalination of water

Religion:Religion: Worked for the reunification of the Church:Worked for the reunification of the Church:

Lutherans, Catholics, Calvinists, AnglicansLutherans, Catholics, Calvinists, Anglicans


Philosophy:Philosophy: Posited the Posited the Principle of Sufficient ReasonPrinciple of Sufficient Reason

There is an adequate reason to account for the existence There is an adequate reason to account for the existence and nature of everything. Things don’t “just happen.”and nature of everything. Things don’t “just happen.”

Developed a theory of material reality based on Developed a theory of material reality based on monadsmonads

Monads: Indestructible points with soul-like qualities of Monads: Indestructible points with soul-like qualities of perception and appetite, synchronized by Godperception and appetite, synchronized by God

All objects of the material world are collections of All objects of the material world are collections of monadsmonads


Philosophy:Philosophy: Developed a theory of KnowledgeDeveloped a theory of Knowledge

Suggested there exists an Suggested there exists an analogyanalogy between our between our ideasideas and God’s, and an and God’s, and an identityidentity between our between our logiclogic and God’s and God’s

Opposed John Locke’s theory that the human mind Opposed John Locke’s theory that the human mind is a “blank tablet” at birth and that we gain is a “blank tablet” at birth and that we gain knowledge only through the sensesknowledge only through the senses


Philosophy:Philosophy: A question which vexed Leibniz throughout his A question which vexed Leibniz throughout his

life was the problem of evillife was the problem of evil The problem of evil was the subject of his first The problem of evil was the subject of his first

published book (published book (The Philosopher’s ConfessionThe Philosopher’s Confession, , (1672, age 26) and his last book ((1672, age 26) and his last book (TheodicyTheodicy, 1709, , 1709, 7 years before his death)7 years before his death)

Leibniz and the Leibniz and the Problem of EvilProblem of Evil

The Problem of EvilThe Problem of EvilThree VersionsThree Versions

Three Versions of the Problem of Evil: how Three Versions of the Problem of Evil: how can we reconcile statement (1) with statements can we reconcile statement (1) with statements (2a), (2b), and/or (2c)?(2a), (2b), and/or (2c)? (1) An all-powerful, all-knowing, all-good and all-(1) An all-powerful, all-knowing, all-good and all-

loving God existsloving God exists (2a) Evil exists(2a) Evil exists (2b) Extreme and horrendous evil exists(2b) Extreme and horrendous evil exists (2c) Gratuitous and pointless evil exists.(2c) Gratuitous and pointless evil exists.

The Problem of EvilThe Problem of EvilAugustine’s ExplanationAugustine’s Explanation

In our last session:In our last session: Augustine suggested this Augustine suggested this present world is present world is notnot what God intended: what God intended: The original sin of Adam and Eve corrupted The original sin of Adam and Eve corrupted

human naturehuman nature The corrupted nature and the guilt of the original The corrupted nature and the guilt of the original

sin has been inherited by all descendants of Adam sin has been inherited by all descendants of Adam and Eve. We sin and cause and Eve. We sin and cause moral evilmoral evil

The presence of The presence of natural evilnatural evil in the world in the world (hurricanes, earthquakes, disease, death) is the (hurricanes, earthquakes, disease, death) is the punishment for original sinpunishment for original sin

The Problem of EvilThe Problem of EvilLeibniz’s ExplanationLeibniz’s Explanation

Leibniz suggested:Leibniz suggested: God had specific good purposes that God wished God had specific good purposes that God wished

to fulfill in creating the worldto fulfill in creating the world This present world is the This present world is the best of all possible best of all possible

worldsworlds that meets God’s good purposes that meets God’s good purposes Evil is Evil is toleratedtolerated or or permittedpermitted by God only because by God only because

it is a it is a necessary consequencenecessary consequence, a , a side-effectside-effect of of creating the creating the best possible worldbest possible world that meets all of that meets all of God’s good purposesGod’s good purposes


Leibniz’s suggestion that this could be the Leibniz’s suggestion that this could be the “best of all possible worlds” was ridiculed by “best of all possible worlds” was ridiculed by Voltaire and other Enlightenment intellectualsVoltaire and other Enlightenment intellectuals


To appreciate Leibniz’s assertion that this is To appreciate Leibniz’s assertion that this is the “best of all possible worlds,” we must the “best of all possible worlds,” we must explore:explore: What can an “all-powerful” God really do? What What can an “all-powerful” God really do? What

does it mean to say God is “all-powerful” or does it mean to say God is “all-powerful” or “omnipotent”?“omnipotent”?

What kinds of good purposes might God have had What kinds of good purposes might God have had in creating the universe? How might fulfilling such in creating the universe? How might fulfilling such good purposes include the good purposes include the necessary consequencesnecessary consequences or or side effectsside effects of evil? of evil?

