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THERELATIONSHIPBETWEENFOODINSECURITY
ANDACADEMICACHIEVEMENTINTHEUNITEDSTATES
AThesis
submittedtotheFacultyofthe
GraduateSchoolofArtsandSciences
ofGeorgetownUniversity
inpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsforthe
degreeof
MasterofPublicPolicy
InPublicPolicy
By
LauraKim,B.A.
Washington,DC
April12,2016
ii
Copyright2016byLauraKim
AllRightsReserved
iii
THERELATIONSHIPBETWEENFOODINSECURITY
ANDACADEMICACHIEVEMENTINTHEUNITEDSTATES
LauraKim,B.A.
ThesisAdvisor:AdamT.Thomas,Ph.D.
ABSTRACT
FoodinsecuritynegativelyaffectsasubsetofU.S.householdsandremainsan
importantpolicychallenge.Astheearliestyearsoflifehavebeenproventobethe
mostimportantperiodinanindividual’sphysicalandcognitivedevelopment,itis
especiallyimportanttoassesstheimpactoffoodinsecurityonchildren.Previous
studieshaveexploredtherelationshipbetweenfoodsecuritystatusandhealth,
behavior,andacademicfactorsusingpaneldataforelementaryschoolstudents.
Thispapercontributestotheliteraturebyexaminingtheassociationbetweenfood
insecurityandacademicachievement,measuredbymathandreadingscores,
followingapanelofstudentsfromkindergartenthroughtheeighthgrade.My
resultsindicatethereisnorelationshipbetweenfoodinsecurityandtestscores.
iv
SpecialthankstoAdamThomasforhisinvaluableguidanceandfeedback
throughoutthisproject
Thankyou,
LauraKim,B.A.
v
TableofContents
INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................................1BACKGROUND............................................................................................................................2LITERATUREREVIEW..............................................................................................................5CONCEPTUALFRAMEWORKANDHYPOTHESIS................................................................9DESCRIPTIVESTATISTICS....................................................................................................14REGRESSIONRESULTS..........................................................................................................17DISCUSSION..............................................................................................................................22APPENDIX.................................................................................................................................25WORKSCITED..........................................................................................................................28
1
INTRODUCTION
WhilemosthouseholdsintheUnitedStateshavedependablesourcesoffood,
asubsetofAmericansconsistentlysufferfromfoodinsecurity,definedaslacking
accesstoareliable,steadysourceoffood(Coleman-Jensenetal.,2013).Several
factorshavebeenidentifiedasinfluencesonthefoodsecuritystatusofahousehold.
Incomeisaprimaryinfluence,butthereareotherimportantfactors,suchasadult
caregivers’health(Wightetal.,2013)andmaternalmentalhealth(Noonanetal.,
2014).Inaddition,characteristicssuchasthemaritalstatusofthehouseholdhead
(Balistreri,2012)andchildcaregiverarrangements(Heflinetal.,2012)havealso
beenfoundtobeassociatedwithhigherlikelihoodsoffoodinsecurity.
Hungrychildrensufferfrommyriadproblemsrangingfromstuntedgrowth
anddevelopmentalissues(Cook&Jeng,2009)toincreasedchancesofillness
(Alaimo,etal.,2001;Basch,2010).Studieshavealsofoundthatchronicunder-
nutritionisnegativelyassociatedwithchildren’scognitivedevelopmentbecauseit
altersessentialneurologicalpathwaysandaffectsthecentralnervoussystem,
especiallyduringthefirstthreeyearsoflife,whenyoungbrainsareundergoinga
criticalgrowthphase(Georgieff,2007;Morgane,1993).
Theadverseimpactofhungerisalsoevidentintheclassroom.Among
children,hungerhasbeenfoundtobenegativelycorrelatedwithattendanceand
grades(Kleinman,2002).Poorclassroomperformance,inturn,haslonger-term
consequences–boysandgirlswithpoorschoolachievementinelementaryschool
areathigherriskforantisocialbehaviorinadolescence(Tremblay,etal.,1992).
Studentswithlowerachievementarealsomorelikelytodropoutofschool,which
2
canleadtonegativeoutcomesinadulthood.Forexample,highschooldropouts
makeupofoverthree-quartersoftheUSprisonpopulation(AllianceforExcellent
Education,2006).Fallingbehindinschoolalsoleavesstudentsinadequately
preparedforthelabormarket,wherethedemandforskilledworkersisincreasing.
TheWorkforceAlliance(2009)reportsthat50percentofavailablejobsrequireat
leastahighschooldiploma,and30percentrequireacollegedegree.Thus,thereis
broadagreementthatreducingtheextentofchildhungerwillcontributetoamore
robustAmericaneconomyandabetterpreparedAmericanworkforce(Cook&Jeng,
2009).
UsingpaneldatafromtheEarlyChildhoodLongitudinalStudy(ECLS-K),this
paperexaminestherelationshipbetweenfoodinsecurityandstudentmathand
readingtestscores.Otherstudieshavealsousedthesedatatoexaminethe
relationshipbetweenfoodinsecurityamongchildrenandeducationalachievement.
However,thesestudiesfocusedonchildreninkindergarten(Winicki&Jemison,
2003)andinkindergartenthroughthethirdgrade(Jyotietal,2005).Thispaper
studieschildrenfromkindergartenthroughtheeighthgrade.
BACKGROUND
DevelopingaMeasureofFoodSecurity
Severelevelsofhunger,suchasthosewitnessedindevelopingcountries,
havebeenavoideddueinparttotheeffortsofpublichealthprograms(discussed
below).However,untilthe1980s,noofficialmeasureofhungerexistedtoassessthe
3
numberofindividualswhosufferfromlessextremeformsoffoodinsecurityand
hunger(Bickeletal.,2000).Theneedforsuchameasurewasacknowledgedin1984
bythePresident’sTaskForceonFoodAssistance(Bickeletal,1996).Later,the
NationalNutritionMonitoringandRelatedResearchActof1990directedthe
DepartmentsofAgriculture(USDA)andHealthandHumanServices(HHS)to
developanationalmeasureoffoodsecurity(Bickeletal.,2000).
