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The relationship between graduate development programs and organisational commitment in the construction industry.
Guinevere Gilbert
Lecturer, School of Property, Construction and Project Management,
RMIT University,
Melbourne,
Australia.
Stream: Assessment, measurement and evaluation of HRD
Refereed paper
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ABSTRACT
Purpose Sequential mixed methods research was conducted to evaluate the success of graduate
development programs implemented by construction organisations. The current paper reports
on the second phase of the investigation which presents the likelihood of retention in the
organisation as a result of experiencing a GDP.
MethodologySemi-structured interviews of graduates and HR managers identified implemented
developmental activities at the same time as quantitative measurement of commitment using
the Three Components Model of commitment tool.
FindingsThe overall results show no statistically significant increase in any form of commitment as a
result of participating in a GDP. However results reveal a “trend in the right direction”:
higher affective and normative commitment and lower continuance commitment where GDPs
are implemented. Detailed analysis shows job rotation and attending more than one interview
were associated with desirable outcomes.
ImplicationsThese results are important because GDPs and their benefits might be perceived as a privilege
associated with large employers; in reality, multiple interviews during recruitment and job
rotation can both be implemented by all construction organisations, regardless of size. All
construction organisations should be encouraged to implement carefully designed
development programs.
KeywordsGraduate, development, commitment, construction.
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Introduction In the late 20th century, literature reported that construction organisations were slow to adopt
innovative HRM strategies such as the design and implementation of formal development
programs (Druker, White, Hegewisch & Mayne, 1996). Reasons given for this include the
dominance of small organisations; contracted or transient labour; economic fluctuations not
facilitating long term return on investment in HRD and the temporary human resource
demands of construction projects (Druker et al., 1996; Dainty et al., 2000). There is some
evidence that in the early 21st century, construction organisations changed their perception of
the importance of human resource management. Raiden (2004) found that large construction
organisations demonstrated significant investment in human resource development with the
intended outcome of improved staff retention. Retaining qualified staff is an important
outcome for organisations. The cost of recruiting and training staff is estimated to be
equivalent to 75% of the annual salary (inSync, 2012) where the cost includes reduced
productivity during the recruiting and training process as well as the cost of advertising and
selecting the replacement. Further, the organisation loses unquantified skills and knowledge
when an employee resigns.
Formal development programs are a structured series of professional development activities
implemented by an organisation. The general aim of such programs is the development of
knowledge and skills to enhance job performance and achieve organisational goals. Graduate
development programs as a subset of general development programs are characterised as
having a limited lifespan, typically of two to three years, and having the outcomes of
providing future managers for the organisation at the same time as developing skills the
organisation perceives to be important (Gilbert, 2011).
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Arnold and Mackenzie Daveys’ seminal work in the 1990s explored the role and outcomes of
such programs that specifically target graduates. They conclude that the suggested benefits of
GDPs run by large organisations include increased employee commitment, job satisfaction,
motivation and decreased intention to leave (Arnold and Mackenzie Davey, 1994a; Arnold
and Mackenzie Davey, 1999; Sturges, Guest and Mackenzie Davey, 2000). This work was
the first to explore the specific development strategies for graduates, but although they
included a range of industries, the construction industry was not one of those. In the early 21st
century, we have no clear picture of the nature of, and success of, graduate development in an
industry still apparently trying to rid itself of its sleepy HR reputation.
The research reported here was conducted to evaluate the success of graduate development
programs (GDPs) implemented by construction organisations. The first phase established how
construction organisations define “success” with regard to their GDPs. This phase defined
success as retention of graduates as employees and future managers. As a result, the second
phase examined the relationship between the presence of GDPs and graduate retention. The
phase two research uses the Three Components Model of commitment (TCM) by Meyer and
Allen (2004) as the framework for the study, accepting the relationship between retention and
commitment which is widely reported. The complete investigation is reported by Gilbert
(2011). The current paper reports on the second phase of the investigation only; it presents the
relationship between formal graduate development programs implemented in the construction
industry in Melbourne, Australia, and graduate commitment. The findings argue that specific
developmental activities have a strong association with organisation commitment. The
implications of such findings are that these activities are not the exclusive domain of the few
large construction organisations, but can be implemented at low cost by the many small
construction organisations.
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The research question asked: is there a significant relationship between graduate development
programs in the construction industry and organisational commitment? The hypothesis to be
argued is that graduates employed by construction organisations implementing a graduate
development program are more committed than graduates employed by construction
organisations not implementing a graduate development program.
