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1 THE RELIGIOUS LITERACY PROJECT HARVARD DIVINITY SCHOOL Country Profile Myanmar Overview Myanmar (formerly “Burma”) is a majority-Buddhist nation in Southeast Asia, and home to more than 135 different ethnic groups, each with its own history, culture and language. The majority Burmese ethnicity is the Burmans, making up approximately two-thirds of the population. The 2014 census, the first in three decades, put the population at 51.5 million, but accurate numbers are elusive; the government categorizes people into ethnic designations based on geography, not all of which were counted in the most recent census. The country is divided into seven regions, mostly inhabited by Burmans, and seven states, each named after one of the minority ethnic categories: Chin, Kachin, Karenni, Karen, Mon, Rakhine and Shan 1 . Approximately two million Rohingya people, living mostly in Rahkine and in neighboring countries, are not officially recognized by the Burmese government, and as a result, 1.2 million people in Rahkine were not counted in the census. Both recognized and unrecognized religions include Buddhism (approximately 89%), Islam (4%), Christianity (4%), and other religions (3%) including Hinduism, Bahai, and indigenous Nat worshippers. 2 The number of Muslims in Myanmar is disputable; most recent figures have been withheld as of this writing due to the government’s concern that releasing the data would inflame existing ethno-religious tension. Modern hostility between the Burmese state and their ethnic minorities is a direct legacy of British colonial policy. The British used indirect rule to empower minority leaders as a means of controlling peripheral states while majority Burmans suffered the collapse of traditional structures of power and authority. Burmese religious nationalism grew out of a reassertion of Burman Buddhist identity, a worldview that regards ethnic diversity as a threat to Burmese unity. As a result, ethnic minorities—particularly non-Buddhist ethnic minorities—have had a tenuous relationship with the state since independence. While conflicts are typically framed as “ethnic” or “religious,” they must be understood in the context of British colonialism and its impact on Burmese identity, which is experienced differently based on one’s ethnicity. Ethnic conflicts are frequently driven by a desire for greater autonomy, control over local natural 1 “Ethnic Nationalities of Burma,” Oxford Burma Alliance, http://www.oxfordburmaalliance.org/ethnic- groups.html, accessed March 14, 2016. 2 Matthew J. Walton and Susan Hayward, “Contesting Buddhist Narratives: Democratization, Nationalism, and Communal Violence in Myanmar,” (2014): 4-5.

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Page 1: THE RELIGIOUS LITERACY PROJECT HARVARD DIVINITY … · Myanmar Overview Myanmar (formerly “Burma”) is a majority-Buddhist nation in Southeast Asia, and home to more than 135 different

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THERELIGIOUSLITERACYPROJECTHARVARDDIVINITYSCHOOL

CountryProfile

MyanmarOverviewMyanmar(formerly“Burma”)isamajority-BuddhistnationinSoutheastAsia,andhometomorethan135differentethnicgroups,eachwithitsownhistory,cultureandlanguage.ThemajorityBurmeseethnicityistheBurmans,makingupapproximatelytwo-thirdsofthepopulation.The2014census,thefirstinthreedecades,putthepopulationat51.5million,butaccuratenumbersareelusive;thegovernmentcategorizespeopleintoethnicdesignationsbasedongeography,notallofwhichwerecountedinthemostrecentcensus.Thecountryisdividedintosevenregions,mostlyinhabitedbyBurmans,andsevenstates,eachnamedafteroneoftheminorityethniccategories:Chin,Kachin,Karenni,Karen,Mon,RakhineandShan1.ApproximatelytwomillionRohingyapeople,livingmostlyinRahkineandinneighboringcountries,arenotofficiallyrecognizedbytheBurmesegovernment,andasaresult,1.2millionpeopleinRahkinewerenotcountedinthecensus.BothrecognizedandunrecognizedreligionsincludeBuddhism(approximately89%),Islam(4%),Christianity(4%),andotherreligions(3%)includingHinduism,Bahai,andindigenousNatworshippers.2ThenumberofMuslimsinMyanmarisdisputable;mostrecentfigureshavebeenwithheldasofthiswritingduetothegovernment’sconcernthatreleasingthedatawouldinflameexistingethno-religioustension.ModernhostilitybetweentheBurmesestateandtheirethnicminoritiesisadirectlegacyofBritishcolonialpolicy.TheBritishusedindirectruletoempowerminorityleadersasameansofcontrollingperipheralstateswhilemajorityBurmanssufferedthecollapseoftraditionalstructuresofpowerandauthority.BurmesereligiousnationalismgrewoutofareassertionofBurmanBuddhistidentity,aworldviewthatregardsethnicdiversityasathreattoBurmeseunity.Asaresult,ethnicminorities—particularlynon-Buddhistethnicminorities—havehadatenuousrelationshipwiththestatesinceindependence.Whileconflictsaretypicallyframedas“ethnic”or“religious,”theymustbeunderstoodinthecontextofBritishcolonialismanditsimpactonBurmeseidentity,whichisexperienceddifferentlybasedonone’sethnicity.Ethnicconflictsarefrequentlydrivenbyadesireforgreaterautonomy,controloverlocalnatural

1“EthnicNationalitiesofBurma,”OxfordBurmaAlliance,http://www.oxfordburmaalliance.org/ethnic-groups.html,accessedMarch14,2016.2MatthewJ.WaltonandSusanHayward,“ContestingBuddhistNarratives:Democratization,Nationalism,andCommunalViolenceinMyanmar,”(2014):4-5.

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resources,andissuesaroundeducation,culture,religion,andlanguage.ViolenceagainsttheRohingya,however,isalmostuniformlydepictedandexperiencedasareligiousconflictbetweenBuddhistnationalistsandminorityMuslims.Historically,politicalauthorityandpowerhaveoftenbeenexpressedthroughpatronageofTheravadaBuddhism,especiallyinrelationtothemonasticcommunityknownastheSangha.Thisexpressionhasremainedaconstantthroughpre-colonialkingdoms,BurmesenationalismandresistancetoBritishcolonialism,socialism,militaryrule,and,mostrecently,civiliandemocracy.Throughoutthesehistoricalperiods,theSanghahassometimeslegitimizedandsometimeschallengedstatepower.Assuch,successiveBurmesegovernmentshavecultivatedcloserelationshipswiththeSangha,whilealsoseekingtocontainitthroughreform.Politically,Myanmarisemergingfromfivedecadesofmilitaryrulewhichbeganafterashort-liveddemocracyfollowingindependencein1948.Althoughitwastherichestcountryintheregionwhenitattainedindependence,itisnowoneofthepoorestintheworld.3Povertyisdisproportionallyconcentratedinruralareasandlessthanone-thirdofthecountryhasaccesstoelectricity.Politicalisolationism,fearsofforeignintervention,andeconomicmismanagementhavecontributedtodiminishedaccesstohealthcare,low-qualityeducation,andseverelylimitedsocialmobility.Thesechallengesbegantobeaddressedafterelectionsin2010,andin2012anew,partiallydemocraticciviliangovernmentcameintopower.Thenewregimetookstepstowardfulldemocracy,inspirednationalandglobalpraise,relievedMyanmarofinternationalsanctions,andpromptedvisitsbyBarackObama,thefirstsittingAmericanpresidenttovisitMyanmar;WilliamHague,theBritishForeignSecretary;andregionalleadersincludingThailand’sformerPrimeMinisterYingluckShinawatra.Still,internationalhumanrightsorganizationsandpoliticalleadersremaineddeeplyconcernedaboutthetreatmentofBurmeseethnicminorities,especiallytheMuslimRohingya.ViolenceagainstMuslims,oftenwithapparentandsometimeswithexplicitsanctionofpoliticalleadersandmembersoftheSangha,hascontinuedtothisday,extendingthecountry’slonglegacyofethnoreligiousconflict. In2015,Myanmarelecteditsfirstcivilianpresidentafter50yearsofmilitaryrule.ThehistoricelectionseffectivelyputNationalLeagueforDemocracy(NLD)leaderAungSanSuuKyi—whoisbarredfromthepresidencybytheconstitution—inplaceastheunofficialvoicebehindhertopaideandally,newlyelectedPresidentHtinKyaw.Inthespringof2016,thegovernmentcreatedanewposition,“StateCounsellor”forSuuKyi.Theposition,similartothatofaprimeminister,iswidelybelievedtobedesignedtogivetheofficeholderevenmorepowerthanthepresident.4ThenewNLDadministrationhasvowedtocreateamoreethnicallyinclusivegovernment.

3BarbaraTasch,“The23poorestcountriesintheworld,”BusinessInsider,http://www.businessinsider.com/the-23-poorest-countries-in-the-world-2015-7,accessedMarch10,2016.4JonahFisher,“HundredDaysofMyanmar’sDemocracy,”BBCNews,July8,2016,accessedAugust1,2016,http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-36732270.