WhatemergedistheCoreFoodSecurityModule(CFSM),whichisusedtoday
intheUnitedStatesandCanada.TheCFSMconsistsof18indicatorquestionsthat
assesstheextenttowhichhouseholdsexperiencefoodinsecurityandhunger
(Bickeletal.,2000).1Thefirsttenquestionsassesswhetheratanypointinthelast
twelvemonthshouseholdshadtosacrificetheamountoffoodthattheypurchased
orlimitthefrequencyorsizeoftheirmealsduetofinancialconstraints.The
remainingquestionsaredirectedtowardshouseholdswithchildrenandare
designedtomeasurehow,ifatall,children’smeals–intermsofnutritionalquality,
frequency,orquantity–wereaffectedbythehousehold’sfinancialsituation.
Householdswithchildrenareconsideredtobefoodinsecureiftheyanswer
affirmativelytoatleastthreequestionsonthesurvey.Theyareconsideredtobe
foodinsecurewithhungeriftheyansweraffirmativelytoatleasteightquestions
(Coleman-Jensenetal.,2013).In2013,11.7percentofchildrenlivedinhomesin
whichatleastonechildwasfoodinsecure.Inthepastdecade,therehavebeen
similarfindingsontheextentoffoodinsecurityandfoodinsecuritywithhunger,
1SeeAppendixforthefullCoreFoodSecurityModulequestionnaire.
4
withanincreaseinboththrough2008.However,levelsforbothhaveplateaued
sincethen,asshowninFigure1.
Figure1
Source:HouseholdFoodSecurityintheUnitedStatesin2013(Coleman-Jensen,etal.2013)
PublicNutritionPrograms
SeveralUSpublichealthprogramshavebeenestablishedtomakefoodmore
accessibletochildren.OnesuchprogramistheNationalSchoolLunchProgram
(NSLP),establishedbytheRichardB.RussellNationalSchoolLunchActin1945.
Underthislaw,schoolsarerequiredtoservelunchesthatmeetmandated
nutritionalguidelinestoqualifyingstudentsforfreeorreducedcost(USDA,2015).
DueinparttothesuccessoftheNSLP,otherinitiativessuchastheSchoolBreakfast
Program(SBP)andtheSummerFoodServiceProgramhavealsobeenimplemented
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1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
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2012
2013
TrendsinfoodinsecurityinU.S.Householdswithchildren,1998-2013
Foodinsecure
householdswithchildren
Foodinsecure
householdsexperiencing
hungerwithchildren
5
(USDA,2015).TheseprogramsalloperateundertheauspicesofUSDA’sFoodand
NutritionService(FNS).TheNSLPreachesoverhalfofallchildrenenrolledinUS
primaryandsecondaryschools.Approximately87%ofschoolsthatparticipatein
theNSLPalsoparticipateintheSBP(Let’sMove).
Definitions
Thispaperusestheterms“foodsecurity,”“foodinsecurity,”and“hunger”
followingthedefinitionsthatweredevelopedin1990byaworkinggroupatthe
AmericanInstituteofNutrition.“Foodsecurity”meansbeingreadilyabletoaccess
nutritionallysufficientfoodinself-sufficientwayswithoutrelyingonemergency
strategiessuchasafoodshelter.“Foodinsecurity”referstosituationsinwhich
accesstonutritionalfoodislimitedorunreliable.“Hunger”isdefinedasachronic,
involuntarylackoffood,whichcanleadtodiscomfortandmalnutrition,andisa
possibleresultoffoodinsecurity.
LITERATUREREVIEW
Severalstudiesexaminetherelationshipbetweenfoodinsecurityand
children.Manyofthesestudiesassesstherelationshipbetweenthefoodinsecurity
statusofachild’shouseholdandthatchild’shealth,educationaloutcomes,and
behavioraloutcomes.Isummarizethisliteraturebelow.Ialsodiscusssomepublic
nutritionprograms,focusinginparticularontheseprograms’relationshipswith
variousoutcomesonchildren.
6
FoodInsecurityandEducationalOutcomes
WinickiandJemison(2003),usingECLS-Kdata,foundthatkindergarteners
fromhouseholdsthathadansweredaffirmativelytojustoneortwoquestionsinthe
foodsecuritymodule,thoughnottechnicallyconsideredfoodinsecure,displayed
lowertestscoresinthefallandexperiencedlessacademicgainthroughoutthe
schoolyear.Theauthors’resultsalsosuggestedthatacademicoutcomesofchildren
frommarginallyfoodinsecurehouseholdsaremoresimilartothoseoftheirpeers
whowerefromfoodinsecurehouseholdsthanthosefromfoodsecurehouseholds.
Amonghouseholdsthatwereofficiallyfoodinsecure,Jyotietal.(2005)foundthat
girlstendedtohavelowerreadingskills.Insufficientfoodintakeresultingfromfood
insecuritywasalsofoundtobecorrelatedwithlowertestscoresandanincreased
likelihoodofrepeatingagrade(Alaimoetal.,2001),aswellasdecreasesinlearning
skills,whichincludesastudent’sattentiveness,persistence,andabilitytostudy
independently(Howard,2010).
Kleinmanetal.(2002)gatheredinformationfromvoluntaryparticipantsof
threeinnercityschoolspriortoandsixmonthsaftertheimplementationofa
universalschoolbreakfastprograminBostonpublicschools.Athirdofthechildren
inthestudyhadbeenidentifiedasbeingatnutritionalrisk.Inthesixmonths
following,studentswhodecreasedtheirnutritionalriskoverthisperiodshowed
greatergainsinschoolattendanceandinmathgradesthantheircounterpartswith
whoshowednochangeinnutritionalrisk(Kleinmanetal.,2002).
7
FoodInsecurityandHealthOutcomes
Studiesoftherelationshipbetweenfoodinsecurityandhealthoutcomes
haveproducedvaryingresults.Caseyetal.(2005),usingdatafromacross-sectional
surveyofchildrenfrom36countiesofLouisiana,Mississippi,andArkansas,found
negativeassociationsbetweenhouseholdfoodinsecurityandreportedphysical
functionandhealth-relatedqualityoflife.Theauthorsalsofoundapositive
associationbetweenchildren’sexposuretotheNationalSchoolLunchProgram
(NSLP)andtheirheight,ameasurehistoricallyusedtogaugetheeffectsofnutrition
onhealth.