Literature review
Construction industryThe construction industry is characterised by many small enterprises, with few large
organisations undertaking the very public commercial work. In 2014 only 1.5% of
construction enterprises have more than 20 employees and concentration of work is low -
62.7% of enterprises generate less than $200,000 in annual revenue (IBISWorld, 2014).
Work undertaken by the industry is project work, ie. temporary, unique, with a definite
outcome. This project focus means organisations find it harder to maintain consistent
demand for human resources. This is partly responsible for the apparent sluggishness with
which construction organisations have taken up innovative HR management behaviour. In
1996 Druker, White, Hegewisch and Mayne reported that the construction industry failed
to keep up with modern human resource management trends. HRD techniques, in
particular, lagged. Reasons for not implementing HRD and other training activities are: line
managers being reluctant to allow their staff the necessary time away from work,
employees being viewed as a factor of production whose cost should be minimised, the
reduction in direct labour employed by large construction firms; the emphasis on
productivity, not the people; economic fluctuations not facilitating long term return on
investment in HRD; issues associated with creating a unique product in situ, geographically
dispersed and outside; and labour commonly recruited as contractors, reducing the need for
human resource management functions and delegating HRM to relatively unqualified
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project managers (Dainty, Bagilhole and Neale, 2000; Drucker et al., 1996). This is despite
the industry being labour intensive; demand is high for blue collar trades-people since,
even with the increase in off-site manufacturing, the skills required to assemble the
components of a building are not the kind of skills a machine can be programmed to carry
out.
In the late 20th century, UK based research concluded that only 17% of large construction
companies have a formal management development policy (Mphake, 1989) and that small
and medium enterprises (SMEs) in construction failed to train employees in both technical
and generic skills (Department for Education and Employment, 2000). More recent data
from Australia shows that amongst construction organisations, training peaks in the 25 – 34
age group and that more people attended shorter courses in 2005 compared to 1997 (ABS,
2005). Gilbert (2011) suggests that a high proportion of training is externally legislated
(such as work health safety) followed in popularity by informal on-the-job training,
particularly in small and medium enterprises.
Retention of graduates in construction organisations is not well documented. Young
reported in 1991 that construction companies have a particularly low graduate retention
rate. In 2000, Dainty et al. found that participants in graduate development programs in the
UK aged 20 – 26 were satisfied that their expectations were being met. However
respondents indicated training and development was provided on an ad hoc basis and they
are expected to be pro-active in seeking opportunities to enhance their own development.
Raiden, Dainty and Neale found in the early 2000s that large organisations do have some
long term HR planning activities (Raiden, Dainty & Neale 2004). Raiden et al. propose that
the concept that the construction industry is not implementing human resource
development is largely anecdotal and Raiden (2004) reported that large UK construction
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organisations demonstrated significant commitment towards human resource development
with the outcome of improved staff retention.
General graduate development Throughout this research, GDPs are defined as a documented series of development
activities arranged by the employing organisation, specifically for graduates to undertake.
Organisational benefits of GDPs include achieving the best person-job fit, identification of
potential leaders, promotion from within the organisation, enhancing team effectiveness,
increased leadership in global market and increased organisational performance, enhanced
job performance and increases in a number of other positive outcomes such as
effectiveness at task, organisational commitment, motivation, satisfaction, productivity and
skills (Arnold, 1997; Arnold & Mackenzie Davey, 1994a; AITD, 1991; Guest &
Mackenzie Davey, 1996; Sturges et al., 2000; Goldstein & Ford, 2002; Jacobs &
Washington, 2003). Examples of individual benefits include self-development skills (Guest
& Mackenzie Davey, 1996), personal and professional growth and self-direction
(Gutteridge et al., 1993), enhanced self-determination and growth (AITD, 1991). Increased
employability is an individual benefit but this is a negative outcome for the organisation as
graduates seek to increase their responsibilities in other organisations, hence the investment
in their development is not returned.