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HistoricalLegaciesTheravadaBuddhismwasavitalorganizingforceinpre-colonialBurmesesociety.Buddhistpracticeandpublicpiety—generallyintheformofofferingstotheSanghaorlarge-scaleconstructionprojectsofBuddhistmonuments—havebeenwellspringsofpoliticallegitimacybothhistoricallyandinmoderntimes.Inpre-colonialtimes,aking’sclaimtothethronewasseenasbothacauseandaresultofhisrighteousconduct,hisexceptionalpiety,andhisreligiouspatronageoftheSangha.However,membersoftheSanghaalsooccasionallypushedbackagainstpoliticalleadership,andkingssoughttocontrolthemby“reforming”and“purifying”theSangha.These“reforms”couldincludeattemptingtodefinenormativebeliefsandpractices,interferingwiththeSangha’swealth,regulatingmonasticbehavior,andrefashioningreligioustexts.StrongkingsoftenimposedseverepunishmentsonanymembersoftheSanghaortheirlaysupporterswhoopposedtheirreforms.5Thispre-coloniallegacyoftherelationshipbetweenBurma’spoliticalandreligiousleadershascontinuedtohaveadeepimpactonmodernMyanmar.Forexample,GeneralNeWin,whoruledBurmafrom1962to1988asheadoftheBurmaSocialistProgrammeParty(BSPP),raisedthespireontheMahawizayaPagodainRangoon,anactthathashistoricallysymbolizedadisplayofroyalpower.Ontheotherhand,whenconfrontedwitharesistantSangha,modernpoliticalleadershavealsoinvokedthememoryofkingswhoreformedtheSangha,callingittheir“religiousduty”tocontainmonkswhoopposedmilitaryrule.SuchconflictbetweentheSanghaandthegovernmentcametoaheadin2007,whentheSaffronRevolutionpittedthemonasticcommunityagainstthemilitarygovernmentinaprotestthatbecamethelargestpublicdemonstrationbyBuddhistmonksinmodernBurmesehistory.Themonks’protestsandthesubsequentunrestgarneredglobalattention.Notsurprisingly,theSanghaisthereforeregardedasastrongholdofanti-colonialsentimentthataffirmsandisaffirmedbyBurmeseBuddhistnationalism.ThedeepassociationsbetweenBuddhismandnationalismhavesidelinednon-BuddhistminoritiesandhavebeendeeplyinfluentialinshapingtheexperiencesofallofthecitizensofMyanmar.TheColonialEra(1885-1948)TheEarlyYearsPriortothearrivaloftheBritish,educationtookplacewithintheSanghaandmostyoungmenpassedthroughmonasteriesasnovicemonks.Inadditiontoprovidinganeducationandareligiousvocation,theSanghagarneredrespectforthemonasticcommunity.Thearrivalof

5JulianeSchober,ModernBuddhistConjuncturesinMyanmar(Honolulu:UniversityofHawai’iPress,2011),11,24-26.

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BritishcolonialpolicyinBurmafundamentallyunderminedthissystem,andisattheheartofcontemporaryintercommunalandinterreligiousviolence.ByundercuttingBurmesepoliticalandreligiousauthority,theBritishmarginalizedtheBurmancommunitywhilegrantingethnicminoritiesaccesstopower.TheBritishintroducedaradicallydifferenteducationalsystemfromthetraditionalSangha,basingthenewsystemonsecularmodernity.Mostofthegraduatesofthenewsystemjoinedtheranksofcivilservantsinthecolonialadministration.TheSangharesistedthisWesterneducation,maintainingthatsecularknowledgecontradictedaBuddhistworldview.

TheBritishdid,onoccasion,workwiththeSanghawhenitsuitedtheirneeds,andBuddhistsrespondedtotheseencountersinvariouswaysdependingontheirregionandsocialclass.However,theSanghasawrapiddeclineandfragmentationduringthecolonialperiod,especiallyafter1895,whentheBritishneglectedthetraditionaldutyoftherulerofMyanmartoappointanewleaderoftheSangha(thathanabain).6Ontheotherhand,ethnicminoritycommunitiesbenefitedfromBritishrule,andforeignersfloodedthemajorcitiesinpursuitofopportunitiesunderthePaxBritannica—asystematized,hegemonicinternationallegalandmaritimecontrolsystemregulatingtradeacrosstheempire.TheBritishalsooversawtheimmigrationofthousandsofpredominantlyMuslimBengaliIndiansascheaplabortosupporttheexpansionofthecolonialeconomicinfrastructure.Nationalismthereforedevelopedinkeepingwithspecificethnic(Burmanvs.non-Burman),religious(Buddhistvs.non-Buddhist),andeconomicassociations.TheeconomiccompetitionbetweenBurmansandIndianslentaclassdimensiontoanti-Muslimandanti-Bengalinarrativesthatcontinuetoresonatetoday.ChristianmissionariesalsocametoBurmathroughoutthecolonialperiod.WhileconversiontoChristianitywasrareamongBurmansforwhomBuddhismwasanintrinsicaspectoftheiridentity,ethnicminoritiessuchastheChinandKachinwerereceptivetoBritishandAmericanmissionaryefforts.AmongtheKachin,missionaryeducationhelpedtocreateasenseofsharedidentityacrossitsvarioustribes,layingthegroundworkforsolidarityandarmedresistancefollowingindependence.Awareofpotentialnationalistthreats,theBritishbannedpoliticalgroups,buttheytoleratedreligiousorganizations.Asaresult,BuddhistgroupssuchastheYoungMen’sBuddhistAssociation(1906)andtheGeneralCouncilofBuddhist(Burmese)Associations(1920)incubatednationalistthought.Theseorganizationsproducedpopularslogansthatlinkedreligionandethnicidentity,suchas“tobeBurmeseistobeBuddhist.”7

6JulianeSchober,“BuddhisminBurma:EngagementwithModernity,”inBuddhisminWorldCultures:ComparativePerspectives,ed.StephenC.Berkowitz(Denver:ABC-CLIO,2006),82.7JulianeSchober,“BuddhisminBurma:EngagementwithModernity,”BuddhisminWorldCultures,ed.StephenBerkwitz(Denver:ABC-CLIO,2006),86.

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UnderBritishcolonialism,layBuddhistnationalistswereinspiredbytheactivismofBuddhistmonks.8In1921UOttamawasthefirstmonktobejailedforhispoliticalactivities;heandothersdiedinprison.MonasticresistancereflectedthehistoricalrolethattheSanghaplayedasacounterbalancetostatepower,andtheirimprisonmentforeshadowedcontinuedcrackdownsonthemonasticcommunityundermilitarygovernmentsinyearstocome.LaterYearsBurmawasamajorfrontlinebetweenBritainandJapanduringWorldWarII,andthefightingdevastatedthecountry.Britain’sscorchedearthpolicydestroyedmuchoftheinfrastructurebuiltduringthecolonialperiod,andthemajorityoftheBurmesewelcomedtheJapanese,supportingtheinvadersfrom1942to1945.Futurepoliticalleaders(andethnicBurmans)AungSanandNeWinweremembersofasmallarmybackedbytheJapanese,knownastheBurmaIndependenceArmy.AsitbecameclearthatJapanwouldlosethewar,GeneralAungSanshiftedthearmy’sloyaltytotheBritishandfoughtalongsidetheAlliesfortheremainderofWWII.Theseshiftingallegiancesexacerbatedethnictensions.TheBritishhadoriginallybarredBurmansfromthemilitaryandinsteadgavepositionstotheKaren,Kachin,andChininexchangeforambiguouspromisesofautonomy.ViolencewasthereforecommonplacebetweentheethnicminoritieswhowerealliedwiththeBritishandtheBurmanswhowereinitiallyalliedwiththeJapanese.Followingtheendofthewar,BurmesegovernmentsdemandedindependencefromBritainandstressedtheneedtomaintain“unity”inthefaceoffragmentation.Asaresult,BurmeseleadersdraftedthePanglongAgreement,aproductofthe1947PanglongConferencethatbroughtGeneralAungSantogetherwithrepresentativesofmanyofBurma’sethnicgroupsinordertoformtheUnionofBurma.Thenewconstitutionincludedprotectionsforreligiousdiversity,butitwascompletedwithoutinputfromrepresentativesofsomeethnicminorities;mostnotably,theRohingyawerenotrecognizedinthePanglongAgreementasalegitimateBurmeseethnicity.Plus,evenwiththeprotectionsthatwereinplace,thenewBurmesegovernmentfailedtoenacttheirpromises,andpowerwasrapidlyconsolidatedinBuddhistBurmanhands.WhilethisbreakfromBritainiscommemoratedannuallyonFebruary12thasUnionDay,inreality,acentralized,coerciveforceoverperipheralcommunitiespersists,leavingthecountryfarfromunified.Thecolonialyearsarerememberedwithbitterness;in1989,aspartofanefforttorollbacksomeoftheinfluencesofcolonialism,themilitarygovernmentrenamedthecountry“Myanmar”from“Burma,”alongwithhundredsofotherplacenames.

IndependenceandModernPoliticalRuleIndependence&CivilianGovernment(1948-1962)

8BertilLintner,TheResistanceoftheMonks:BuddhismandActivisminBurma(NewYork:HumanRightsWatch,2009).

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GeneralAungSannegotiatedwiththebadlyweakenedpost-WWIIBritishgovernmentforindependence,whichwasachievedin1948.AungSanandotherBurmesenationalistsviewedBurmeseidentityasinherentlyBuddhist,aviewheexhibitedin1946duringhisfamousanti-colonialspeechonthestepsoftheShwedagonPagoda,animportantBuddhistreliquary.9However,AungSanmaintainedthatanindependentBurmashouldcontinuetoseparatereligionandstate,andhadhenotbeenassassinatedin1947,Buddhism’sroleingovernmentadministrationmayhavebeenminimized.Instead,UNu(d.1995),leaderoftheAnti-FascistPeople’sFreedomLeague(AFPFL),institutedBuddhistsocialisminhopesofaddressingthewidespreadpovertyofthepost-waryears.10ForUNu,individualpropertyownershipwasattheheartofsamsara(theBuddhistconceptofthecyclesoflife,death,andrebirthperpetuatedbysuffering)whilestateownershipofBurmesepropertywasawaytoestablishBuddhistsocialegalitarianism.UNuandtheAFPFLalsobelievedsocialismtobethebestwaytoreassertBurmeseownershipoverassetsthathadbeencontrolledbyforeigners.TheAFPFLbroughttogetherleft-leaningpoliticalorganizationsrangingfromlaborassociationstostudentandveterangroups.However,theAFPFLsplitinthe1950soverdisagreements,andUNusanctionedamilitary“coup”in1958tomaintainpeacebetweentheconflictingAFPFLfactions.Thebriefperiodof“CaretakerGovernment”militaryrule,duringwhichUNuretiredtoamonasteryformonasticseclusion,endedwithagenerallywellregardeddemocraticelectionwhichreturnedUNutopower.However,italsogavethemilitaryconfidenceinitsownabilitytogovern.UNureceivedwidespreadpopularsupportinthe1960election,includingamongtheSangha.Hisleadershipwasseenasareturntothepre-colonialdaysinwhichBurmawasaBuddhistempirewhosepoliticalleadersweretheguardiansofthereligion.In1961UNuoversawthepassageoftheStateReligionAct(SRA),whichreinforcedthegovernment’sroleasreligiouspatron.TheSRAmadeBuddhismBurma’sofficialstatereligion,institutedtheBuddhistreligiouscalendarasthestatecalendar,andinitiatedconstructionof60,000newpagodas.ThepassageoftheSRAtriggeredawaveofunrestamongnon-Buddhistethnicminoritiesandreinvigoratedminoritydemandsforfederalismand,insomecases,independentstatehood.MilitaryRule,1962-2011InanefforttodefendBurmafromethnicunrestandtoensurethecontinuityofpowerfortheBuddhistBurmanmajority,themilitarystagedasecondcoupin1962.ThecoupwasfueledbyabeliefthattheassertionofminorityethnicandreligiousidentitiesthreatenedtoundermineBurmese“unity.”Themobilizationofnon-BuddhistminoritygroupsinresponsetotheStateReligionActcausedthemilitarygovernmenttoforciblyrestoreorderinthecountry.Generals 9JoshuaHammer,“AungSanSuuKyi,Burma’sRevolutionaryLeader,”SmithsonianMagazine,September2012,accessedJuly10,2013,http://www.smithsonianmag.com/people-places/Aung-San-Suu-Kyi-Burmas-Revolutionary-Leader-165590706.html.10HelenJames,“BuddhistSocialism,”SoutheastAsia:AHistoricalEncyclopedia,fromAngkorWattoTimor,R-Z,ed.KeatGinOoi(SantaBarbara:ABC-CLIO,2004):284-285.