Otherstudieshaveexaminedtherelationshipbetweenfoodinsecuritystatus
andphysicalgrowthmeasuressuchasBMIandbodyweight,andfoundthatfood
insecuritywasnotapredictorofphysicalsize(Bhargavaetal.,2008;Winickiand
Jemison,2003).Bhattacharyaetal.(2004)observedthat,whilepovertyhada
positivecorrelationwithpoornutritionalintakesinpreschoolchildren,food
securitydidnot;andfoodsecuritywasnotassociatedwithnutritionaloutcomesin
schoolagechildren.Ontheotherhand,Jyotietal.(2005),usingECLS-Kdatafor
childrenfromkindergartentothirdgrade,foundthatfoodsecurityamong
kindergartenerspredictedgreatergainsinBMIandweightforgirls.
FoodInsecurityandBehavioralOutcomes
Foodinsecurityalsoplaysaroleinhowwellachildisabletointeractand
assimilatewithhisorherpeers.Muchofchildren’spsychologicalandsocial
8
behaviorcanbemeasuredbyhowtheyinteractwithothersintheclassroom.
Alaimoetal.(2001)andCaseyetal.(2005)foundthatfoodinsecuritywas
associatedwithlowersocialinteractionability.Insufficientfoodintakestemming
fromfoodinsecuritywascorrelatedwithanincreasedlikelihoodofbeing
suspendedandahigherprobabilityofseeingapsychologist(Alaimoetal.,2001).In
addition,StormerandHarrison(2003)foundthathouseholdfoodinsecurityhada
negativerelationshipwithsocialinteractionabilityamonggirls.Howard(2010)
foundthatfoodinsecuritywasassociatedwithadecreaseinchildren’s
interpersonalrelations(suchasformingfriendshipsandexpressingthemselves),
andself-control.However,Howardfoundnorelationshipbetweenfoodinsecurity
andotherproblembehaviorsuchasfightinganddisturbingclassroomactivities.
ThePresentStudy
Broadlyspeaking,priorresearchindicatesanegativeassociationbetween
foodinsecurityandacademicachievement.Howevernopriorstudyhasusedthe
ECLS-Ktofollowstudentsfromkindergartentotheeighthgradetostudythe
relationshipbetweentheirfoodsecuritystatusandeducationaloutcomes.Inthe
presentstudy,Ihopetocontributetotheliteraturebyextendingexistinganalysisto
thefinalroundoftheavailableECLS-Kdata.
9
CONCEPTUALFRAMEWORKANDHYPOTHESIS
Ihypothesizethatfoodinsecuritywillhaveanegativecorrelationwitha
student’sacademicachievement.Thatis,ifthechildcomesfromahouseholdthat
reportsexperiencingfoodinsecurity,thatchildwillhavealowerprobabilityof
succeedingintheclassroom.Factorsrelatedbothtofoodinsecurityandacademic
achievementcanbegroupedintothreebroadcategories–demographic,health,and
schoolfactors.ThesecategoriesarepresentedinFigure2.
Figure2:ConceptualFramework
DemographicandHouseholdFactors
Measuresofsocioeconomicstatus,suchasparentalincomeandeducation,
havebeenfoundtobepositivelycorrelatedwithschoolperformanceamong
children(Sirin,2005).Also,myreviewoftheresearchfoundraceandethnicitytobe
AcademicAchievement
DemographicandHouseholdFactors
• FOODINSECURITY• Race• Gender• Householdsize• Householdpovertystatus• Childreceivingfree/reducedlunch
HealthFactors
• StudentHealth• Height• Weight• BMI
SchoolFactors
• Percentageofstudentsinpoverty
• Percentageofstudentsreceivingfree/reducedlunch
• Percentageofminoritystudents
10
associatedwithacademicachievement,withAfricanAmericanandHispanic
studentsperformingatthelowestlevels(Kao&Thompson,2003).2Blake(1981)
foundthatastudent’snumberofsiblingsalsohadanegativerelationshipwith
academicachievement.
HealthFactors
Childhealthfactorssuchasobesitycouldalsobeassociatedwithbothfood
securityandacademicachievement.Shoreetal.(2008)foundthatamongmiddle
schoolstudents,obesitywasnegativelycorrelatedwithgradesandnationaltest
scores.Thisalsoheldtrueforyoungergroups,wherephysicalfitnessinthirdand
fifthgraderswaspositivelyassociatedwithacademicperformance,whileBMIwas
inverselyrelated(Castellietal.2007).
SchoolFactors
FowlerandWalberg(1991)foundthatsocioeconomicstatusintheschool
districtandpercentageofstudentsintheschoolwhowerefromlow-income
householdswerethemostinfluentialandconsistentfactorsrelatedtoacademic
outcomes.Inaddition,schoolpovertylevelshavebeenfoundtobenegatively
associatedwithschoolmeantestscores(Battistichetal.1995).Furthermore,high
concentrationsofpovertyinschoolshavebeennegativelycorrelatedwithchildren’s
achievementwhethertheywerefrompoorhouseholdsornot(Kennedy,1986).
2AsIestimateafixedeffectsmodel,characteristicssuchasraceandgenderare
excludedfrommyconceptualframework,sincemyfixedeffectsspecification
controlsforallstudentcharacteristicsthatremainconstantovertime.
11
DATAANDMETHODS
ThispaperusesdatafromtheEarlyChildhoodLongitudinalStudy,
KindergartenClassof1998-99,alsoknownasthe“ECLS-K”.Thesedataaremade
availablethroughtheNationalCenterforEducationStatistics(NCES)atthe
DepartmentofEducation’sInstituteofEducationSciences.TheECLS-Kfollowsa
cohortofchildrenattendingbothprivateandpublicschoolsfromthefallof1998
(whentheystartedkindergarten)tothespringof2007(whentheyfinishedeighth
grade).TheECLS-Kalsoincludesdataobtainedfromquestionnaireswithparents,
teachers,andschooladministratorsaboutstudentsandstudents’schools.Thedata
werecollectedoveracourseofsevenrounds–twiceeachinkindergartenandfirst
grade(whichcorrespondstoroundsonethroughfour),thenonceeachinthird,
fifth,andeightgrades(whichcorrespondstoroundsfivethroughseven).Atotalof
21,409childrenparticipatedinthestudy.Iusedatafromthesecond,fifth,sixth,and
seventhrounds,inwhichfoodsecuritydatawerecollectedthroughparent
interviews.
