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The Relationship BetweenJob Satisfaction and PersonalCharacteristics of TurkishWorkersReyhan Bilgiç aa Department of Psychology , Middle East TechnicalUniversityPublished online: 02 Apr 2010.

To cite this article: Reyhan Bilgiç (1998) The Relationship Between Job Satisfactionand Personal Characteristics of Turkish Workers, The Journal of Psychology:Interdisciplinary and Applied, 132:5, 549-557, DOI: 10.1080/00223989809599287

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The Journul of Psychology. 1998, 132(5), 549-557

The Relationship Between Job Satisfaction and Personal

Characteristics of Turkish Workers

REYHAN BILGIC Department of Psychology

Middle East Technical University

ABSTRACT. The relationship between job satisfaction and the personal characteristics of 249 Turkish workers in different occupations and job positions was investigated. The results indicated that monthly payment was the best predictor of overall satisfaction. Age, sex, education, number of children, and different measures of tenure were significant pre- dictors of different aspects of job satisfaction as measured with 2 different scales. Marital status was not related to any of the measures of job satisfaction.

THE RESULTS OF STUDIES performed in the West, and particularly in the United States, indicate that many personal variables influence job satisfaction in different and complex ways. Researchers uniformly have found that job satisfac- tion varies with age for both men and women in various occupations (Ang, Goh, & Koh, 1993; Glenn, Taylor, & Weaver, 1977; Hulin & Smith, 1965; Kacmar & Ferris, 1989; Lee & Wilbur, 1985; Lowther, Gill, & Coppard, 1985; McDonald & Gunderson, 1974; Rhodes, 1983; Snyder & Dietrich, 1992; Weaver, 1980).

Gender differences in job satisfaction have also been extensively studied, and no conclusive evidence with regard to the levels of satisfaction among men and women has been reported (Brief & Aldag, 1975; Brief & Oliver, 1976; Brief, Rose, & Aldag, 1977; D’Arcy, Syrotuik, & Siddique, 1984; Forgionne & Peeters, 1982; Goh, Koh, & Low, 1991; Hulin & Smith, 1964; King, Murray, & Atkin- son, 1982; Lynch & Verdin, 1983; Saiyadain, 1985; Sauser & York, 1978; Shapiro & Stern, 1975; Smith & Plant, 1982; Varca, Schaffer, & McCauley, 1983; Weaver, 1980; Witt & Nye, 1992).

The other personal variables that have been investigated in relation to job satisfaction are education level, marital status, number of children, pay, and tenure. Studies have yielded contradictory results for those variables (Bedeian,

Address correspondence to Reyhan BilgiF. Department of Psychology, Middle East Tech- nical University, Ankara 06531, Turkey: e-mail: rey@rorqual.cc.rnetu.edu.tr

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550 The Journal of Psychology

Ferris, & Kacmar, 1992; Forgionne & Peeters, 1982; Glenn & Weaver, 1982; Gruenberg, 1980; Hulin & Smith, 1965; King et al., 1982; Lee & Wilbur, 1985; Lynch & Verdin, 1983; McDonald & Gunderson, 1974; Mottaz, 1984; Rogers, 1991; Saiyadain, 1985; Weaver, 1980).

Although numerous studies have been devoted to the causes and conse- quences of job satisfaction (a recent computer search for the period 1981-1991 yielded over 500 listings), there is no published study on the job satisfaction of Turkish participants. In a rapidly developing country such as Turkey, there is a great need to understand the attitudes of people toward their work; determining the job satisfaction levels of different groups could lead to improvements in the work place that would help employees remain satisfied with their jobs.

In the present study, I used a single question and two scales to measure var- ious personal variables and job satisfaction of Turkish workers. My study was significant in several regards. First, job satisfaction in Turkey had not been stud- ied before. Second, only a few studies have included all of the personal variables at once. Third, most related studies have used only one global measure of job sat- isfaction or a single scale, but not both. Finally, I constructed a new scale of job attitudes in Turkish to be used with Turkish participants.

Method

Participants

The participants were 249 full-time employees from various work places in Ankara. Both public- and private-sector employees of different occupations and work positions participated.

Forty-seven percent of the participants ( 1 17) were men, and 53% (132) were women. Fifty-five percent ( 1 36) were married, and 45% ( I 11) were single. Fifty- one percent (128) had no children, 19.7% (49) had one child, 19.7% (49) had two children, 7.2% ( 1 8) had three children, and 1.6%(4) had four children. The mean age of the group was 31.2 years (SD = 8.30), and the range was 45 years (15-60). The mean education level was 12.2 years (SD = 3.3), with a range of 12 years (5-17). Mean work experience was 9.8 years (SD = 7.8), with a range of 38 years (1-39). The median monthly earnings of the group was 3.5 million Turkish lira (about $350), with a range between 1,000,000 and 17,000,000 lira. (The figures today are much higher than at the time the data were collected because monthly incomes have been adjusted according to the inflation rate of the country.)