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institutedsometimesbrutalcontroloverethnicminorities,whichincludedforcedconversionstoBuddhismandtheconstructionofpagodasinpredominantlyMuslimorChristianareas.Insodoing,theBurmesegovernmentusedBuddhistsymbolstoenactcentralgovernmentpowerovermarginalizedreligiousminorities.LedbyGeneralNeWin(d.2002),themilitarybackedBurmaSocialistProgrammeParty(BSPP)abolishedthejudiciaryin1962,nationalizedthousandsofbusinessesin1963,andbannedallpoliticalpartiesoutsideoftheBSPPin1964.Shortlyafterthecoup,NeWinreleasedTheBurmeseWaytoSocialism,anoverviewofgovernmentideology,whichcombinedsocialism,Buddhism,andhumanism,reiteratingthelinksbetweensocialegalitarianismandBuddhismarticulatedunderUNu.Tenyearslater,anewconstitutioncementedBurmaasasocialistauthoritarianstate.Foodshortages,poorlymanagedbytheBSPP,triggeredwidespreadpopularunrestincludingamongmembersoftheSangha.Invokingthedutyofpre-colonialBuddhistkingsto“purify”theSangha,NeWinintroducedtheStateSanghaCounciltoregulateandmonitorthemonasticcommunity,and“heretical”monkswereputontrial.TheStateLawandOrderRestorationCouncil(SLORC)ledbyGeneralSawMaungassumedpowerfollowingthefailed“People’sRevolution”of1988,againtriggeredbyfoodandfuelshortages.AungSanSuuKyi,daughterofAungSan,quicklytookonaleadershiproleinanti-governmentprotestsandbecamethesecretaryofthenewlyformedNationalLeagueforDemocracy(NLD).In1988,shedeliveredaspeechagainsttheSLORConthesamestepsoftheShwedagonPagodawhereherfatherhadexcoriatedthecolonialgovernmentfourdecadesearlier.11Ayearlatershewasplacedunderhousearrest.TheNLDhadtremendoussuccessinthe1990elections—anunwelcomesurprisetotherulingmilitarygovernment.Themilitaryinvalidatedtheelectionresults,refusedtohandoverleadershiptotheNLD,andreframedtheelectionsasanexerciseinreform.In1991whilestillunderhousearrest,AungSanSuuKyiwasawardedtheNobelPeacePrize,transformingherintoaglobaliconofnonviolentactivism.InherNobelPrizeacceptancespeech,deliveredinabsentiabyherson,shewrote:“Buddhism,thefoundationoftraditionalBurmeseculture,placesthegreatestvalueonman,whoaloneofallbeingscanachievethesupremestateofBuddhahood…ThequestfordemocracyinBurmaisthestruggleofapeopletolivewhole,meaningfullivesasfreeandequalmembersoftheworldcommunity.Itispartoftheunceasinghumanendeavortoprovethatthespiritofmancantranscendtheflawsofhisnature.”12InframingherappealfordemocracyandhumanrightsinBuddhistterms,AungSanSuuKyiofferedapersuasivecounter-narrativetothemilitarygovernment;torebutit,theywouldstruggletobeseenasmoreBuddhistthanshe.

11SeeAungSanSuuKyi,“SpeechtoaMassRallyattheShwedagonPagoda.”FreedomfromFearandOtherWritings.EditedbyMichaelAris(London:Viking,1991).12"AungSanSuuKyi-AcceptanceSpeech,"Nobelprize.org.NobelMediaAB2013,accessedJuly10,2013,http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1991/kyi-acceptance_en.html.

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Indeed,theSLORCfacedsignificant,thoughnotuniform,oppositionamongtheSangha.ThoughsomemembersoftheSanghasupportedmilitarypowerinreturnforitspatronage,othersvocallyopposedtheregime.Toprotestthe1990electionresults,somemonksandmonasteriesrefusedtoacceptalmsortoperformservicesformilitaryfamilies,therebydenyingthem“merit.”InBuddhistcultures,meritistraditionallyseenasarequirementforbothmaterialsuccessandspiritualadvancement,makingofferingstotheSanghaanessentialmethodofgainingstatusinthecommunity.TheSangha’srefusaltoacceptmilitarypatronagewasascathingandpubliccritiqueofSLORCpolicy.Inresponse,thegovernmentinitiatedabrutalcrackdownonthemonasteries,arresting“corrupt”monksanddestroyingmonasteryproperty.TheyagainframedthisresponseasadutyderivedfromtheirroleaspurifieroftheSangha.TheSLORChenceforthissuedalawrequiringmonkstoavoidpoliticsandtoconformtothepoliciesoftheStateSanghaCouncil.TheSLORCtookgreatpainstoaffirmtheirreligiouslegitimacy.TheypubliclycelebratedBuddhistholidays;channeledstatemoneyfornewpagodas,toBuddhistuniversities,andtosupportivemonasteries;sponsoredasix-weekprocessionofamajorBuddhistrelicaroundthecountry;anddiscussedimplementing“Buddhistculture”coursesinBurmeseschools.13ProtestsandDemocraticTransitions,2007-presentIn2007thegovernmentremovedfuelsubsidies,promptingawaveofprotestsdubbedthe“SaffronRevolution”duetotheparticipationofthousandsofBuddhistmonksinmarchesacrossthecountry,thoughtheprotestswereorganizedbyoppositionpoliticalactivistsandincludedavarietyofparticipants.Nonetheless,itwasthelargestpublicdemonstrationbyBuddhistmonksinmodernBurmesehistoryandquicklygarneredglobalattention,despitecensorshipeffortsthatultimatelyshutdownnationalinternetservice.Astheprotestsintensified,agroupofmonksmarchedtothehomeofAungSanSuuKyi,stillunderhousearrest,tearfullypledgingtheirallegiance.ImagesofmilitaryofficersbeatingBuddhistmonasticsspreadrapidlyviasocialmedia,andundidmuchofthereligiousgoodwillthatthemilitarygovernmenthadcultivatedthroughitspatronageofBuddhistinstitutionssincethe1990s.In2008,themilitarygovernmentwasfurtherunderminedbytheirnegligenthumanitarianresponseintheaftermathofCycloneNargis.CyclonesarecommoninMyanmar,butanumberoffactorscombinedtocreateahumanitarianandenvironmentaldisaster.Thestormwasparticularlysevere,andthepeopleofMyanmarinthepathofthestormreceivedlittletonowarningfromthegovernment.Inaddition,largescaleenvironmentaldegradation—particularlythewholesaledestructionofMangroveforestsintheIrrawaddydeltawhichformednaturalbarrierstostorms—significantlyincreasedthedevastationofthestorm.Themilitarygovernmentwasslowtorespondandinternalcorruptionwasrampant.Internationalaidwasflatlyrefusedbythejunta,partiallyduetofearsofforeign

13BertilLintner,TheResistanceoftheMonks:BuddhismandActivisminBurma(NewYork:HumanRightsWatch,2009).