Mydependentvariableisacademicachievement,whichImeasureusing
readingandmathtestscores.Thetestswereadministeredtoeverystudenteach
year.TheywerewrittenforthepurposeoftheECLS-Kandweremodifiedvariations
oftheNationalAssessmentofEducationalProgress(NAEP)andsimilartests
createdforotherNCESstudies.Testscoreswerestandardizedwithameanof50
andastandarddeviationof10toimprovetheeasewithwhichrespondents’scores
couldbecomparedwiththescoresofotherchildren.Thereadingtestmeasures
12
skillssuchasletterrecognitionandreadingcomprehension,andthemathtest
assessesskillssuchasgeometryandalgebra.
Mykeyindependentvariableisameasureoffoodsecuritybasedon
responsestothe18-questionfoodsecuritysurveymodulewhichwasdiscussed
aboveinmyBackgroundsection.Thesurveyquestionshelptodistinguishbetween
householdandindividuallevelsoffoodinsecurity.Ahouseholdisconsideredfood
insecureifpositiveresponsesaregiventothreeormorequestions,andfood
insecurewithhungerifpositiveresponsesaregiventoeightormoreitems.
IalsoincludecontrolvariablesdiscussedintheConceptualFramework.All
relevantvariablesaredescribedbelowinTable1.
Table1:VariablesandVariableDescriptionsVariable Description
DependentVariable
MathScore Acontinuousvariablemeasuringperformanceonanannual
mathtest.*
ReadingScore Acontinuousvariablemeasuringperformanceonanannual
readingtest.*
IndependentVariable
FoodInsecure Abinaryvariablemeasuringwhetherornotachild’s
householdisfoodinsecure.
DemographicandHouseholdFactors
HouseholdSize Acontinuousvariablemeasuringthenumberofmembersin
therespondent’shousehold.
ReceivesFreeor
ReducedLunch
Abinaryvariablemeasuringwhetherachildreceivesfreeor
reducedcostschoollunch.
PovertyIndicator Abinaryvariablemeasuringwhetherornotafamilyis
belowthefederalpovertylevel.
*Testscoresarestandardizedwiththemeanat50andthestandarddeviationsetat
10.
13
HealthFactors
ChildHealth Abinaryvariablemeasuringwhetherparentsconsiderthe
childtobeingoodhealth.
Height Acontinuousvariablemeasuringchild’sheight
Weight Acontinuousvariablemeasuringchild’sweight.
BMI Avaluecalculatedasbodymass(bodyweightinkilograms)
dividedbythesquareofbodyheight.
SchoolFactors
FreeorReduced
LunchPercentage
Acontinuousvariablemeasuringtheproportionofstudents
inschoolreceivingfreeorreducedlunch.
Lessthan10%
Minority
Abinaryvariablemeasuringwhetherastudent’sschool
consistsoflessthan10%minoritystudents.
10-25%Minority Abinaryvariablemeasuringwhetherastudent’sschool
consistsof10-25%minoritystudents.
25-50%Minority Abinaryvariablemeasuringwhetherastudent’sschool
consistsof25-50%minoritystudents.
50-75%Minority Abinaryvariablemeasuringwhetherastudent’sschool
consistsof50-75%minoritystudents.
Over75%Minority Abinaryvariablemeasuringwhetherastudent’sschool
consistsofover75%minoritystudents.
IestimateOrdinaryLeastSquaresmodelswithfixedindividualandtime
effects.Individualfixedeffectscontrolforcharacteristicsofeachchildthatare
constantovertime,suchasrace,gender,parents’educationlevels,andbirth
circumstances.Timefixedeffectscontrolfortime-varyingfactorsthatchangeover
timeuniformlyforeveryoneinmysample,suchaseconomicconditions,policy
changes,andbroaddemographicshifts.Includingindividualandtimefixedeffectsin
mymodelreducestheextentofomittedvariablebiasinmyestimates.
Iestimatethemodelas:
TestScoreit=β0+β1FoodSecurityit+β2DemographicFactorsit+β3WellnessFactorsit+
β4SchoolFactorsit+αi+γt+uit
14
Wherethesubscriptsiandtdenoteeachchildandtimeperiod,respectively,αiisa
setofdummiesforeachchild,andγtisasetofdummiesforeachtimeperiod,anduit
istheerrorterm.TheΒicoefficientrepresentstherelationshipbetweentestscores
andfoodinsecuritystatus.
DESCRIPTIVESTATISTICS
Descriptivestatisticsforthedependentandcontrolvariablesincludedinmy
regressionmodelareprovidedinTable2.3Descriptivesaredisaggregatedby
whetherthechildisfromahouseholdthatisfoodsecureorfoodinsecure.
Approximately90.2percent(15,383person-rounddata)ofmyobservationsfallin
thecategoryofbeingfoodsecure,while9.8percent(1666person-rounddata)fallin
thecategoryofbeingfoodinsecure.Descriptivestatisticsareweightedbyasample
childpanelweightdevelopedbyECLS-Kresearchers.Iusealongitudinalchild
weightdevelopedforrounds2through7.
SomeofthemostimportantresultsfromTable2arethemeansforthe
dependentvariableindicatingthatchildrenwhoarefoodsecurereporthigher
3IinterpolatedmissingdataforcontinuousvariablesinmymodelforwhichIhad
informationavailablefrombothprecedingandsubsequentrounds.Insuchcases,I
tookthevaluesfrombothroundsandusedtheaverageofthosevaluestoimpute
missingvalues.ThevariablesforwhichIperformedthisprocedurearethereading
andmathtestscoresforrounds2,5,and6;householdsizeinround5;andthe
percentageofstudentseligibleforfreeorreducedlunchinaschoolforrounds5and
6.Theinterpolationprocedureaccountedfor2%ofallvaluesforreadingscores;
1.9%ofallvaluesformathscores;2.4%ofallvaluesforhouseholdsize;and1%of
allvaluesforthepercentageofstudentseligibleforfreeorreducedlunch.