Evaluation of development programs records achievement of the desired benefits and
return on investment, and ensures the most effective cutting-edge training methods are
adopted. A very pragmatic suggestion is made by Giangreco, Carugati & Sebastiano
(2010), that the nature of evaluation is proportionate to the formality and the size of the
organisation implementing the program; large organisations should be thorough and
evaluate the program, the resultant skills and any improvements across company
performance. Small and medium enterprises and organisations with limited HRM facilities
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should carry out basic evaluation of the training itself. Despite agreement that evaluation is
essential, Brinkerhoff (2005) states that most organisations fail to carry out training
evaluation. Reasons for this include the belief that evaluation is not necessary (Swanson,
2005) and fear that the results may reveal the training is not successful (Spitzer, 1999).
As the debate continues, it has become clear that whilst not many training programs are
evaluated thoroughly, rather than admonishing small organisations for inadequate
evaluation, they should be applauded for implementing and evaluating any training at all.
After all, as Giangreco et al. (2010) point out, whilst evaluation should strive to supply the
most complete picture, an incomplete picture is better than no picture at all.
CommitmentThe Three Component Model (TCM) of commitment was developed by Meyer and Allen
in 1991 and later revised and updated in 1997. The model states that commitment
“characterises the employee's relationship with the organization” and has “implications for
the decision to continue membership in the organization” (Meyer and Allen 1997, p. 67).
The word ‘component’ in the model is indicative of each of three components. Affective
commitment (AC) refers to the emotional attachment or identification with, and
involvement in, an organization. Strong affective commitment indicates that an individual
remains committed to an organization because that is what they want to do (Meyer and
Allen, 1997). Normative commitment (NC) recognises individuals’ feelings of obligation
and loyalty to an organisation. The third component, continuance commitment (CC) is an
individual’s perception of two factors external to their control: losses to be borne if they
left the organisation, and alternative employment opportunities. (Meyer, Becker and
Vandenberghe, 2004). The relationship of continuance commitment with productivity is
negative, and it is thought to be an indicator of an employee’s intention to leave.
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The antecedents of the three forms of commitment come from different sources: AC is
caused by variables found in the nature of the role and the environment in which it is
carried out in (job challenge, autonomy, variety of skills used, role clarity, decision
making, workplace relations and fulfilling experiences). NC can be developed through
socialisation and subsequent investment in an employee. The causes of continuance
commitment are perceived to be outside of the employee’s control – either the losses
associated with leaving, or the lack of alternatives. Continuance commitment can result in a
feeling of being trapped.
There is some debate, but it is generally accepted that organisational commitment has
many positive influences including reduced absenteeism and turnover (Lee, Lee and Lum,
2008; Gellatly, Meyer and Luchak, 2006). Although dated, Porter et al. (1974) provide an
interesting concept: as the individual nears their point of departure, commitment to the
organisation decreases so that the gap between commitment amongst stayers and
commitment amongst leavers grew larger. This ability to predict intention to leave could
allow managers to implement an intervention to increase commitment and reduce turnover.
No further research has attempted to observe this potential warning sign.
Early career commitmentSince this study investigates commitment amongst graduates, it is important to review what
is known about commitment during the early career years. Early career commitment phases
have been identified as pre-employment, entry or socialization, and a stabilization phase
(Beck and Wilson, 2001). Whilst there is acceptance that commitment is not static
throughout a career, the change in commitment in the first year is not consistent. Meyer,
Bobocel and Allen (1991) conclude that the first month of employment is critical to
development of affective commitment and that affective commitment after one month can
predict affective commitment at six and eleven months. But Sturges, Guest, Conway and
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Mackenzie-Davey (2002) noted that affective commitment was high when first employed
and fell significantly over the first twelve months. They also reported that early
organisational career management tactics were not significantly associated with increased
organisational commitment twelve months later, and so organisations should take great
care when choosing activities to be included in their socialization programs; a theory not
supported elsewhere. Antecedents thought to assist the development of affective
commitment during socialization and the early career phase include recruitment processes,
quality work experiences, identifying the needs and preferences of new graduates and
structuring early work experiences to be compatible with these needs (Meyer, Bobocel and
Allen, 1991), and face to face socialization (Wesson and Gogus, 2005). Meyer and Allen
(1991) conclude that “Organisations can be instrumental in the development of affective
commitment in their employees… for example provide job seekers with accurate
information, provide new hires with quality work experiences” (1991, p. 733).