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invasion,andpartiallytopreventinternationalpollwatchersfromobservingthe2008constitutionalreferendum.14ThereferendumhadbeencalledbythemilitarygovernmenttovoteonanewconstitutionforthecountryonMay10,whichfelleightdaysafterthestorm.Myanmartotallyrejectedcallsforinternationalobservers,evenfromtheUN,sowhentheydelayedvotinginstormeffectedareasbytwoweeks,theyalsorefusedtoallowinternationalaidworkerstoenterthecountrytoassistwithreliefeffortsuntilnearlyamonthafterthestormhitthecountry.Thereferendumwaswidelydisputed,thoughthegovernmentdeclaredturnoutofover98percent,withover92percentapproval.Oncethereferendumwasover,thegovernmentbegantoallowforeignaidtoenterthecountry,butformanyitwastoolate.Whileofficialfiguresareimprecise,thestormanditsaftermathledtothedeathofaround138,000people,andcost$2.4billion(USD),around27percentofthecountry’sGDP.However,italsobeganaperiodofmassiveinfluxesofforeignaidandgreaterautonomyforNGOsandotheraidorganizations,whiledramaticallyintensifyinginternationalcondemnationofthemilitarygovernment.15TheunrestfollowingtheSaffronRevolutionandaftermathofCycloneNargiswasfollowedbygeneralelectionsin2010.AungSanSuuKyiandtheNLDboycottedtheelection,allowingformerGeneralTheinSeintowinmostoftheparliament’sseatsandelectiontoPrimeMinister,despitequestionsaboutthelegitimacyoftheelection.However,inJune2012,theNLDparticipatedinby-electionsandwonnearlyallcontestedseats.AungSanSuuKyiwaswelcomedintoparliament.Assanctionswerelifted,foreigninvestmentandtourismbegantoflowintoMyanmar.U.S.PresidentBarackObama,SecretaryofStateHillaryClinton,andBritishForeignSecretaryWilliamHaguemadehighlypublicizedvisitstoMyanmar.In2014,MyanmarwaselectedtoholdthechairoftheAssociationofSoutheastAsianNations(ASEAN),whichsuggestedanextraordinaryregionalvoteofconfidenceinthegovernment’sreforms.ThecollectivevoiceofAungSanSuuKyi’sNLDpartyandtheRuleofLawandTranquilityCommittee—aparliamentarycommitteechairedbySuuKyi—continuedtointensify,andsodidthechallengessheandSpeakerShweMannposedtothepresidentandtheexecutivebranchovermilitaryrolesandbudgets16.InNovember,2015SuuKyifamouslydeclaredthatifshewontheelectionandformedanewgovernmentwiththeNLDparty,shewouldbe“abovethepresident.”Bythetimethe2015electionswereheld,AungSanSuuKyi,theuncontested“iconofdemocracy,”hadgarneredthemajorityofthenation’ssupportandledherpartytoalandslidewin.However,shewaspreventedfromofficiallytakingtheseatofthepresidencyduetoClause59F,aconstitutionalprovisiondrawnupbythemilitaryin2008inanticipationofSuuKyi’sgrowingpopularity.Theclausedisqualifiesanyonefrombecomingpresidentwhose

14DavidSteinberg,Burma/Myanmar:WhatEveryoneNeedstoKnow(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2010),70,98,139-42.15DavidSteinberg,Burma/Myanmar:WhatEveryoneNeedstoKnow(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2010),139-42.16PriscillaClapp,“Myanmar:AnatomyofaPoliticalTransition,”UnitedStatesInstituteofPeace,April2015,7-8.

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spouse,children,orspousesofchildrenhaveforeignpassports.SuuKyi’slatehusbandandchildrenareBritishcitizens.Hertopaide,HtinKyawsteppedintotheroleofpresidentbyproxy.Still,Clause59FwasunabletokeepSuuKyioutofpower,asthegovernmentcreatedanewpositionforherinthespringof2016whichtheynamedthe“StateCounsellor.”Inmanywayslikeaprimeminister,theStateCounsellorisgenerallybelievedtobesignificantlymorepowerfulthanthepresident. Despitethesedemocraticsuccesses,recentelectionshavebeentarnishedbythefactthathundredsofthousandsofRohingyaMuslimswerenotpermittedtovote.OngoingconflictswithethnicminoritiesandparticularlydiscriminationandviolenceagainsttheRohingyacastadarkshadowoverprogress,andSuuKyihasbeencriticizedforherlackofresponsetotheirplight.ViolenceagainsttheRohingya,concentratedininternmentcampsalongMyanmar’swesternborder,hasbeenframedinexplicitlyreligiousterms,withsomemembersoftheSanghaclaimingthatMuslimspresentathreattoBurmeseBuddhists.TheviolenceagainstMuslims—whichhaslargelygoneonwiththecomplicityofstatesecurityforces—hasbeencodedas“resistance”againstMuslims,oftenframedasprotectionfromMuslimswhoarerumoredtodesireatakeoverofthecountrybymeansofrapidpopulationgrowthandmarriageofBuddhistwomen.17Anti-MuslimsentimenthasalsobeencloselytiedtothebroadernarrativesofIslamophobiaengenderedbythe“WaronTerror.”18Inlate2012,TheinSeinisreportedtohavesuggestedtotheUnitedNationsthatanestimated800,000Rohingyarefugeesshouldberemovedfromthecountry.Thatsameyear,aself-formedgroupofBuddhistnationalistmonksandlaypeoplecalled969begantoexertinfluenceonparliament.Asamovement,969isdecentralizedandhasonlyroughlydefinedgoals.However,theyhaveoftenbeenimplicatedinoppressionofMuslimminoritycommunities,andtheyhaveencouragedBurmanstobuyonlyfromBuddhistmerchantswhodisplaytheirsymbol.In2014,dominantmembersof969formedMaBaTha(OrganizationfortheProtectionofRaceandReligion),amorecentralizedorganizationwhichactivelyworkedwithpoliticiansinthegovernmenttopasslawsfavorabletoBuddhistnationalists.WhilethemembersofMaBaThaarediverseandtheirpolicypositionsarenotalluniform,manyinthegrouphavepushedforcodifyinganti-Muslimlegislationincludinglawsregardinginterreligiousmarriage,conversion,andpopulationcontrol.TogethertheseBuddhistnationalistgroupscontinuetosignificantlyimpactpolicymaking.In2013,mobsofBuddhistmenovertookMuslimneighborhoods,leadingtohundredsofdeaths.Overahundredthousandpeopleweredisplacedfromtheirhomes,manyofwhichwereburnedtotheground;mostwereRohingya,butothernon-RohingyaMuslimminorities

17SabinaStein,“InterreligiousTensioninSouthandSoutheastAsia,”CSSAnalysesinSecurityPolicy148,(2014):3.18MatthewJ.WaltonandSusanHayward,“ContestingBuddhistNarratives:Democratization,Nationalism,andCommunalViolenceinMyanmar,”(2014):18.

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werealsoassaulted.19InJanuary2014,tensionsexplodedagainwhenlocalsecurityforcesandciviliansassociatedwithanextremeBuddhistRahkinegroupattackedRohingyaMuslims;atleast48werekilled,butboththekillingsandtheexactnumbersarerefutedbythegovernment.DoctorsWithoutBorders,whichtreatedapproximately700,000peopleinDuCharYarTan,Rhakineincluding200,000livinginisolatedcampsandvillages,wasorderedbythegovernmenttoshutdowntheirclinicsandleavethestateaftertreating22woundedRohingyas.Intercommunaltensionandviolence,andahalf-centuryofdeeplyentrenchedmilitaryrulehaveresultedinoneoftheworstrefugeecrisesintheworld.AttemptsbyinternationalmediatohighlightinstitutionalizedsegregationandwhatsomehavecalledethniccleansinghavedonelittletoabatethestrengthofleaderssuchasAshinWirathu(a.k.a.UWirathu),aBuddhistnationalistmonkwhohasregularlystokedanti-Muslimviolence.WhileBuddhistnationalistshavepromotedviolenceandhatespeechagainstminoritycommunities,itshouldbenotedthattherearecounter-narrativeswithintheBuddhisttraditionwhichhaveactivelyfoughtagainsttheviolenceperpetratedbythemorepowerfulnationalistgroups.IndividualsandgroupsofBuddhistmonkshaveencouragedinterfaithdialogue,providedhumanitarianrelieftoMuslimvictimsofviolence,andevenriskedtheirlivestosavetheirMuslimneighborsduringriotsandattacks.EvenafewmembersofMaBaThahavesupportedinterfaithactivitiesandpeacebuildingefforts.Still,mostdissentershavechallengedreligiousbigotrywithextremecaution,duetotheintensesocialandpoliticalpressureleviedagainstthembythepowerfulBuddhistnationalistsiftheyspeakout.20InJuly2016,afterfurtherriotsofBuddhistnationalistsdestroyedtwomosquesandcausedscoresofMuslimstofleetheirhomes,theNLDandtheSanghaCouncilsurprisedtheworldwithanactiveresponse,endingyearsofinactionoreventacitapprovalofanti-Muslimviolence.PresidentHtinKyawandStateCounsellorSuuKyiannouncedthecreationofataskforcetoholdbothperpetratorsandincitersofviolenceaccountable,andaskedtheSanghaCounciltohelppolicehatespeech.Thatsameweek,theSanghaCouncildenouncedMaBaTha,declaringthatitneverendorsedthegroupandthatMaBaThaisnotarecognizedBuddhistgroupinMyanmar.TheNLDagreedsayingthatMaBaTha,“wasneverrecognizedasarealBuddhistorganization.”21Theendresultsofthesemovesarenotyetclear,buttheymayindicateagrowingauthorityofpeacefulcounter-narrativesagainsttheextremeBuddhistnationalismwhichhascharacterizedmuchofMyanmar’smodernhistory.

19DanielSchearf,“KamanMuslimsRaiseConcernsofWiderConflict,”VOANews,November29,2012,accessedNovember22,2013,http://www.voanews.com/content/burmas-kaman-muslims-cite-religious-ethnic-conflict-in-rakhine-state/1555524.html. 20MatthewJ.WaltonandSusanHayward,“ContestingBuddhistNarratives:Democratization,Nationalism,andCommunalViolenceinMyanmar,”(2014):47.21WaLone,“AfterViolence,MyanmarMovestoCurbReligiousExtremism,”Reuters,July15,2016,accessedAugust1,2016,http://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-politics-idUSKCN0ZV1AI;“MyanmarGovernmentCracksDownonBuddhistNationalists,”Al-Jazeera,July15,2016,accessedAugust1,2016,http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/07/myanmar-government-cracks-buddhist-nationalists-160715151456466.html.