OmnipotenceOmnipotence

OmnipotenceOmnipotenceCan God Do Anything?Can God Do Anything?

What do we mean when we say God is “all-What do we mean when we say God is “all-powerful” or powerful” or omnipotentomnipotent??

Does Does omnipotenceomnipotence mean God can do anything mean God can do anything ((“You name it, God can do it!”“You name it, God can do it!”)?)? Can God get married?Can God get married? Can God roll over in bed?Can God roll over in bed? Can God create a rock so heavy God cannot lift it?Can God create a rock so heavy God cannot lift it? Can God create something that God cannot Can God create something that God cannot

destroy?destroy?

OmnipotenceOmnipotenceCan God Do Anything?Can God Do Anything?

Does Does omnipotenceomnipotence mean God can do anything mean God can do anything ((“You name it, God can do it!”“You name it, God can do it!”)?)? Can God make a square with three sides?Can God make a square with three sides? Can God change the rules of logic or arithmetic?Can God change the rules of logic or arithmetic? Can God change the past?Can God change the past? Can God sin?Can God sin?

OmnipotenceOmnipotenceAnother DefinitionAnother Definition

““All-powerful” or All-powerful” or omnipotentomnipotent means God can means God can do any conceivable action and produce any do any conceivable action and produce any conceivable thing or arrangement of things,conceivable thing or arrangement of things, So long as the action or thing is logically possible,So long as the action or thing is logically possible, So long as the action or thing is consistent with So long as the action or thing is consistent with

rest of the nature of God (unembodied, all-good rest of the nature of God (unembodied, all-good and all-loving and all-knowing)and all-loving and all-knowing)

OmnipotenceOmnipotenceAnother DefinitionAnother Definition

Omnipotence thus does not mean “anything goes,” Omnipotence thus does not mean “anything goes,” and “nothing is impossible” for Godand “nothing is impossible” for God

If Action “A” If Action “A” logicallylogically or or necessarilynecessarily results in “B” results in “B” occurring, then not even God can do “A” without “B” occurring, then not even God can do “A” without “B” occurringoccurring

If you chose to make a tire with a softer rubber that If you chose to make a tire with a softer rubber that grips the road better, it grips the road better, it necessarilynecessarily follows that the follows that the tire will wear faster than a tire made with a hard tire will wear faster than a tire made with a hard rubber that would not grip the road as wellrubber that would not grip the road as well If God chose to design a tire If God chose to design a tire andand agreed to play by the agreed to play by the

same rules as human engineers (the God-given laws of same rules as human engineers (the God-given laws of physics and chemistry), God would be subject to the same physics and chemistry), God would be subject to the same trade-off of grip versus weartrade-off of grip versus wear

What were God’s Good What were God’s Good Purposes in Creation?Purposes in Creation?

God’s Purposes in CreationGod’s Purposes in CreationIs There a Best Possible World?Is There a Best Possible World?

God’s goodness would oblige God to create the best God’s goodness would oblige God to create the best possible worldpossible world

But is there a “best possible world”?But is there a “best possible world”? What if the set of possible “good” worlds is an infinite What if the set of possible “good” worlds is an infinite

continuum of increasing goodness, so that there is no continuum of increasing goodness, so that there is no “best” world any more than there is a “highest” number?“best” world any more than there is a “highest” number?

Many Jesuit scholastics of Leibniz’s time believed this was Many Jesuit scholastics of Leibniz’s time believed this was the casethe case

God therefore simply arbitrarily chose to bring about one God therefore simply arbitrarily chose to bring about one among the range of morally acceptable worldsamong the range of morally acceptable worlds

God’s Purposes in CreationGod’s Purposes in CreationIs There a Best Possible World?Is There a Best Possible World?

Leibniz rejected the idea God’s choice of what Leibniz rejected the idea God’s choice of what possible world to create could be arbitrary or a possible world to create could be arbitrary or a “roll of the dice”“roll of the dice” Nothing “just happens.” There must be a sufficient Nothing “just happens.” There must be a sufficient

reason for anything, even God’s choices reason for anything, even God’s choices ((Principle of Sufficient ReasonPrinciple of Sufficient Reason). God must have ). God must have had reasons and purposes for choosing to create had reasons and purposes for choosing to create the world that God createdthe world that God created

God’s Purposes in CreationGod’s Purposes in CreationWhat is the “Best” World?What is the “Best” World?

Out of all the possible worlds that might fulfill Out of all the possible worlds that might fulfill God’s reasons and purposes for creation, God’s reasons and purposes for creation, God’s goodness would oblige God to actualize God’s goodness would oblige God to actualize only the only the bestbest one of the possible worlds. one of the possible worlds.