Commitment in the construction industryReflecting the adoption of HR behaviour, commitment in the construction industry has
received little attention (Lingard and Liu, 2004). Much of the research investigating
commitment within this context has sought to identify the antecedents of commitment
within minority populations in the industry. For example, Liu, Chiu and Fellows (2007)
investigated the impact of work empowerment on commitment amongst quantity surveyors
in Hong Kong. Lingard and Lin (2004) explored commitment amongst women in
construction; career progression as a result of career management and sufficient training
opportunities were found to be predictors of organisational commitment. This suggests
that the current research might find that where training is provided, commitment and
retention are increased. This is despite the graduate having just completed several years of
tertiary education, and it requires clarification – is it the provision of training itself that is a
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predictor of commitment, or career management, of which training is a component, that is a
predictor of commitment?
Dainty, Bagilhole and Neale (2000) explain, during the early career stage career
expectations of construction graduates were met through the “structured nature of their
progression” through a graduate training program (Dainty et al., 2000, p.172). Promises
about career opportunities appear to be most predictive of employees’ intentions to leave
and of their job search behaviours, and is also strongly predictive of employee loyalty.
Career development should be considered as a core practice for both psychological contract
fulfilment and for employee retention; where violations of training obligations occur, it has
resulted in reduced organisational commitment (Granrose & Baccili, 2006).
MethodThe aim of this research was to establish if there is a relationship between graduate
development programs in the construction industry and organisational commitment. The
research is undertaken from a positivist perspective and it is deductive; a theory and
hypothesis are tested. The research aims to observe the indicators of one “event”
(commitment) following another (a formal development program for graduates).
A public database of registered builders with head office locations in Melbourne’s CBD
provided the population of 29 construction organisations who were invited to participate. Of
these, nine organisations agreed to participate in the research. Only four of the organisations
implemented a formal, documented GDP; all of these organisations employ more than 100
people. The remaining five organisations carried out informal training, ie. not planned or
documented. Of these, only one was categorised as a medium organisation with 15
employees; the remainder had in excess of 21 and the largest organisation to implement
informal training had 200 employees. From the nine organisations, 28 graduates participated
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in the data collection; 12 graduates were engaged in a GDP, 16 were employed by
organisations without a formal development program.
The research conducted semi-structured interviews of graduates to identify implemented
training and development activities. Graduates also completed the Three Components
Model of commitment tool (Meyer and Allen, 2004). The TCM is reported to be reliable
and is highly regarded internationally. Analysis of the data results in alpha values of 0.796
for both the affective and continuance commitment scales, and thus indicate good
reliability. However the alpha value of 0.683 for the normative commitment scale is below
that recommended to indicate good reliability. Caution will be used in interpreting any
significant results relating to normative commitment.
The analysis of the data was carried out on SPSS. The independent samples t-test carried out
on the whole sample, then on the sample undertaking a GDP and finally on the sample not
undertaking a GDP revealed three significant results which are explored. Whilst the sample
size might be too small to establish a relationship between the two variables, the study is able
to make tentative suggestions regarding the impact of GDPs in construction organisations
based in Melbourne.
Findings
GDPs and commitment
The overall results show no statistically significant increase in commitment as a result of
participating in a GDP. This result is for affective, normative and continuance commitment.
Analysis revealed what is reported to industry as a “trend in the right direction”: higher
affective and normative commitment and lower continuance commitment was observed where
a GDP was implemented compared to informal development. The sample who participated in
a GDP showed a mean affective score of 31.42, a mean normative score of 28.3 and a mean
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continuance score of 16.00. The sub-group who did not participate in a GDP showed a mean
affective score of 29.94, a mean normative score of 27.88 and a mean continuous score of
17.88. These results are very similar, but show a slight positive trend amongst those graduates
who experienced a GDP, with higher desirable commitment and lower undesirable
commitment than those not experiencing a GDP. However none of these results are
statistically significant (Table 1).
Mean score GDP No GDP p
Affective
commitment
score
30.57 31.42 29.94 NS
Normative
commitment
score
28.07 28.33 27.88 NS
Continuance
commitment
score
17.07 16.00 17.99 NS
Table 1: Commitment scores by training
Significant findingsAfter analysis of the data, three statistically significant results were found which will be
further explored:
1. affective commitment was significantly higher where job rotation occurred, for the
whole sample (t(26)=2.108, p=.045, 95% CI=(.103, 8.102), r=.55)
2. affective commitment was also significantly higher where job rotation occurred for the
sub-sample who did not experience a GDP (t(14)=2.274, p=.039, 95%
CI=(.369,12.613), r=.52)
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3. for those graduates not undertaking a GDP, mean continuance commitment scores
were significantly lower where they were interviewed twice during the recruitment
process (t(13)=2.402, p=.032, 95% CI=(.687,12.980), r=.55).