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EconomicPoliciesandIdeologiesHistorically,MyanmarwasanimportantnexusinthetradenetworkthatconnectedChinawiththeMiddleEastandEurope,andcoastalcitiesbrimmedwithreligiousandethnicdiversity.Duringthecolonialperiod,theBritishadministrationdidnotinterfereinthereligiouslifeofitssubjectsaslongastheydidnotjeopardizeBritisheconomicandpoliticalpower,therebyencouragingthisdiversity.WiththeopeningoftheSuezCanal,EuropegrewintoamajormarketforBurmesericeandtheIrrawaddyDeltaregionbecamethe“world’sricebasket.”ByWWII,Burmawasthelargestglobalexporterofrice.Nonetheless,theglobaldepressionofthe1930sledtoplummetingricepricesandshookBurma’seconomy,triggeringwidespreadprotestswithstronganti-colonialandanti-Indianovertones.IndigenousBurmeseheldtheBritishresponsiblefortheireconomicwoes,andtheyresentedthepopulationofcheaperIndianlaborersthatwasincreasingundercolonialrule.WiththedeepeningassociationsconnectingBurmesenationalismtoBuddhism,thisresentmenttookonreligiousovertonesagainstthepredominatelyMuslimIndianimmigrants.UndertheBritish,Burma’sresourcesandtradewerealmostentirelycontrolledbyforeigners,typicallyEuropeans,butalsosomeChinese,Indians,BaghdadiJews,andothers.Post-independence,PrimeMinisterUNuenactedsocialismwiththeintentionofreassertingstatecontroloverwhatnationalistsperceivedhadbeentakenfromthem.UNuarticulatedaspecificallyBuddhistvisionofsocialismtoremedythewidespreadpovertythroughoutthecountry.HeinvokedthelegendoftheMahathammada,aprincewhoappearedtorelievesocialunrestwhentheadventofprivatepropertydestroyedthemythicalPadeythatree—atreethathadprovidedpeoplewithallmaterialmeansforsurvival.22Headvocatedcommonownershipofpropertyinanegalitariansociety—autopiannirvana.However,UNu’sgovernmentfailedtosuccessfullystimulateeconomicdevelopmentandthestandardoflivingdrasticallydeteriorated.Asaresult,skilledprofessionalsleftMyanmarandtherewaslittleinvestmentininfrastructure.Non-Burmanandnon-Buddhistregionsreceivedtheleastamountofeconomicsupportfromthegovernment,whichinturnfueledperiodsofarmedresistanceagainstthestate.Corruptionbecameendemicintheyearsfollowingindependenceandworsenedduringthemilitaryperiodwhenanextensiveblackmarketflourished.Inasupposedefforttostemcorruption,thegovernmentdemonetizedthekyat—Myanmar’scurrency—threetimes.Thethirddemonetizationoccurredin1987andtheensuingeconomiccrisishelpedsparktheprotestsof1988.Thatsameyear,themilitarygovernment,whichownedlargesharesinallmajorindustries,enactedaforeigninvestmentlawintendedtoencourageinvestorsbyprotectingtheirbusinessesfromnationalization.InvestorsweredrawntoMyanmarforitsabundantnaturalresourcesanditsstrictlycontrolled,cheaplaborforce.In1997andagainin2003theUnitedStatesimposedsanctionsinresponsetointernationaloutcryoverlaborconditions,includingthetargetingofChristianminoritygroupsforforcedlabor.Thoughthe

22ManuelSarkisyanz,“OnthePlaceofUNu’sBuddhistSocialisminBurma’sHistoryofIdeas,”StudiesonAsia,Series1.Vol.2(1961):53-62.

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currentcivilian-led,military-backeddemocraticgovernmentisimprovinglaborconditions,Myanmarcontinuestoberankedamongtheworld’smostcorruptcountries,andlaborlawsarenotuniformlyenforced.23ReligionandPoliticalandLegalStructuresThelegislativebranchiscomprisedofaNationalParliament(PyidaungsuHluttaw),itselfseparatedintoaHouseofRepresentatives(PyithyHluttaw)andSenate(AmyothaHluttaw).TheHouseofRepresentativeshas440seats,330ofwhichareelectedrepresentativesand110ofwhicharereservedformilitarypersonnelappointedbytheCommanderinChiefoftheDefenseServices.TheSenatehas224seats,including168electedrepresentativesand56militaryappointees.24BurmeselawisderivedfromEnglishcommonlaw,customarylaw,theConstitutionofMyanmar,andenactedlegislation.Anadditionalsocioculturalsourceoflegalisticmaterialisthepre-colonialdhammasata,aseriesofethicalandlegalstories,rules,andlistscompiledfromvariousSanskritandPalisources,whichgiveinformationonaspectsoflifesuchasgenderrelations,economictransactions,andmonasticinheritance.Whilethetextsarenotexplicitlyreligious,theypresumethatMyanmar’ssocietyisBuddhist,andthedhammasataaregenerallyconsideredBuddhistlaw.ReferencestothedhammasataarerelativelyrarecomparedtoothersourcesoflawinmodernMyanmar,butitstillundergirdsmanyaspectsofcustomarylaw.25TheBurmeseconstitutiongrantsrightstofreedomofreligion,butthesefreedomsarerestrictedbyotherconstitutionalarticles,aswellaslawsandgovernmentpolicieswhichhavebeendirectlyenactedandenforcedbytheBurmesegovernment.Forexample,anti-discriminationlawsdonotapplytoethnicminoritiesthataren’trecognizedbythe1982CitizenshipLaw.ThegovernmentactivelypromotesTheravadaBuddhismoverotherformsofreligiousexpressionandoverseesrestrictionsonnon-Buddhistreligiouspractice,especiallyinethnicminoritycommunities.AdherencetoBuddhismisanunwrittenruleofadvancementingovernmentandmilitarypositions.ThegovernmentalsocontinuestomonitorandlimitexpressionamongmembersoftheSangha—whoarenotpermittedtovote—suchthatBuddhistandotherreligiousgroupsfacerestrictionsonfreedomsofexpression,assembly,andassociation.26Morerecently,inthespringof2015,fourlawsknowncollectivelyastheRaceand

23“2012CorruptionPerceptionsIndex,”TransparencyInternational,2012,accessedJune21,2013,http://www.transparency.org/cpi2012/results.24KyawHlaWin,Md.HassanAhmedandMd.ErshadulKarim,“TheLegalSystemoftheRepublicoftheUnionofMyanmarinaNutshell”NYULawGlobal,September2013,accessedMarch27,2014,http://www.nyulawglobal.org/globalex/Myanmar.html.25AndrewHuxley,“TheImportantoftheDhammathatsinBurmeseLawandCulture,”TheJournalofBurmaStudies,Vol.1(1997):1-17.26“Burma,”InternationalReligiousFreedomReport,U.S.StateDepartment(2012),accessedMarch27,2014,http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/religiousfreedom/index.htm?year=2012&dlid=208218.

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ReligionProtectionLaws,wereadoptedbytheParliamentandsignedbythenpresidentTheinSein,despitecontainingprovisionsthatdiscriminatedagainstreligiousminoritiesandwomen.27RelationshipwithOtherNationStatesTensionsbetweenMyanmarandBangladeshcenterinlargepartuponthevastnumberofMuslimRohingyawhohavefledfromMyanmartoBangladeshsincethe1970s.Some300,000RohingyaarepresentlylivinginBangladesh,whichhasnotgrantedthemrefugeestatusandobjectstodoingsoonlegalisticgrounds,pointingoutthattheyhavesignednointernationalagreementsobligatingthemtoacceptrefugees.Morerecently,BuddhistsfromBangladeshhavebeenallowedtosettleinMyanmar,furtherdestabilizinglifefortheRohingyainsideofMyanmarandincreasingthethreatofcommunaltensionandviolence.28ChinahasprovidedsubstantialmilitaryandeconomicsupportforMyanmaroverthepasttwodecades,especiallyduringtheperiodwhenMyanmarfacedeconomicsanctionsbywesternnations.Inrecentyears,Chinahasprovidedbillionsofdollars(USD)inmilitaryaidandhundredsofmillionsofdollars(USD)ineconomicdevelopmentannually.Inaddition,theChinesehavebeguntopushthecentralBurmesegovernmenttonegotiatecease-fireagreementswithethnicminorities.In2012,theyhostedpeacetalksbetweentheBurmesegovernmentandtheKachinIndependenceArmyinanefforttobringhostilitiesneartheChinesebordertoaclose.29Inadditiontogeographicproximity,ChinahasavestedinterestinastableMyanmar;ChinaisamajorbuyerofBurmeseoilandnaturalgas.30However,China’sinvestmentsandnegotiationsarenotalwaysseenpositivelybytheBurmesepeople,aswasmadeclearduringthenationwideprotestsagainstChina’sMyitsoneDamprojectinnorthernMyanmar,aprojectwhichtheBurmesegovernmenteventuallycancelled.AsinternationalsanctionsliftandMyanmarexplorespartnershipswithIndia,Japan,theUS,andASEANcountries,theBurmesegovernmenthasactivelytakenstepstobecomelessreliantonChina.Infact,despitetheirstillsignificanteconomicinfluence,China’sinvestmentsinthecountryhaverapidlydeclined,includinga90%dropinasinglefiscalyearfrom$8.27billion

27“Myanmar2015/2016,”AmnestyInternational,accessedMarch14,2016,https://www.amnesty.org/en/countries/asia-and-the-pacific/myanmar/report-myanmar/28DanMorrison,“Bangladesh’sRightofRefusal,”IHTGlobalOpinion,accessedJuly14,2013,http://latitude.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/06/19/bangladeshs-refusal-to-take-in-rohingyas-from-myanmar/;SyedaNaushinParnini,MohammadRedzuanOthmanandAmerSaifudeGhazali,“TheRohingyaRefugeeCrisisandMyanmar-BangladeshRelations,”AsianandPacificMigrationJournal22(2013);ShaikhAzizurRahman,“BuddhistsfromBangladeshresettleinMyanmar,RohingyaMuslimscryfoul,TheChristianScienceMonitor,accessedJuly14,2013,http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Asia-South-Central/2013/0524/Buddhists-from-Bangladesh-resettle-in-Myanmar-Rohingya-Muslims-cry-foul.29ThomasFuller,“EthnicRiftsStrainMyanmarasItMovesTowardDemocracy,”TheNewYorkTimes,April4,2013;NirmalGhosh,“Anti-ChinaSentimentaChallengeforMyanmar,”TheStraitsTimes,January14,2013;RamyaPS,“China’sMyanmarConundrum,”TheDiplomat,April22,2015.30JacobGronholt-Pederson,“MyanmarPipelinestoBenefitChina,”TheWallStreetJournal,May12,2013.