The Kolmogorov-Simirnov test indicated that the distribution of men and women was the same for the majority of the personal variables except for years of education. The women were more educated than the men (K-S z = 2.132, p c .001). More of the men than the women were married, according to the cross- tabulation result, x2(1, N = 247) = 14, p c .001. The relationship between sex and marital status seemed to reflect the demographic trends in Turkey: General-

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Bilg i~ 551

ly, the percentage of educated married women is smaller than the percentage of educated married men (Atalay, Kontas, Beyazit, & Madenoglu, 1992).

Instruments and Procedures

I used a four-part instrument in the present study. The first part was a new scale, the Job Satisfaction Scale (JSS), which I created for this study by inter- viewing a group of people working in different occupations in Ankara. I asked the following three open-ended questions.

1. What is your opinion of your job? 2 . How would you describe your feelings about what you do at work? 3. Are you satisfied with your work?

Later, the interview results were put in the format of a 5-point agree-disagree scale. The scale was edited for clarity by two academicians from the same uni- versity. As a result, some statements were removed and some more were added. In the end, the scale consisted of 78 statements. All of the items were used.

The second part consisted of the short form of the Minnesota Satisfaction Ques- tionnaire (MSQ; Vocational Psychology Research, 1963-1977). The MSQ consists of 20 5-point Likert-type questions concerning various facets of a job, with respons- es ranging from 1 (very dissutisjed) to 5 (very satisjed). The scale was translated into Turkish individually by myself and two senior psychology students with a good command of English. The translations were then compared and disagreements were reduced. The instrument was administered to a secretary, a clerk, and a porter at the Middle East Technical University to confirm the clarity of language.

The third part consisted of two questions that asked the degree of global job satisfaction and happiness on the job. These were rated on 5-point Likert-type scales. For the final part of the instrument, I obtained demographic and personal information from the participants.

A group of junior and senior psychology students administered the ques- tionnaire in the spring of 1993. The majority of the participants completed the instrument individually at their work places in the presence of the students. How- ever, in some instances, the questionnaires were completed a day or two after they were distributed. In that case, the students collected them later. In no case did a participant keep the instrument more than 5 days. Of 300 questionnaires, 249 were completed and used.

Results

Reliability and Validity of the Instruments

The JSS and MSQ were factor analyzed. Principal component factoring with varimax rotation yielded two factors that explained 44.3% of the total variance

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552 The Journal of Psychology

of the MSQ data. Items loading above .30 were included; all of the items reached that criterion. If any item loaded above .30 on more than one factor, I included that item under the factor in which it had a higher loading.

The first MSQ factor consisted of 11 items related to intrinsic aspects of work satisfaction called content factors. The second MSQ factor included 9 items called contextual factors, or factors related to extrinsic job satisfaction. They accounted for 36.9% and 7.5% of the total variance, respectively. The two-factor solution of the MSQ, short form, was supported by previous research (Ivance- vich, 1978, 1980; Ivancevich & Smith, 1981). The alpha reliability coefficients of the two factors were above .80.

The factor analysis of the JSS with principal components using varimax rotation yielded a seven-factor solution. Those factors explained 44.5% of the total variance. The items were included under the factors according to the crite- ria used for the MSQ. Only four items did not meet those criteria. Items that had above .30 loadings on the first factor included items that reflected affective responses to one's job; they accounted for 18.6% of the total variance.

Items loading on the second factor reflected satisfaction with supervision and personnel policy, and items loading on the third factor were related to an employ- ee's concern for productivity and responsibility. Factors 2 and 3 explained 5.7% and 4.7% of the total variance, respectively. The fourth factor, which was related to task-related conflict, contained items that reflected negative reactions toward the organizational policy and work place; it explained 4.1% of the total variance. The fifth factor reflected feelings toward co-workers, and the items on the sixth factor were related to pay. The seventh factor was related to the physical environ- ment or atmosphere of the work place. Factors 5, 6, and 7 accounted for 3.2%, 2.8%, and 2.7% of the total variance, respectively. The alpha coefficients of the seven factors were between .60 and 37. The SPSS factor analysis subprogram of Nie, Hull, Jenkins, Steinbrenner, and Bent (1975) was used for both scales.