Each of these significant results is explored.
Job rotation and affective commitment. Where job rotation occurs, the mean affective commitment scores are significantly higher
for two sample groups: the complete sample, and the sample not undertaking a GDP.
For all graduates there is higher AC where job rotation is experienced (32.7) compared to
those not experiencing job rotation (28.6). Amongst the graduates not experiencing a GDP,
but who undertook job rotation as part of informal training, the difference between the
“haves” (job rotation) and the “have nots” (no job rotation) is bigger: the mean affective
commitment was 34.4 – significantly higher than for those who were not in a GDP and
who did not experience job rotation whose AC was 27.9. It is thought that where job
rotation occurs as part of a GDP, the impact of job rotation is lower than it is when job
rotation is implemented without the foundation of a GDP. The research reports that job
rotation had a positive influence on affective commitment. Thirteen out of 28 graduates
experienced job rotation which is defined as the process of experiencing different roles in
the organisation over a period of time, usually two – three years.
The process of job rotation involves graduates moving laterally between roles, either intra-
project or inter-project. Construction projects require different roles at different phases and
this facilitates graduates moving from one role on a project to a different role on the same
project as the project progresses; this is regarded as intra-project rotation. Rotation intra-
project is commonly dictated by the progression of, and skill needs of, the project. Inter-
project rotation is more likely to occur in conjunction with a necessity for graduates to
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experience certain pre-determined roles for a pre-determined period of time. It is usually
implemented in response to a planned, documented development program at the completion
of which, a graduate has a set of skills acquired during the rotation. Job rotation meets a
number of graduate needs: balance between variety and uncertainty, challenge and skill
development. Each of these needs has been associated with affective commitment in previous
research.
Multiple interviews and continuance commitmentAmongst the sample that did not undertake a GDP, experiencing more than one job
interview resulted in a lower mean continuous commitment score (M=13.17, n=6)
compared to the graduates who only had one job interview (M=20.00, n=9). This was the
only significant result relating to continuous commitment (p=.032). Since continuous
commitment is an undesirable component for an organisation to observe, this is a positive
result.
This research suggests conducting multiple interviews lowers continuance commitment in
two ways. Firstly, during each interview, information is exchanged about the organisation
which then reduces uncertainty and moderates expectations of the graduate. The graduates
are more informed about the organisation and they have more realistic expectations which
may reflect the benefits of remaining with the organisation. These graduates are aware that
they will not receive benefits (such as a car and health insurance) in the short term, and the
graduates are therefore less likely to perceive these benefits as a reason for remaining with
the organisation. Second, it is proposed that as the graduate learns about the organisation,
they feel empowered to make an informed decision to accept the offer of employment
rather than have it forced upon them.
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Without profiling the multiple interview informal training sub-sample, a low mean
continuous commitment score indicates that this sub-sample do not perceive that they would
lose anything of importance to them if they left the organisation, and this perception is
strengthened when two or more recruitment interviews are conducted. Taking into account
the commitment profile, the research concludes that this group are likely to simply be
uncommitted. Graduates who had two interviews reported that the first interview seemed to
be the more formal of the two, conducted by a senior representative of the organisation. The
second interview included the organisation representative from the first joined by another
manager, often a project manager.
Discussion of results and implications Despite the lack of convincing statistical significance between the presence of a GDP and
increased commitment, there was no evidence that a GDP is detrimental to commitment.
Therefore the research encourages construction organisations of all sizes to implement
some form of GDP. In small to medium construction organisations, the role of HR
Manager is often played by the owner and director of the company and this person is under
pressure to manage construction work. However where they are inclined to discuss career
progression and development activities with graduates, and where this is documented, the
results are likely to be increased commitment. The specific significant results relating to
job rotation and multiple interviews are now explored.
Job rotationSince the work of construction organisations is project based, job rotation may occur within a
project, or between projects.
Intra-project rotation often occurs in organisations which espouse the concept that the project
takes priority. Some of the organisations representatives interviewed in phase one of the
complete study (not reported here) commented that the project rules, since if the project is not
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financially successful, then no graduates can be employed. Thus rather than the organisation
or graduate dictating the nature and duration of job rotation, project needs are given priority
and graduates change roles accordingly. Intra-project rotation provides advantages for both
the project and the graduate. The project benefits from team continuity throughout the project
lifecycle. Where team members change mid-project, some disruption to progress occurs
during the settling in of new members. However because the skill requirements of a
construction project change over time, a graduate can be retained on the project and still
experience different roles without the need for a change in the project team. Disruption to the
project is minimised.