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(USD)in2011/2012to$407million(USD)in2012/2013.MyanmarisconsideredtobeoneofthefewmajorsetbacksforChineseforeignpolicyinrecentyears.31IndiahasalongandcomplexrelationshipwithMyanmar.BurmawasonceapartofBritishIndia,acolonialpossessionwithinacolonialpossession.FortheBurmese,then,independencemeantfreedomfrombothBritainandIndia.TheBritishhadbroughtinIndianlaborerstoperformmanylower-levelfunctionsinthecolonialgovernment;theyimportedsuchlargenumbersoflow-skilledworkersthatRangoonwasamajorityIndiancityinthe1920sand1930s.LargenumbersofIndiansfledthecountryasJapaninvadedintheearly1940s,andtheBurmesearmylaterexpelledsome200,000Indiansafterthe1962militarycoup.32Recently,IndiahasbecomeconcernedwiththegrowingChinesepresenceinMyanmaranditsnearbybodiesofwater,theBayofBengalandtheIndianOcean.SeekingtostemChina’sinfluence,in2012theIndiangovernmentannouncedarangeofprogramstobenefitMyanmar,includinga$500millionlineofcreditforthegovernment,fellowshipsforMyanmarresearcherstostudyinIndia,andinvestmentinBurmeseinfrastructure.India’sinvestmentsinMyanmarservethemfinanciallyaswellaspolitically,helpingtofacilitatetradebetweenthenationsasIndiaseekstoaccessMyanmar’snaturalresourcesandstemChina’sinfluenceinSoutheastAsia.33Formuchofthetwentiethcentury,JapanwasBurma’smostimportantally.BurmesenationalistslookedtoJapan—anotherAsianBuddhistnation—asapartnerinresistingBritishcolonialism.Beginninginthelate1930s,theJapanesemilitaryhelpedtrainasmallgroupofsoldiers(includingAungSanandNeWin)whocomprisedandlaterledtheBurmaIndependenceArmy.DuringWWII,theinvadingJapaneseforceswerewelcomedbymanyinBurma,especiallyfromthemajorityBurmanethnicgroup.TheJapanesecontrolledBurmafrom1942-1945andsupportedthenationalistaspirationsofthepeoplethere.However,asJapanesepowerbegantodeclinein1945,AungSanshiftedtheBurmaIndependenceArmy’sallegiancetotheBritish.34Evenso,BurmeseandJapaneserelationsremainedclose,especiallyduringtheruleofGeneralNeWin.Fromthemid-1950stothemid-1980s,JapaneseaidcomprisedoverhalfofallforeignassistancetoBurma.ImportsfromJapancompromisedabout40%ofallimportedgoods,andduringthisperiodMyanmarreceivedonlymodestimportsfromChina.WhentheSLORCtookover,thosepercentageslargelyreversed,withthemajorityofimportsinMyanmarcomingfromChinawhileJapan’sinfluencewaned.35However,intheyearssincethedemocratic

31YunSun,“ChinaandMyanmar:MovingBeyondMutualDependence,”inMyanmar:TheDynamicsofanEvolvingPolity,ed.DavidI.Steinberg.(Boulder:LynneRiennerPublishers,2015),279,267-68.32MichaelCharney,AHistoryofModernBurma(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2009).33“IndiaReachesouttoMyanmar,”TheNewYorkTimesGlobalEdition,accessedJuly14,2013,http://india.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/05/29/india-reaches-out-to-myanmar/34MichaelCharney,AHistoryofModernBurma(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2009).35DavidSteinberg,Burma/Myanmar:WhatEveryoneNeedstoKnow(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2010),124-125,121.

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reformsin2011,JapaneseeconomictieswithMyanmarhavebeguntoincreaseagainassanctionshavebeenliftedandChina’sinfluencehasbeenchallengedbythepeopleandgovernmentofMyanmar.TherelationshipbetweenLaosandMyanmarmustbeunderstoodinrelationtothevast—andgrowing—powerofChinainSoutheastAsia.ChinahassoughttobuildarailnetworklinkingLaos,Thailand,andMyanmarinordertoprovideitselfwithanotheraccesspointforoilfromtheMiddleEast.MyanmarandLaoshavecooperatedrecentlyoninfrastructureprojectsoftheirowninanefforttoeasetravelbetweenthetwocountries,althoughthescaleofthisworkpalesincomparisontotheChineseprojects.36MyanmarandLaosalsoshareaborderthatispartoftheso-calledGoldenTriangle,oneofthelargestareasofheroinpoppycultivationintheworld.37Historically,MyanmarhasconsideredThailandtobeitsrival.ExpansionistandaggressiveBurmesekingdomsinvadedpartsofThailand,mostfamouslyin1767whentheydestroyedtheThaicapitalofAyutthaya.ThishistoricaleventisstillsymbolicallysignificantinbothThailandandMyanmar.DuringWWII,theJapanesegaveThailandsectionsofMyanmar’sShanState,thoughtheywererelinquishedafterthewar.ThemilitaryjuntaregardstheannualThai-AmericanmilitaryexerciseknownasCobraGoldwithdeepsuspicion,andgenerallyseesThailandasanAmericanproxyintheregion.Thoughrelationshaveimprovedoverall,thereremaininstancesoftensionandviolence,aswasdisplayedintheirheatedborderdisputesin2002andagainin2016.38

MyanmarReligionsandWorldviews

Closeto90%ofpeopleinMyanmartodayareBuddhist,andvirtuallyallofthempracticeTheravadaBuddhism.ThisbranchofBuddhismadheresmostcloselytotheoldesttextsintheBuddhisttraditionandgenerallyemphasizesmorerigorousobservanceofthemonasticcodethanotherschoolsofBuddhism.TheravadaBuddhistsultimatelyaimtobereleasedfromthecycleofsuffering,samsara,andtoachievenirvana.Toachievesuccessinthisworld—andtoadvancetoenlightenmentinsubsequentrebirths—theymustbuildpositivekarma,ormerit.LaypeopleaccumulatemeritbymakingofferingstotheBuddhistmonasticcommunity,orSangha.Thiscanbedonewhenmonkspassthroughneighborhoodseachmorningtocollectalmsorintheformof

36JanePerlezandBreeFeng,“LaosCouldBearCostofChineseRailroad,”TheNewYorkTimes,January1,2013,accessedJuly14,2013,http://www.nytimes.com/2013/01/02/world/asia/china-builds-a-railroad-and-laos-bears-the-cost.html.37DavidSteinberg,Burma/Myanmar:WhatEveryoneNeedstoKnow(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2010),104.38DavidSteinberg,Burma/Myanmar:WhatEveryoneNeedstoKnow(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2010),5,21;PratchRujivanaromandSupalakGanjanakhundee,“Myanmar’sObjectionmayBlockThaiHeritageClaim,”TheNation,July21,2016,accessedAugust1,2016,http://www.nationmultimedia.com/national/Myanmars-objection-may-block-Thai-heritage-claim-30291043.html.

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donationstotemplesandmonasteries.TheSanghaisalsocapableofgrantinglegitimacytostatepowerorsometimesofopposingstatepower.Inparticular,monks’capacitytorefusedonations—denyingsomeonemerit—grantsthemapowerfulsymbolicvetothattheyhaveexercisedtoexpresstheirdispleasurewiththeBurmesegovernment.BuddhismhadbeenthestatereligionofBurmabeginningwiththeKingdomofPaganin1044,andwasbrieflyreinstatedasthestatereligionunderPrimeMinisterUNuin1961untilthemilitarycoupin1962.WithBuddhismcloselyaffiliatedwithBurmeseidentity,particularlyBurmanidentity,nationalismtookonspecificBuddhistassociations.BuddhistBurmansralliedbehindsloganssuchas“TobeBurmeseistobeBuddhist.”Buddhistmonkswhoopposedcolonialismbecamepowerfulsymbolsforthenationalistmovement,particularlyaftermanydiedinprison.ThoughoppositionhasneverbeenuniformamongtheSangha,thousandsofmonkshaveengagedinpoliticalactivismoverthepastcentury,mostrecentlyinthe2007“SaffronRevolution.”Nationalistgroups,suchasMaBaTha,havesuccessfullyinfluencedpolicymakersandBurmeseBuddhistswithclaimsthattheiractionsarenecessaryforthedefenseofsasana,awordthatencompassestheentiretyofBuddhismincludingthecommunityofmonks,nuns,andlaypeopleaswellassacredtexts,literature,andoraltradition.Sasanaisbelievedtobecriticallyimportantfortheattainmentofenlightenment.Lastly,auniqueaspectofBuddhisminMyanmarhasbeenthegrowthofmeditationmovementsamonglaypeople.Traditionally,meditationpracticewasreservedformonasticelites;layreligiouspracticeconsistedlargelyofmakingofferingstomonkswhowentonalms-rounds.UnderBritishcolonialism,however,meditationwastaughttolaypeopleinlargenumbersforthefirsttime,apracticethatcontinuesintothepresentday.ProminentBurmesemeditationteachershavealsoinfluencedthepracticeofBuddhismthroughoutAmericaandEurope,particularlyinthestyleofmeditationknownasvipassana,orinsightmeditation.Sources:JulianeSchober,ModernBuddhistConjuncturesinMyanmar(Honolulu:UniversityofHawai’iPress,2011).DavidSteinberg,Burma/Myanmar:WhatEveryoneNeedstoKnow(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2010).DavidSteinberg,“’Legitimacy’inBurma/Myanmar:ConceptsandImplications,”Myanmar:State,Society,andEthnicity,eds.N.GanesanandKyawYinHlaing(Singapore:ISEAS,2007),109-142.StephenMcCarthy,“LosingMyReligion?ProtestandPoliticalLegitimacyinBurma,”GriffithAsiaInstituteRegionalOutlookPaper,No.18(2008).Burmans(alsoknownasBamar)arethelargestethnicandlinguisticgroupinpresent-dayMyanmar,accountingforapproximatelytwo-thirdsofthepopulation.TheyliveprimarilyintheIrrawadyBasinandspeakBurmese.NotethatBurmanandBurmesearenotequivalent—thelattertermreferstoanycitizenofMyanmar,notjustthoseoftheBurmanethnicgroup.Almostwithoutexception,BurmansareBuddhist,afactthathasinfluencedBurmanrelationshipswithotherethnicgroupsforcenturies.Non-BuddhistethnicgroupssuchastheKarenwereviewedasuncivilized,inpartbecauseoftheirreligiousbeliefs.TheintimaterelationshipbetweenBurmanidentity