The majority of the subscales of MSQ and JSS were significantly correlated with each other and with the single-item job satisfaction question. The correlations among the subscales ranged from -.58 to .79. The mean interscale correlation, not including the scale-total correlations, was .18. Factor 4 of the JSS was negatively correlated with all other factors of both scales. All of the interscale correlations were significant, with the exception of Factors 3 and 7 of the JSS and Factor 2 of the MSQ. Although the correlations were significant, they were not high, indicat- ing that, although the factors of the scales were related to each other and to the gen- eral feeling of job satisfaction, they were not measuring the same constructs.

Predicting Job Satisfaction

I performed different stepwise regression analyses to determine which of the personal variables predicted job satisfaction as measured with total and subscales of MSQ, JSS, and a global question of job satisfaction. The predictors used for

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Bilgic 553

that analysis were age, sex, marital status, number of children, monthly income, years of education, tenure of the present job, and years of work experience.

When the overall job satisfaction was measured by the total scores of the JSS, the best predictor was monthly income, which explained 6% of the variance in the total JSS score (p = .26; R2 = .06).' High monthly earnings increased over- all satisfaction. A similar result was found for overall job satisfaction as mea- sured by the MSQ. Monthly income explained an even larger amount of the vari- ance in total job satisfaction as measured by the MSQ (p = .35; R2 = .12). When I looked at the analysis related to the general satisfaction as measured with a sin- gle question, the best predictor was again monthly income. It explained 4% of the variance in job satisfaction (p = .19; R2 = .04).

To determine which personal variables predicted different facets of job sat- isfaction, I performed separate regression analysis for each factor obtained from the scales. A similar but somewhat different pattern emerged for the predictors. For items related to affective response to work, monthly income, number of chil- dren, and years of work experience explained 12% of the variance (p = .27, -.27, and .17; R2 = 12). Items related to satisfaction with supervision and personnel policy were best explained by monthly income (p = .21; R2 = .05>.

The variables of monthly income, education, and gender explained 17% of the variance for items related to concern for productivity and responsibility (p = .28, .20, and .19; R2 = .17); 14% of variance for items related to task-related con- flict was explained by the variables of income, education, and years of work experience (p = -.18, -.25, and .14; R2 = .14). Feelings toward co-workers was not predicted from any of the independent variables. Items related to pay were best predicted by monthly income, age, and gender (p = .37, -.14, and -.23; R2 = .18). An increase in pay led to pay satisfaction, whereas an increase in age led to a decrease in pay satisfaction. Also, the women expressed less satisfaction with their pay than the men did. The variables of gender and years of work expe- rience were the best predictors of the items related to the physical environment (p = -.19, and .14; R2 = .06). The women were not as happy as the men with respect to the physical conditions at work. The participants with more years of work experience were happier with their physical environment.

The variables of monthly income, number of children, and years of work experience contributed most to the variance in the first factor of the MSQ. They explained 17% of the variance in this factor (p = .32, -.26, .21; R2 = .17). The second factor of the MSQ was best predicted from monthly income and tenure with the present job (p = .31 and -.17; R2 = 0.1 1).

Discussion

The present results show that job satisfaction could be predicted from per- sonal variables but that not all personal variables contributed to job satisfaction

'All of the betas and increments in R' are significant at the p < .05 level, dfil, 21 7).

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554 The Journal of Ps.whology

to the same degree, regardless of the scale used. However, demographic variables explained a larger amount of the variance in job satisfaction for the Turkish sam- ple than was found by King et al. for Canadian participants (1982).

As in previous studies (Brief & Aldag, 1975; Weaver, 1980), the results of the present study did not reveal clear gender differences in overall job satisfaction. However, in predicting certain factors, gender was an important predictor variable. For example, I found clear and significant gender differences related to pay satis- faction and satisfaction with the physical environment. Clearly, the women were not happy with their pay. This finding might be attributed to the higher education level of women and their raised expectations because of increased education. However, working women may simply expect to make more money in exchange for the cost of abandoning their traditional roles. Gender differences in pay satis- faction prevailed, even after the effects of education were controlled.

The women were also unhappy with the physical environments of their workplaces. Again, that might be attributed to the increased expectations about the work environment that come along with better education. Furthermore, work- ing Turkish women still perform most household chores, and they are also very meticulous about the cleanliness of their environment. Perhaps the female par- ticipants perceived their surroundings differently from their male co-workers.