Inter-project rotation occurs where an organisation places more emphasis on formal control
over the experience that the graduate gains. Where job rotation is formally implemented, the
employing organisation documents and controls the rotation, moving graduates around
different roles on a calendar basis – usually between 3 and 6 months. A graduate
experiencing inter-project rotation may get a wider variety of experience in a shorter space of
time than a graduate experiencing intra-project rotation. But this may be accompanied by
uncertainty from experiencing both new project cultures and colleagues at the same time as a
new role.
Whilst this finding linking job rotation to affective commitment is not ground breaking - both
Campion, Cheraskin and Stevens (1994) and Ho, Chang, Shih and Liang (2009) find a
positive relationship between job rotation and commitment - the specific impact on affective
commitment takes previous studies one step further. Neither Campion et al. nor Ho et al. used
the TCM so identification of the impact of job rotation on specific forms of commitment has,
until now, not been possible. However Campion et al. (1994) find four benefits of job
rotation which all go some way to explain the relationship observed in the current research:
career affect benefits, organisational integration benefits, stimulating work benefits and
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personal development benefits. The relationship between job rotation and commitment may
also be explained by the graduate need for challenge identified by Shaw and Fairhurst (2008)
being satisfied by the variety of experiences acquired during rotation. Variety is an inherent
characteristic of job rotation; graduates are aware that they will experience a change of role at
a previously determined time in the future (formal job rotation) or they will experience a
change of role as the project progresses (informal job rotation). Variety, acquired through a
change in the role and responsibilities of the graduate - is perhaps more certain where job
rotation is implemented formally.
However job rotation in any form is not without its potentially negative influences through
uncertainty and challenge. Preston and Goh (2013) find engineering graduates that experience
formal job rotation are less satisfied than those who informally swap roles. They attribute this
finding to the nature of the roles, or the feeling of being taken out of their comfort zone.
Both culture change and the role challenge are known to cause stress in new employees. The
potential uncertainty encountered by the graduate as a result of changing projects frequently
could be reduced by providing adequate information to the graduate ahead of the role change
and by implementing actions to encourage all project cultures and employees to align
themselves with the overall organisation culture and strategy. Uncertainty could also be
reduced through the provision of a consistent mentor. Graduates experiencing intra-project
rotation benefit because they do not move between projects and experience new project
cultures and team members; there is likely to be a reduction in uncertainty.
It should also be noted that too much challenge may be just as detrimental to commitment as
not enough challenge. Inter-project job rotation poses the risk of too much challenge as
challenge occurs both with each new role as well as each new project and its associated
culture and colleagues. The ability of graduates to embrace challenges is moderated by the
organisation’s awareness that the challenge exists, and their ability and willingness to manage
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the degree of challenge faced by the graduate. One organisation interviewed in phase one of
the research (not reported here) used the following analogy to explain their philosophy
towards how graduates should take on challenges: “…you put them into a pool, you chuck
them in and they flounder and they flounder but you’ve got to be there so that the moment
they go under, right, you let them, they can go under for a little while, because that all builds
stamina sort of thing but then you pull them straight back out so they’re up again… so
they’ve got to be under a little bit of pressure”. If the graduate is unaware that they are being
watched, then they may have the perception of being left to drown, to continue the analogy.
What, then, is the relationship between job challenge and organisational support or mentoring
and how does this impact affective commitment? It is suggested that the presence of a
supportive environment or a successful mentoring relationship enables greater challenges to
be taken on without a decrease in affective commitment. Literature does not address this
question and this research recommends this should be the subject of future investigation.
Although the research sample is small, the significance of the result discussed here is not
threatened by unequal sub-groups. Therefore it is safe to conclude that job rotation is
associated with an increase in affective commitment, and that job rotation should be
encouraged within construction organisations, as part of the implementation of a GDP.
However organisations should consider the advantages and disadvantages of formal inter-
project and informal intra-project rotation from the perspectives of the project and the
graduate before deciding which form of rotation should take.
Multiple interviewsGraduates who experienced multiple interviews reported that the first interview seemed to
be the more formal of the two, conducted by a senior representative of the organisation.