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andBuddhismdeeplyinfluencedBurmesenationalismundercolonialism,givingbirthtosuchslogansas“TobeBurmeseistobeBuddhist.”Sources:MichaelGravers,NationalismasPoliticalParanoiainBurma(Surrey:Curzon,1999).MatthewJ.Walton,“Ethnicity,Conflict,andHistoryinBurma:TheMythsofPanglong,”AsianSurvey48.6(2008).PreciseestimatesofthenumberofChineselivinginMyanmararedifficulttocomeby—mostsourcesguessroughly3%ofthepopulation,althoughsuchafiguredoesnotnecessarilytakeintoaccountthelargenumbersofChinesemigrantworkerslivinginMyanmaratanygiventime.TheChinesehavebeenapresenceinMyanmarforoverathousandyears.AfterWWII,theChinesetookovermanyofthetradingandretailjobsthatwereleftwhenIndiansdepartedthecountryandthusplayaprominentroleinBurmesebusiness.Sources:MyaThan,“TheEthnicChineseinMyanmarandtheirIdentity,”inEthnicChineseasSoutheastAsians,ed.LeoSuryadinata(Singapore:InstituteofSoutheastAsianStudies,1997).ChristiansinMyanmarareestimatedtomakeuparound4%ofthepopulation.Roughlytwo-thirdsofMyanmar’sChristiansareProtestant,about16%areRomanCatholic,andtheremainderaremembersofindependentchurches.Ofthesegroups,about30%identifyasEvangelicalsandabout25%asPentecostals.ManyofMyanmar’sKaren,Kachin,Chin,Karenni,Lahu,andNagaareChristian.ManyoftheseethnicminoritieshadlongbeeninconflictwithBurmans.TheybenefitedundercolonialismandlargelysupportedtheBritishduringWWII.ChristianandMuslimmilitiassometimescooperatedduringthewaraswell.Followingindependence,bothrisingliteracyratesduetomissioneducationandincreasingChristianreligiousidentitycontributedtoanunwillingnessamongminoritiestoacceptBurmanBuddhistrule—thoughdifferentethnicgroupshaverespondedtoBuddhistruleinuniqueways.FortheChin,whohadlongbeentreatedasinferiorfortheiranimistbeliefs,conversiontoChristianitylentthemasenseofbeingonequalfootingwithBurmanBuddhistsasinheritorsofaglobaltradition.FortheKachin,armedrebellionagainstthestatehasbeeninfusedwithBurmeseChristiannationalism.EthnoreligiousantagonismhasalsomeantthatChristianswerelessrepresentedinprotestmovementsopposingthemilitarygovernment;Christianleadersdidnotparticipateinthe2007“SaffronRevolution”protestsalongsideBuddhistmonks.ChristianethnicminoritieshavefacedsignificantdiscriminationinMyanmar.ChristianshavereportedcampaignsofforcibleconversiontoBuddhism,restrictionsonchurch-buildingandreligiousorganizing,andforcedlaborconscription,aswellaskillings,torture,rape,abductions,andotheractsofviolencebytheBurmesemilitary.Sources:ElizabethGoh,“India,Pakistan,Bangladesh,Burma/Myanmar,”ChristianitiesinAsia,ed.PeterPhan

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(Malden:Wiley-Blackwell,2011),9-44.LianSakhong,InSearchofChinIdentity:AStudyinReligion,PoliticsandEthnicIdentityinBurma(Copenhagen,NordicInstituteofAsianStudies:2003).

“Myanmar,”WorldChristianEncyclopedia,2nd.Ed.,Vol.I,eds.DavidBarrettet.al.(Oxford,OxfordUniversityPress:2001).MosheYegar,BetweenIntegrationandSecession:TheMuslimCommunitiesoftheSouthernPhilippines,SouthernThailand,andWesternBurma/Myanmar(NewYork:LexingtonBooks,2002).Approximately2%ofBurmesepeopleareHindu.BurmeseHindusareamixofBengalis,Tamils,Telegus,andUttarPradeshiswhoarrivedinBurmaunderBritishcolonialism.Withthemilitarycoupof1962,aboutonemillionIndians,manyofthemHindus,wereforcedoutofBurma,butsomeremained,mostlyinYangon(Rangoon),Mandalay,andtheBagoDistrict.AsIndiaisacloseneighbor,HinduismhashadaregionalinfluenceinMyanmarforcenturies,andHindugodsaresometimesincludedamongthenats,orspirits,worshippedbysomeBurmeseBuddhists.DuetohistoricaltiesbetweenHinduismandBuddhism,HindushavefacedfarlessdiscriminationthanMuslimIndianssuchastheRohingya.Sources:ManfredHutter,“HindusinSoutheastandEastAsia,”EncyclopediaofHinduism,eds.DeniseCush,CatherineRobinsonandMichaelYork(NewYork:Routledge,2008),813-21.BurmawasoncehometoathrivingJewishdiasporacommunity,whichatonepointnumberedovertwothousand,andwaspartofamuchlargerregionaldiasporiccommunitystretchingfromIndiatoChina.TheintegrationofBurmaintotheBritishEmpiremeantthatitwasgovernedbyacommoninternationallaw,thePaxBritannica,whichfacilitatedregulatedtradebetweenmembersofthegeographicallydisparate,yettightlyknitJewishcommunitylinkedbyfamily,language,andfaith.TheMusmeahYeshua,Rangoon’ssynagoguebuiltin1893,wasthecenterofJewishlifeinMyanmaruntilWorldWarII.ThecommunitywasprimarilymadeupofBaghdadiJewswhohadrefinedtheirmercantileskillsinBaghdad,animportanttradingcenterforcenturies.ItalsoincludedSephardicJewswhosettledintheOttomanEmpireafterfleeingtheSpanishInquisitionin1391,andethnicallyIndianJews:theBeneIsraelandCochinJews.In1839,aconfluenceoffactorsincludingpersecutionundertheOttomanrulerDaudPashacausedsomeJewstofleetheOttomanEmpireforsafetyinSouthandSoutheastAsia.WhiletheymayhavestoodoutintheOttomanEmpire,JewswereoneofagreatmanyreligiousandethnicgroupsinBritishIndiaandthisinvisibilityaffordedthemopportunitiestodevelopstrongsocialandeconomictiesthroughouttheregionwithoutpressuretoconformtoforeignnorms.Myanmar’sJewswerenotonlysuccessfulbusinessmen.Theywerealsoprosperouscivilservants,militarypolice,andshipwrightsintheRangoonharbor.However,despiteeliteJews’commercialsuccessandtheirenculturationintoaBritishworldviewthroughtheEnglishmissionschools(whichsubsequentlyweakenedtheirBaghdadiidentity),theBritishneverregardedthemaspeers.WWIIandtheendofthecolonialeraeffectivelyterminatedJewishsociallifeinMyanmar.Mostforeigners,includingJews,fledenmassetoCalcuttain1941and1942,manytakingthebrutaltrekacrosstheIndo-Burmeseborder.Roughly1,500JewsreachedCalcuttafromMyanmar,andwerecaredforbyBaghdadiJewsthere.Oncerecovered,theBurmeseJewsfoundemploymentwiththeBritishor

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Americanmilitary.AsmallgroupofJewsremainedbehindinMyanmar,manyofwhomhadintermarriedwithBurmesewhowerebarredfromfleeingonEuropeanships.TheJewswereregardedwithsuspicionbytheBurmesenationalists,whoassociatedthemwiththeBritish.Whenthewarhadendedin1945,aroundthreetofourhundredJewsreturnedtoMyanmar.DespitethedestructionofRangoon,theMusmeahYeshuahadbeenunharmed.Still,severalfactorsmadelifeinMyanmarincrediblydifficultforthereturningJews.TheylostBritishcitizenshipfollowingindependence,communalreligiouslifedeteriorated,tradenetworkshadbrokendown,manyprivatelyownedJewishbusinesseswerenationalized,theireducationalinstitutionseroded,andtheysufferedfromthegeneralchaosandlackofsafety.Withinafewyearsoftheirreturn,mostemigratedawayfromMyanmar,leavingveryfewbehind.BurmaandIsraeldevelopedmarkedlyfriendlyrelations;bothdeclaredindependencein1948.BurmarecognizedIsraelistatehoodin1949,andbothDavidBen-GurionandPrimeMinisterUNusharedabeliefinsocialism.UNuwasthefirstforeignleadertovisittheStateofIsraelin1955,andBen-GurionspenttwoweeksinBurmain1961,duringwhichtimehestudiedBuddhismandwaswarmlywelcomedbyBurma’ssmallJewishcommunity.Thisperiodoffriendshipendedwiththe1962militarycoup,whichimposedapolicyofinternationalisolationism.GeneralNeWinoversawthenationalizationofstoresthathadprovidedfundingfortheMusmeahYeshua,whichwasattackedbyananti-Zionistmobin1967.Burma’slastrabbileftin1969,andtheremainingJewishcommunitywasreducedtoafewdozenSephardicandBeneIsraelfamilies.TheMusmeahYeshuasynagogueremainsopenandiscaredfortodaybyBaghdadiBurmesefatherandson,MosesandSammySamuels.Sources:RuthFredmanCernea,AlmostEnglishmen:BaghdadiJewsinBritishBurma(Lanham:LexingtonBooks,2007).BenFrank,“JewsinBurma:WeAreStillHere!”TheJewishNews,January13,2012,accessedJuly11,2013,http://www.thejewishnews.com/jews-in-burma-we-are-still-here. TheKachinareamajority-ChristianethnicgroupmadeupofnumeroustribeslocatedinUpperBurma.In1876,ProtestantmissionariescultivatedrelationshipswiththeKachinandmanyconvertedtoChristianity.KachinleaderssignedseparatetreatieswiththeBritishthatgrantedthemsignificantautonomyintheareaknownastheKachinHillTracts.TheKachinalsoalliedwiththeBritishduringWWII,whilethemajorityBurmansswitchedtheirallegiancetotheJapanese.TheywereoneoftheethnicminoritiesthatcomprisedtheBurmesemilitaryinthecolonialperiodwhenBurmanswerebannedfromsuchpositions.TheKachinreceivedstatusasasemi-independentstateasaresultofthe1947PanglongAgreement,butthisagreementwasabrogatedfollowingthemilitarycoupof1962,leadingtoaseveral-yearcivilwarwiththecentralgovernment.Fightingresumedagainin2011,althoughChinahassoughttobrokerapeacedealtopreservesecuritynearitsbordersandensurethesafepassageofoilandnaturalgasoverKachinlands.TheKachinseekgreaterautonomy,aswellasasayinhownaturalresourcesintheirterritoryareusedandhowthewealthgeneratedfromthemisdirected.In2014,anti-drugsmembersoftheKachinBaptistChurchformedagroupcalledPatNasan,nowcomprisedof100thousandactivistswhoconductraidsonpoppyfieldsandconductpublicfloggingsofdrugdealers.ItisregardedasthelargestcivilianuprisinginMyanmar,andtheirtacticshaveresultedin