15
readingandmathscores.Thisisinlinewiththeassumptionthatchildrenwhoare
foodsecurewillbebetteroffoverallthantheircounterpartswhoarefoodinsecure.
Inaddition,themeanvaluesforcharacteristicssuchasbeingbelowthepoverty
levelareoverthreetimeshigherforchildrenwhoarefoodinsecurethanfor
childrenwhoarefoodsecure.Foodinsecurechildrenalsohavemeansovertwice
thatoffoodsecurechildrenintheirprobabilityofreceivingfreelunchfromschool.I
alsoincludedifferencesinmeanstestsinTable2,andresultsarestatistically
significantatthe1percentlevel,exceptforchildheight,whichissignificantatthe5
percentlevel.
Aresultthatcouldbeunexpectedistheheight,weightandbody-massindex
variables,wherechildrenwhoarefoodinsecurehavehighermeansthanthosewho
arefoodsecure,andthedifferenceisstatisticallysignificant.However,thismaynot
necessarilyindicatethatfoodinsecurechildrenhaveanadvantageovertheirpeers.
AstudybyLevine(2011)showsthatpeoplelivinginpovertymaybemoreproneto
obesitythantherestofthepopulationbecausethoseindividualsaremorelikelyto
liveinplaceswithoutaccesstofreshfood.Forexample,peoplelivinginpoor
countiesmayalsobemorepronetobesedentarybecausetheyaremorelikelyto
liveinplacesthataremoredangerousandlackpublicparksandsportsfacilities,
puttingthematfurtherriskforobesity.
16
Table2:DescriptiveStatisticsbyFoodSecurityStatus
FoodSecure(n=15383) FoodInsecure(n=1666)
Diff.inMeans
Mean Std.Dev. Min Max Mean Std.Dev. Min Max
DependentVariables
MathScores 51.37 9.56 18.35 83.72 46.45 9.27 16.05 70.84 4.92***
ReadingScores 50.93 9.61 12.99 86.91 45.84 9.37 12.83 72.69 5.09***
HouseholdFactors
HouseholdSize 4.53 1.34 2 15 4.93 1.79 2 13 -0.4***
ReceivesFreeorReducedLunch 0.40 0.49 0 1 0.87 0.34 0 1 -0.47***
PovertyIndicator 0.19 0.39 0 1 0.59 0.49 0 1 -0.40***
HealthFactors
ChildHealth 0.99 0.04 0 1 0.99 0.06 0 1 0.00***
Height 56.27 6.87 28 76 56.38 6.76 40.25 72.63 -0.11**
Weight 94.52 40.39 20 300 99.26 43.93 31 300 -4.74***
BMI 20.09 5.22 4.91 206.5 20.95 5.63 10.6 50.88 -0.86***
SchoolFactors
FreeorReducedLunchPercentage 36.85 26.67 0 95 50.91 27.89 0 95 -14.06***
Lessthan10%Minority 0.32 0.47 0 1 0.17 0.37 0 1 0.15***
10-25%Minority 0.17 0.37 0 1 0.13 0.34 0 1 0.04***
25-50%Minority 0.18 0.38 0 1 0.16 0.37 0 1 0.02***
50-75%Minority 0.11 0.32 0 1 0.12 0.33 0 1 -0.01***
Over75%Minority 0.22 0.42 0 1 0.42 0.49 0 1 -0.20***
***p<0.01,**p<0.05,*p<0.1
17
REGRESSIONRESULTS
MyregressionresultsarereportedinTables3and4.4ForTable3,the
dependentvariableisstandardizedreadingscores,andforTable4,thedependent
variableisstandardizedmathscores.Forbothtables,Model(1)isanOLSregression
thatpredictsanestimateoftherawcorrelationbetweentestscoresandfood
insecurity.Model(2)includescontrolvariablesbuthasnostudentortimefixed
effects.Model(3)includesstudentfixedeffects,andModel(4)hasbothstudentand
timefixedeffects.Lastly,Model(5)includesallcontrolvariables,studentandtime
fixedeffects,andexaminestheinteractionbetweenfoodinsecurityandpoverty.
Robuststandarderrorsarereportedinparenthesesunderneathallcoefficients.All
regressionsareweightedusingchilddemographicweightsprovidedbytheECLS-K.
Forbothtables,thecoefficientforfoodinsecurityissignificantatthe5%
levelinmodels(1)and(2),butlosesthissignificanceinsubsequentmodelsonce
studentandtimefixedeffectsareadded.Anexplanationofthisfindingcouldbe
omittedvariablebiasresultingfromtheexclusionoffixedeffectsthathavean
associationwithmykeyindependentanddependentvariables.Forexample,model
(3)presentsalessbiased,moremeaningfulestimatethanmodel(1)becauseit
includesstudentfixedeffects.Withoutthesestudentfixedeffects,model(1)’s
estimateislessmeaningfulbecausewedonotknowwhatkindofarelationship
omittedvariables,suchasrace,willhavewithtestscoresorfoodinsecurity.By
includingstudentfixedeffects,model(3)measurestherelationshipbetweenfood
insecurityandtestscoresholdingsuchindividualfixedeffectsconstant.
4IreportregressionresultswithoutweightsinAppendix2.
18
Theinclusionofstudentfixedeffectsinmodel(3)leadstoalossinstatistical
significanceandreductioninmagnitudeforthecoefficientforfoodinsecurity.This
shiftisexpected,asitisreasonabletobelievefixedstudentcharacteristicssuchas
birthcircumstanceswouldhavestronglinkstobothtestscoresandfoodinsecurity.