The variable of age was not related to the overall aspects of job satisfaction, a finding inconsistent with results of previous studies (Glenn et al., 1977; Hulin & Smith, 1965; McDonald & Gunderson, 1974; Weaver, 1980). Age was a significant predictor only of pay satisfaction. As age increased, satisfaction decreased. In the pre- sent sample, age was related positively to monthly pay but not to the perception of pay. With increased age, the participants expected higher monthly pay-not an unusu- al phenomenon in a culture that accords respect and other rewards to older people.

A number of researchers have found a positive relationship between educa- tion level and job satisfaction, whereas others have found negative relationships (Lee & Wilbur, 1985; Mottaz, 1984; Rogers, 1991). I found that for overall sat- isfaction, education was not a significant predictor-a finding in conflict with results of previous studies conducted in other countries. For items related to Fac- tors 3 and 4 of the JSS, education was a good predictor. The participants with more education seemed to be more concerned with productivity and to have fewer negative feelings toward their work. In other words, people with more edu- cation may not have as many complaints about issues related to work; they may be more concerned with the quality of their work performance.

Several researchers have pointed out that job satisfaction is related to income or monthly pay, but no conclusive evidence has been found for that relationship. In the present study, income was the best predictor of job satisfaction. On all accounts, the relationship was positive. I found, for example, that when people earned high monthly salaries, (a) they had positive reactions to their work, (b) they liked the supervisory practices, (c) they were greatly concerned with productivity, (d) they did not feel task-related conflicts, and (e) they were satisfied with organi-

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zational policies at work. Although the regression weight for the variable of income was high, it is unlikely that income directly caused job satisfaction. Indeed, a high income generally accompanies upper-level occupations, in turn leading to better working conditions. Therefore, people who hold high-level jobs and receive high wages are happier with their jobs than those in lower-level jobs.

One implication for this finding is that organizations should pay attention to low-paying jobs and direct their efforts to increasing job satisfaction of low- income employees. It might not be possible to alter income in organizations in the short run; therefore, employers could think about satisfying social, esteem, and self-actualizing needs of the people holding low-paying jobs.

Number of dependents (children) was another variable that seemed to nega- tively predict or contribute to job satisfaction. This finding was inconsistent with the literature (e.g., Forgionne & Peeters, 1982). The negative contribution of number of dependents to job satisfaction might actually be related to decreased monthly income; that is, as the number of dependents increases, the share of monthly income per person at home would decrease, thereby indirectly affecting job satisfaction. People with low-paying jobs may tend to have larger families than people with high-paying jobs. In fact, that might be a trend in Turkey: Low SES people tend to have more children than high SES people (Ayata & Gunes- Ayata, 1996). In the present sample, the correlation between education and num- ber of children was negative. As a matter of fact, in predicting some of the sub- scales and overall job satisfaction, the number of children variable aligned with income; results showed that an increased number of children was related to decreased positive feelings toward one’s job.

The marital status of the participants did not have an effect on any of the measures of job satisfaction or their subscales, a finding consistent with those of previous research (Saiyadian, 1985), with the exception of one study (McDonald & Gunderson, 1974). Perhaps job satisfaction is not related to marital status. It might, however, be useful to explore the topic further.

Two variables related to time, tenure with the present job and years of work experience, were related to age, but appeared to be two distinct variables that pre- dicted different facets of job satisfaction. Tenure at the present job was one of the age-related variables considered in the present study. It contributed negatively to the extrinsic job satisfaction (Factor 2) of the MSQ. As people work longer at the same job, they may become disillusioned with what they perceive as inadequate rewards for many years of work. Perhaps their jobs and organizations do not meet their contextual demands. This finding is inconsistent with the results of Bedeian et al. (1992), who found a positive significant relation between tenure at the job and promotion and other facets of job satisfaction.

Another age-related variable, years of work experience, also predicted dif- ferent facets of job satisfaction, For example, it predicted task-related conflict, affective responses to work (or positive feelings toward work), and concern about the physical environment. The contribution of this variable to the negative feel-

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556 The Journal of Psychology

ings toward work, good feelings toward the job, and concern for the physical environment was positive. Persons with more work experience might find their jobs respectable, could apply their knowledge to that work, and might like the physical work environment, even though they might experience some problems with their work, such as unclear instructions and not getting respect from friends (items included in task-related conflict).

The present results demonstrate that scales originating in the West can be used in a non-Western culture with high reliability and validity, but there is still a need to develop a scale that measures the affective, cognitive, and behavioral responses of people to their jobs in those other societies. Although the factor struc- ture of a new scale might resemble those of other scales, it can still contain unique constructs, as was the case in my study. The present findings also demonstrate that in examinations of the relationship between job satisfaction and certain variables, one type of measure might not be adequate. More research is needed to general- ize the results to different workers at different occupation levels in Turkey.

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