But what is God trying to do in creation? What But what is God trying to do in creation? What are God’s criteria for judging the “best?”are God’s criteria for judging the “best?”

God’s Purposes in CreationGod’s Purposes in CreationWhat is the “Best” World?What is the “Best” World?

Leibniz suggested the following:Leibniz suggested the following: 1. The best world is the one that 1. The best world is the one that maximizes the virtue of maximizes the virtue of

free, rational, sentient beingsfree, rational, sentient beings 2. There are many facets to God’s goodness and splendor, 2. There are many facets to God’s goodness and splendor,

and a finite created thing or creature can only mirror a and a finite created thing or creature can only mirror a limited part of that goodness and splendor. The best world limited part of that goodness and splendor. The best world is one that is one that maximizes the mirroring of the God’s maximizes the mirroring of the God’s goodness and splendor in the creation through a vast goodness and splendor in the creation through a vast variety of things and creaturesvariety of things and creatures..

3. The best world is one which 3. The best world is one which yields the greatest variety yields the greatest variety of phenomena governed by the simplest, most elegant, of phenomena governed by the simplest, most elegant, most beautiful set of laws.most beautiful set of laws.

God’s Purposes in CreationGod’s Purposes in CreationEvil in the “Best” Possible WorldEvil in the “Best” Possible World

How can there be evil in the best possible world?How can there be evil in the best possible world? Example: consider these goals in designing the “best” tire:Example: consider these goals in designing the “best” tire:

Maximize durabilityMaximize durability Maximize traction in snowMaximize traction in snow Maximize traction in rainMaximize traction in rain Maximize traction on dry pavementMaximize traction on dry pavement

But there are tradeoffs:But there are tradeoffs: Softer rubber maximizes traction but minimizes durabilitySofter rubber maximizes traction but minimizes durability Tread design for maximal traction in rain is suboptimal for snow or dry Tread design for maximal traction in rain is suboptimal for snow or dry

pavementpavement One might say the final product One might say the final product necessarilynecessarily must include some must include some

degree of “evil” that falls out of the trade-offs that degree of “evil” that falls out of the trade-offs that “compromise” the design“compromise” the design


If Action “A” If Action “A” logicallylogically or or necessarilynecessarily results in “B” results in “B” occurring, then not even God can do “A” without “B” occurring, then not even God can do “A” without “B” occurringoccurring

Evil, Leibniz suggests, was one of the Evil, Leibniz suggests, was one of the necessary necessary consequences consequences oror side effects side effects involved in the design of involved in the design of a world that:a world that: maximizes the virtue of free, rational, sentient beingsmaximizes the virtue of free, rational, sentient beings maximizes the mirroring of the God’s goodness and maximizes the mirroring of the God’s goodness and

splendor in the creation through a vast variety of things and splendor in the creation through a vast variety of things and creaturescreatures

yields the greatest variety of phenomena governed by the yields the greatest variety of phenomena governed by the simplest, most elegant, most beautiful set of lawssimplest, most elegant, most beautiful set of laws


God remains holy in permitting this evil God remains holy in permitting this evil because it is the because it is the necessary consequencenecessary consequence of of God performing God’s obligation to create the God performing God’s obligation to create the best possible worldbest possible world that fulfills God’s good that fulfills God’s good purposes for creationpurposes for creation

ReferencesReferences An Introduction to the Philosophy of Religion, An Introduction to the Philosophy of Religion,

Third Edition, Third Edition, Brian Davies, Oxford University Brian Davies, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2004. ISBN 0-19-926347-7Press, Oxford, 2004. ISBN 0-19-926347-7

God and Evil: An Introduction to the IssuesGod and Evil: An Introduction to the Issues, , Michael L. Peterson, Westview Press, Boulder, Michael L. Peterson, Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado, 1998. ISBN 0-8133-2849-7Colorado, 1998. ISBN 0-8133-2849-7

““Leibniz on the Problem of Evil,” Michael Murray, Leibniz on the Problem of Evil,” Michael Murray, in: in: Stanford Encyclopedia of PhilosophyStanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ( (http://plato.stanford.edu/http://plato.stanford.edu/). Article retrieved from: ). Article retrieved from: http://http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/leibnizplato.stanford.edu/entries/leibniz-evil/-evil/

The Problem of Evil. Selected ReadingsThe Problem of Evil. Selected Readings, Michael , Michael L. Peterson, editor, University of Notre Dame Press, L. Peterson, editor, University of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame, Indiana, 1992. ISBN 0-268-01515-5Notre Dame, Indiana, 1992. ISBN 0-268-01515-5

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