Model(4)includestimefixedeffectsandproducestheleastbiasedestimates
becauseitincludesallcontrolsaswellasbothsetsoffixedeffectsvariables,thereby
eliminatinganyomittedvariablebiascausedbytime-invariantcharacteristicsand
time-varyingcharacteristicsthatchangeoveragivenpointintimeforallstudents,
suchasGDPandpoliticalfactors.Theresultsfromthismodelshowthatthereisno
relationshipbetweenfoodinsecurityandeitherreadingormathtestscores.This
modelproducesthemostplausiblycausalestimateoftherelationshipbetweenfood
insecurityandtestscores,andtheresultshereindicatethatthetwoareunrelated.
Ontheotherhand,demographicfactorssuchasincomeandracehavedemonstrated
astrongandsignificantassociationwithtestscores(Sutton&Soderstrom,1999).It
isthereforepossiblethatastudent’stestscoreswillnotbeaffectedinasignificant
waysolelybyachangeinfoodinsecuritystatus.
Model(5)includesaninteractiontermbetweenfoodinsecurityandpoverty.
Thismodeltestswhetherthereisadifferenceintherelationshipbetweenfood
insecurityandtestscoresdependingonwhetherornotastudentispoor.Neither
thecoefficientforfoodinsecuritynorthecoefficientfortheinteractiontermis
significanthere.Furthermore,anF-testshowsthattheinteractiontermandfood
insecurityarenotjointlysignificant.
19
Tosummarize,myregressionresultsindicatethatthereisnostatistically
significantrelationshipbetweenfoodinsecurityandtestscores.Theadditionof
studentandtimefixedeffectscontrolledfortime-invariantandtime-varying
characteristicsthataffectedallstudentsinmymodel.However,thesesetsoffixed
effectvariablesalsoreducedthemagnitudeandstatisticalsignificanceofthe
coefficientforfoodinsecurity,mykeyindependentvariable.Theinclusionofan
interactiontermbetweenfoodinsecurityandpovertytestedforhowthe
relationshipbetweenfoodinsecurityandtestscoresdifferedforpoorandnon-poor
students.Mymodelfoundnorelationshipforeitherofmypoorornon-poor
subsamples.
20
Table3.RegressionResultsforStandardizedReadingScoresVariable (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) FoodInsecure -4.953*** -1.045*** 0.029 -0.035 -0.039 (0.386) (0.387) (0.334) (0.334) (0.416)HouseholdFactors HouseholdSize -0.248*** 0.285** 0.288** 0.288** (0.082) (0.115) (0.114) (0.114)ReceivesFreeorReducedLunch -4.318*** -0.111 -0.141 -0.141 (0.299) (0.328) (0.330) (0.331)PovertyIndicator -3.501*** 0.506* 0.521* 0.520* (0.329) (0.269) (0.269) (0.290)FoodInsecure*PovertyIndicator 0.006 (0.540)HealthFactors ChildHealth 8.100*** 2.548 2.662 2.661 (1.679) (1.639) (1.695) (1.697)Height -0.000 -0.129*** -0.059 -0.059 (0.045) (0.040) (0.074) (0.074)Weight -0.005 0.016 0.014 0.014 (0.013) (0.011) (0.012) (0.012)BMI -0.027 -0.088* -0.073 -0.073 (0.065) (0.053) (0.059) (0.059)SchoolFactors FreeorReducedLunchPercentage -0.0400*** 0.008 0.007 0.007 (0.006) (0.006) (0.006) (0.006)10-25%Minority 0.386 -1.112*** -1.080** -1.080** (0.374) (0.430) (0.429) (0.429)25-50%Minority 0.558 -0.564 -0.583 -0.583 (0.365) (0.475) (0.471) (0.471)50-75%Minority -0.367 -0.602 -0.563 -0.563 (0.404) (0.622) (0.617) (0.617)Over75%Minority -0.766* -1.178* -1.169* -1.169* (0.419) (0.707) (0.697) (0.697)Constant 50.09*** 48.58*** 53.57*** 50.26*** 50.26*** (0.138) (3.005) (2.655) (4.037) (4.042) Observations 17,049 17,049 17,049 17,049 17,049R-squared 0.025 0.199 0.024 0.028 0.028N 6,570 6,570 6,570 6,570 6,570StudentFE NO NO YES YES YESYearFE NO NO NO YES YESFStatisticsandp-valueforjointhypothesis FoodInsecurityandPoverty 0.01 (0.994)Robuststandarderrorsinparentheses***p<0.01,**p<0.05,*p<0.1
21
Table4.RegressionResultsforStandardizedMathScoresVariable (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) FoodInsecure -4.649*** -0.920** -0.096 -0.117 0.032 (0.373) (0.382) (0.278) (0.279) (0.390)HouseholdFactors HouseholdSize -0.026 0.192 0.191 0.189 (0.079) (0.118) (0.118) (0.118)ReceivesFreeorReducedLunch -4.146*** 0.128 0.110 0.105 (0.302) (0.318) (0.317) (0.317)PovertyIndicator -3.095*** 0.052 0.056 0.104 (0.316) (0.288) (0.287) (0.297)FoodInsecure*PovertyIndicator -0.262 (0.532)HealthFactors ChildHealth 4.970*** -0.357 -0.357 -0.347 (1.681) (1.823) (1.807) (1.822)Height 0.128*** -0.010 0.084 0.085 (0.048) (0.039) (0.068) (0.068)Weight -0.026** -0.011 -0.014 -0.014 (0.013) (0.0099) (0.011) (0.011)BMI 0.020 0.013 0.043 0.044 (0.066) (0.048) (0.054) (0.054)SchoolFactors FreeorReducedLunchPercentage -0.047*** -0.004 -0.004 -0.004 (0.006) (0.005) (0.005) (0.005)10-25%Minority 0.600* 0.215 0.224 0.221 (0.358) (0.401) (0.402) (0.401)25-50%Minority 0.482 0.325 0.326 0.325 (0.367) (0.449) (0.451) (0.451)50-75%Minority -0.252 0.541 0.582 0.580 (0.393) (0.501) (0.502) (0.502)Over75%Minority -0.688* 0.354 0.391 0.391 (0.407) (0.636) (0.630) (0.630)Constant 50.50*** 44.94*** 50.62*** 46.08*** 46.02*** (0.136) (3.091) (2.665) (3.702) (3.708) Observations 17,049 17,049 17,049 17,049 17,049R-squared 0.022 0.190 0.012 0.014 0.014N 6,570 6,570 6,570 6,570 6,570StudentFE NO NO YES YES YESYearFE NO NO NO YES YESFStatisticsandp-valueforjointhypothesis FoodInsecurityandPoverty 0.19 (0.825)Robuststandarderrorsinparentheses***p<0.01,**p<0.05,*p<0.1
22
DISCUSSION
Inthispaper,Iexploredtherelationshipbetweenastudent’shouseholdfood
insecuritystatusandhisorheracademicachievement.Asdiscussedearlier,school
mealprogramshavebeeninplacesincethemiddleofthelastcenturyinorderto
improvechildren’snutritionalintake,whichcanhavelong-termbenefitsfortheir
physicalandcognitivedevelopment(Bickeletal.,2000).Thepresentstudywas
intendedtohelpinassessingtheefficacyofsuchprogramsinaddressingthe
achievementgapbetweenchildrenfromfoodsecureandfoodinsecurehouseholds.