This experience reported in this study relating to multiple interviews is reflective of current
recruitment practices: Di Milia (2004) found 48.1% of organisational respondents to an
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Australian survey reported they always conduct more than one interview and that two to
three people are present on interview panels. Interviews may take different forms; they
may be formal, informal, face to face, on the phone, in out of work settings and may
include tours of the facilities for short listed candidates (as recommended by Riordan and
Goodman, 2007). These processes are intended to reduce the amount of uncertainty a
graduate might feel prior to and in the early days of employment.
Multiple interviews serve two purposes: firstly the applicant gains some knowledge about
the organisation, its expectations and the role to be filled; this knowledge may reduce early
uncertainty which stems from lack of knowledge (Feldman and Brett, 1983). When a
graduate becomes an employee in an organisation about which they know relatively little,
not being able to predict the future creates a threat which in turn causes anxiety. Since
anxiety has negative effects, uncertainty reduction is therefore desirable. Knowledge
gained can assist in framing realistic expectations. The correlation between expectations
being met, and job satisfaction and intent to remain is confirmed by Wanous, Poland,
Premack and Davis (1992). However the best intentions might not be translated into
shared information. Riordan and Goodman (2007) found amongst their sample that
organisations did not intentionally mislead graduates, but that they communicated nothing
to create realistic expectations and in the absence of any guidance, graduates transferred
their expectations to the organisation. Personal communication with a newly employed
graduate revealed he still expected to be paid overtime and receive Rostered Days Off
(RDOs are a feature of the Australian construction industry, and involve all construction
firms in a designated region regularly scheduling a specific weekday as a rest day for
tradespeople) as a graduate management trainee (personal communication, April 2009).
Clearly the organisation had not communicated to the graduate that these conditions are
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directed at tradespeople and so the graduate had unrealistic expectations. Although this is a
single case and it would be false to transfer this portrayal to the whole construction
industry, clearly there are instances of insufficient information being communicated to
graduate employees.
The second benefit of multiple interviews is that an applicant can make an informed
decision to accept a job offer. Continuous commitment is that brought about by having no
alternatives. But the empowerment provided by knowledge about the organisation enables
the lack of alternatives to be less influential, to appear less restrictive. Instead of focusing
on the lack of alternatives, the graduate is focused on feeling positive about the
organisation which made an offer of employment, because they are more familiar with the
organisation. The process of multiple interviews allows the organisation to build a
relationship with future employees. This result adds support to the findings of Meyer,
Bobocel and Vandenberghe (1991) who confirmed that graduates who decided to accept
the offer of employment of their own free will reported a lower continuance commitment
score. Support is also provided for a range of interview techniques as proposed by
Scholarios, Lockyer and Johnson (2003) who found that the more complex and interactive
the selection methods adopted by the prospective employer, the lower the continuance
commitment scores were. This should be balanced with overuse of different selection
techniques which, Scholarios et al. claim can have the adverse effect of increasing
continuance commitment.
Although not a training activity, construction organisations should be encouraged to view job
interviews as not just for the purpose of selecting the right individual, but also to inform the
applicants about the organisation, its work, its expectations of graduates, and how the
graduate is to be compensated for their efforts. To accomplish this, it is recommended that
construction managers conducting interviews acquire some knowledge regarding interview
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best practice. Whilst multiple interviews are not shown to be related to higher affective and
normative commitment scores, it is still beneficial to know that employees report lower
continuance commitment score.
ConclusionThe research question asked if there is a significant relationship between graduate
development programs in the construction industry and organisational commitment. The
results indicate that there is a positive trend, but that the relationship was not significant
amongst this population. This is quite possibly caused by a small sample size (a limitation of
this study) and the research should be repeated with a larger sample such as one that includes
a wider geographical area. The hypothesis that graduates employed by construction
organisations implementing a graduate development program are more committed than
graduates employed by construction organisations not implementing a graduate development
program was not able to be supported.
However the positive trend in commitment results should encourage construction
organisations to continue to implement carefully designed graduate development programs.
The research established that job rotation and conducting multiple interviews during
recruitment do have a significant positive impact on affective and continuance commitment
respectively. These results are important because GDPs and their benefits might be perceived
as a privilege associated with large employers; in reality, multiple interviews during
recruitment and job rotation can both be implemented by all construction organisations,
regardless of size.
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