Myresultsshowedthatthereisnoevidenceofarelationshipbetweenfood
insecuritystatusandtestscores.
Thisisincontrasttopreviousstudies,discussedinmyLiteratureReview,
whichfoundthatfoodinsecurityhadanegativeandsignificantassociationwith
students’testscoresoracademicgains.Oneexplanationforthisdifferenceisthat
mostofthesestudiesdidnotincludestudentandtimefixedeffects.Inclusionof
fixedeffectsreducestheextentofthebiasinmyestimates.
Mystudyalsofacedsomelimitations.ThenumberofroundsofECLS-Kdata
thatIwasabletoutilizewaslimitedbecauseinformationonthefoodsecuritystatus
ofthestudents’householdswasonlysoughtonfourrounds.Iwaslimitedtousing
controlvariablesforwhichinformationwasavailableforthoseparticularrounds;
whichistosaythatIwaspreventedfromcontrollingforsomefactorsthatcouldbe
associatedwithmydependentandkeyindependentvariables.
Atime-varyingcharacteristicwhoseomissionmayhavebiasedmyestimates
isproximitytosocialservicesavailableinthecommunity.Proximitytosocial
23
serviceproviderssuchashealthclinicsandfoodbankscouldbepositively
associatedwithtestscoresandnegativelyassociatedwithfoodinsecurity,meaning
thattheomissionofthisvariablecouldhavedownwardlybiasedmyestimates.
Thus,theomissionofthisvariablemayhavecausedmetooverestimatemy
relationshipofinterest.Inotherwords,therelationshipbetweenfoodinsecurity
andacademicachievementmaybeevenweaker(meaningthecoefficientiscloserto
zero)thansuggestedbymyresults.
AnothervariablethatIwasunabletocontrolforwasparentalmaritalstatus.
Fixedeffectsdonotcontrolforchangesinthemaritalstatusofastudent’sparents.
Livinginatwo-parenthouseholdislikelytooffergreaterstabilityandisgenerally
associatedwithmorepositiveoutcomesforthechild,suchashavingagreater
chanceofstayinginandfinishingschoolandhavingahigherGPA,comparedto
otherparentalstructures(ManningandLamb,2003).Therefore,studentsliving
withsingleparentsmightbeexpectedtohavelowertestscores.Generallyspeaking,
single-parenthouseholdsarealsomorelikelytobeeconomicallyinsecurethantwo-
parenthouseholds(AcsandNelson,2003).Asitisplausiblethatfinanciallyunstable
householdsaremorelikelytobefoodinsecure,therecouldbeapositiveassociation
betweenfoodinsecurityandbeinginasingle-parenthousehold.Thus,theomission
ofthisvariablemayhavedownwardlybiasedmycoefficient,makingitlargerin
magnitudethanitshouldbe.Inotherwords,althoughmostofmymodelsyielded
negativeandsmallestimatesformycoefficientofinterest,infacttherelationship
betweenfoodinsecurityandtestscoresmaybeevensmaller(negativebutsmaller
inmagnitude)thanpredictedinmymodels.
24
Althoughmystudyfoundnoevidenceofarelationshipbetweenfood
insecurityandstudenttestscores,itidentifiedpotentialopportunitiesforfuture
research.Forexample,Jyotietal.(2005)usedinformationfromkindergartenand
thirdgradeintheECLS-Ktodeveloplaggedmodelsthatrelatedfoodinsecurityfrom
anearlierroundtogainsintestscoresinsubsequentrounds.Futureresearchcould
uselaggedmodelsbyexploitinginformationfromkindergartenandthird,fifthand
eightgradestolookatevenlonger-termconsequencesoffoodinsecurityfor
students’academicgains.
Whilemystudyfoundnoconsequentialrelationshipbetweenfoodinsecurity
andacademicachievement,itstillofferssomelessonsforpolicymakers.Asnoted
previously,academicachievementisdependentuponacomplexnetworkoffactors,
andachangeinonefactoraloneisunlikelytochangeastudent’stestscoresina
significantway.Foodinsecurityisjustasymptomofavastnetofunderlyingcauses.
Therefore,weshouldnotpresumethatapolicythatchangesfoodsecuritystatus
withoutchangingothermeasuresofdisadvantagewouldbesufficientinclosingthe
achievementgap.
25
APPENDIXAppendix1.CoreFoodSecurityModule
Source:HouseholdFoodSecurityintheUnitedStatesin2013(Coleman-Jensen,etal.2013)
1. “We worried whether our food would run out before we got money to buy more.” Was that often, sometimes, or never true for you in the last 12 months?
2. “The food that we bought just didn’t last and we didn’t have money to get more.” Was that often, sometimes, or never true for you in the last 12 months?
3. “We couldn’t afford to eat balanced meals.” Was that often, sometimes, or never true for you in the last 12 months? 4. In the last 12 months, did you or other adults in the household ever cut the size of your meals or skip meals because there
wasn’t enough money for food? (Yes/No) 5. (If yes to question 4) How often did this happen—almost every month, some months but not every month, or in only 1 or
2 months? 6. In the last 12 months, did you ever eat less than you felt you should because there wasn’t enough money for food?
(Yes/No) 7. In the last 12 months, were you ever hungry, but didn’t eat, because there wasn’t enough money for food? (Yes/No) 8. In the last 12 months, did you lose weight because there wasn’t enough money for food? (Yes/No) 9. In the last 12 months, did you or other adults in your household ever not eat for a whole day because there wasn’t enough
money for food? (Yes/No) 10. (If yes to question 9) How often did this happen—almost every month, some months but not every month, or in
only 1 or 2 months? (Questions 11-18 were asked only if the household included children age 0-17) 11. “We relied on only a few kinds of low-cost food to feed our children because we were running out of money to buy
food.” Was that often, sometimes, or never true for you in the last 12 months?
12. “We couldn’t feed our children a balanced meal, because we couldn’t afford that.” Was that often, sometimes, or never true for you in the last 12 months?
13. “The children were not eating enough because we just couldn’t afford enough food.” Was that often, sometimes, or
never true for you in the last 12 months? 14. In the last 12 months, did you ever cut the size of any of the children’s meals because there wasn’t enough money
for food? (Yes/No) 15. In the last 12 months, were the children ever hungry but you just couldn’t afford more food? (Yes/No) 16. In the last 12 months, did any of the children ever skip a meal because there wasn’t enough money for food?
(Yes/No) 17. (If yes to question 16) How often did this happen—almost every month, some months but not every month, or in
only 1 or 2 months? 18. In the last 12 months, did any of the children ever not eat for a whole day because there wasn’t enough money for
food? (Yes/No)
26
Appendix2.RegressionResultsforStandardizedReadingScoreswithoutWeightsVariable (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) FoodInsecure -4.626*** -0.925*** -0.193 -0.234 -0.380 (0.194) (0.194) (0.184) (0.184) (0.258)HouseholdFactors HouseholdSize -0.347*** 0.110* 0.113* 0.113* (0.039) (0.067) (0.066) (0.066)ReceivesFreeorReducedLunch -3.721*** -0.120 -0.131 -0.126 (0.147) (0.175) (0.176) (0.176)PovertyIndicator -2.970*** 0.063 0.073 0.027 (0.161) (0.164) (0.164) (0.175)FoodInsecurity*PovertyIndicator 0.262 (0.331)HealthFactors ChildHealth 5.405*** 1.046 0.991 0.987 (1.430) (1.329) (1.337) (1.335)Height 0.069*** -0.047** 0.044 0.043 (0.023) (0.022) (0.042) (0.042)Weight -0.009 0.003 -0.002 -0.002 (0.006) (0.005) (0.006) (0.006)BMI -0.049* -0.036 -0.006 -0.006 (0.029) (0.023) (0.023) (0.023)SchoolFactors FreeorReducedLunchPercentage -0.037*** 0.008** 0.007** 0.007** (0.003) (0.003) (0.003) (0.003)10-25%Minority 0.553*** 0.327 0.348 0.349 (0.174) (0.217) (0.218) (0.218)25-50%Minority 0.178 0.378 0.378 0.380 (0.172) (0.263) (0.264) (0.263)50-75%Minority -0.323 0.578* 0.599* 0.599* (0.202) (0.326) (0.327) (0.327)Over75%Minority -1.317*** 0.344 0.345 0.346 (0.201) (0.367) (0.367) (0.367)Constant 50.12*** 48.35*** 50.61*** 46.36*** 46.39*** (0.065) (1.868) (1.730) (2.461) (2.461) Observations 24,936 24,936 24,936 24,936 24,936R-squared 0.021 0.181 0.006 0.008 0.008N 11,762 11,762 11,762 11,762 11,762StudentFE NO NO YES YES YESYearFE NO NO NO YES YESFStatisticsandp-valueforjointhypothesis FoodInsecurityandPoverty 1.14 (0.319)Robuststandarderrorsinparentheses***p<0.01,**p<0.05,*p<0.1
27
Appendix3.RegressionResultsforStandardizedMathScoreswithoutWeightsVariable (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) FoodInsecure -4.577*** -1.047*** -0.157 -0.196 -0.251 (0.190) (0.193) (0.150) (0.150) (0.219)HouseholdFactorsHouseholdSize -0.067* 0.071 0.078 0.078 (0.040) (0.060) (0.060) (0.060)ReceivesFreeorReducedLunch -3.704*** -0.088 -0.090 -0.088 (0.150) (0.156) (0.156) (0.156)PovertyIndicator -2.770*** 0.250* 0.266* 0.249* (0.160) (0.143) (0.142) (0.149)FoodInsecure*PovertyIndicator 0.099 (0.295)HealthFactors ChildHealth 4.268*** -1.034 -1.064 -1.065 (1.329) (1.184) (1.181) (1.180)Height 0.141*** -0.013 0.026 0.026 (0.023) (0.019) (0.036) (0.036)Weight -0.021*** -0.005 -0.011** -0.011** (0.006) (0.004) (0.004) (0.004)BMI -0.005 -0.015 0.011 0.011 (0.031) (0.018) (0.020) (0.020)SchoolFactorsFreeorReducedLunchPercentage -0.041*** 0.002 0.002 0.002 (0.003) (0.003) (0.003) (0.003)10-25%Minority 0.479*** 0.092 0.097 0.098 (0.176) (0.186) (0.187) (0.187)25-50%Minority 0.273 0.021 -0.006 -0.006 (0.173) (0.222) (0.222) (0.222)50-75%Minority -0.186 0.114 0.0975 0.0974 (0.203) (0.272) (0.273) (0.273)Over75%Minority -1.068*** 0.088 0.075 0.076 (0.199) (0.316) (0.316) (0.316)Constant 50.50*** 44.81*** 52.00*** 50.28*** 50.29*** (0.065) (1.818) (1.508) (2.104) (2.106) Observations 24,936 24,936 24,936 24,936 24,936R-squared 0.021 0.170 0.006 0.008 0.008N 11,762 11,762 11,762 11,762 11,762StudentFE NO NO YES YES YESYearFE NO NO NO YES YESFStatisticsandp-valueforjointhypothesis FoodInsecurityandPoverty 0.93 (0.0396)Robuststandarderrorsinparentheses***p<0.01,**p<0.05,*p<0.1
28
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