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bloodyclasheswithpoliceandgrowers,aswellasforcedimprisonmentofaddictsintoprimitiverehabcamps.Myanmaristhesecondlargestproducerofopiumintheworld.Sources:JamesMinahan,EthnicGroupsofSouthAsiaandthePacific:AnEncyclopedia(SantaBarbara:ABC-CLIO,2012).TheKarenareaninternallydiversegroupofethnicminoritieswholiveprimarilyinsouthernandsoutheasternBurma.Theyarethesecond-largestnon-BurmanethnicgroupinMyanmarcomprisingsome6%ofthepopulationandaremostlyChristian.DuringWWII,roughly28%oftheKarenservedintheBurmesearmy,whichbyBritishpolicydeliberatelyexcludedethnicBurmans.Duringthewar,theKarencontinuedtosupporttheBritishevenasBurmans,ledbyAungSan,sidedwiththeJapanese.RepresentativesfortheKarenattendedthe1947PanglongConferenceasobserversbutdidnotformallyparticipateinthenegotiations.Beginningin1949,arebellionbrokeoutamongtheKarenpeopleandwasquicklyfollowedbythewholesaledefectionofKarenunitsinthenewly-formedBurmesearmy.TheKarenNationalUnion(KNU)hasbeenatwarwiththecentralBurmesegovernmentsincethesedefections,makingthisrebellionthelongestincontemporaryworldhistory.Theyseekgreaterautonomy,politicalrights(includingtherighttobeararms),andsocialfreedomsintherealmsofreligion,culture,education,andlanguage.Sources:DavidSteinberg,Burma/Myanmar:WhatEveryoneNeedstoKnow(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2010).MartinSmith,Burma:InsurgencyandthePoliticsofEthnicity(NewYork:ZedBooks,1999).MyanmarhashadaMuslimpresenceasearlyastheninthcentury.MuslimsailorsintermarriedwithlocalBurmesewomanandsettledpermanentlyinportcitiesalongtheBurmeseCoast,especiallyintheArakanregion.ArabandPersiansourcesmentionBurmainthe9thand10thcenturiesinthecontextoftrade;historically,BurmawasanodeinthevasttradenetworkspanningChina,theIndianOcean,theMiddleEast,andNorthAfrica.OtherMuslimsinBurmaincludedIndianscapturedinwarandresettledintheinteriorandMuslimmercenariesinserviceofBurmesekings.EuropeanaccountsoflifeinBurmainthe15thto17thcenturiesincludeddescriptionsofPersianandIndianMuslimsettlements.Fromthe16thtothe18thcenturies,MuslimsservedintheBurmesearmy,againintermarryingwithBurmesewomen.ThereareavarietyofBurmeseMuslimethnicminorities,includingtheChinese-MuslimPanthayinnorthernMyanmar,ShanMuslims,andRohingyaMuslimsinRakhine.SincetheBritishcolonialperiod,relationsbetweentheRohingyaMuslimcommunityandtheBuddhistBurmancommunityhavebeenuneasy,andinthepastfewyearsthesetensionshaveexplodedintoviolence,predominantlyinstigatedbyBuddhistmobsattackingtheRohingya.ViolencehasspreadtotargetotherMuslimcommunitiesaswell,raisingconcernsovertheciviliangovernment’scapacitytonegotiatesensitiveethnicandreligiousdifferencesandtoplacecontrolsoverBuddhistmonkswhofomentangertowardsMuslimminorities.Sources:

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ThomasFuller,“ExtremismRisesAmongMyanmarBuddhistsWaryofMuslimMinority,”TheNewYorkTimes,June20,2013,accessedJune20,2013,http://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/21/world/asia/extremism-rises-among-myanmar-buddhists-wary-of-muslim-minority.html?hp&_r=0.DanielSchearf,“KamanMuslimsRaiseConcernsofWiderConflict,”VOANews,November29,2012,accessedNovember22,2013,http://www.voanews.com/content/burmas-kaman-muslims-cite-religious-ethnic-conflict-in-rakhine-state/1555524.html.MosheYegar,BetweenIntegrationandSecession:TheMuslimCommunitiesoftheSouthernPhilippines,SouthernThailand,andWesternBurma/Myanmar(NewYork:LexingtonBooks,2002).MosheYegar,“ThePanthay(ChineseMuslims)ofBurmaandYunnan,”JournalofSoutheastAsianHistory,Vol.7,No.1(1966),73-85.MostofMyanmar’sChristiansareProtestant.TheAmericanBaptistmissionariesAdinoramandAnnJudsonarrivedinRangoonin1813afterbeingturnedoutofIndiabytheBritishEastIndiaCompany,andtheyestablishedchurchheadquartersinMoulmeinin1826duringtheFirstAnglo-BurmeseWar.Britishcolonialismsubsequentlyopenedadoorwayforrobustmissionaryactivity.AmericanMethodistmissionariescametoMyanmarfromIndiain1879,andwerefollowedshortlythereafterbyBritishMethodists.Theearly20thcenturythroughthe1950’ssawthearrivaloftheSalvationArmy,theSeventh-DayAdventists,theAssembliesofGod,andtheChurchofChrist.ChristianproselytizationwasineffectiveamongthemajorityethnicBurmans,forwhomBuddhismwasastronglyengrainedaspectoftheiridentitiesandnotmerelyacourtreligion,asitwasinsomeotherareasofSoutheastAsia.Minoritygroups,manyofwhichhadbeeninprotractedconflictwiththeethnicBurmansunderpre-colonialBurmesekingdoms,werefarmorereceptivetoChristianity.TheAmericanBaptistsinitiallyfocusedontheKaren(1827),theChin(1845),andtheKachin(1876),andtothisdaythesethreeethnicgroupsmakeupthebulkofbothBurmeseProtestantsandRomanCatholics.Estimatessuggestthataround90%oftheChinandKachinareChristian.Protestantmissionsstronglycondemnedindigenousethnoreligiouspractices,includingspiritworshipandanimalsacrifice.However,PentecostalmissionariesweremoreopentoincorporatingspiritcommunicationasamiddlegroundbetweentheindigenousethnoreligionandChristianity.AdherencetoChristianityamongsomeethnicminoritiesandadherencetoBuddhismamongtheBurmanshasaddedareligiousdimensiontotheirongoingstruggles.InastatewhereBuddhismwascloselylinkedtoidentity,conversiontoChristianitymarkedsomeoneasanoutsiderandChristianconvertswerereferredtoaskalas,“foreigners.”In1966,fouryearsafterthemilitarycoup,thenewBurmesegovernmentdeniedvisarenewalstoanyforeignmissionarieswhohadnotbeeninMyanmarpriortoindependence,about375total.However,evenduringthecolonialperiod,foreignmissionarieshadworkedcloselywithindigenousChristianstoperformmissionarywork,soevangelizinghascontinueddespitetheabsenceofWesternmissionaries.Sources:RobbieB.H.Goh,ChristianityinSoutheastAsia(Singapore:ISEASPublications,2005).

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ElizabethGoh,“India,Pakistan,Bangladesh,Burma/Myanmar,”ChristianitiesinAsia,ed.PeterPhan(Malden:Wiley-Blackwell,2011),9-44.“Myanmar,”WorldChristianEncyclopedia,2nd.Ed.,Vol.I,eds.DavidBarrettet.al.(Oxford,OxfordUniversityPress:2001).TheRohingyaareapredominantlySunniMuslimethnicminority,manyofwhomfollowSufism.Roughly800,000to1millionoftheworld’s3.5millionRohingyaliveinMyanmar,mainlyinthestateofRakhine(formerlyknownasArakan),wheretheyfacesevereinstitutionalizeddiscriminationandviolenceinwhatisframedasareligiousconflictbetweenBuddhistsandMuslims.ManyhavesettledelsewhereinSoutheastAsia,orinAustralia,Europe,NewZealand,NorthAmerica,Pakistan,SaudiArabia,andtheUnitedArabEmirates.LargerefugeecommunitiesexistinBangladesh,Malaysia,andThailand.BritishColonialism&WWIIBritishcolonialismshiftedpowerbalancesandgenerateddeeptensionsbetweenBurmeseBuddhistsandMuslims.TheBritishtookArakanintheirfirstcampaignagainstMyanmarin1824-1826,andencouragedamassiveinfluxofBengaliIndianmigrants.Bytheearly20thcentury,theimmigrantpopulationwastwicethesizeofthelocalMuslimpopulation.AstheMuslimRohingyacommunityabsorbedthenewmigrantsanditsreligiousnetworksexpanded,theRohingyabegantolook,dress,andactdifferentlyfromtheirBuddhistneighbors.Theirgrowingpopulationpushedintothesouth,displacingsomeBuddhistvillages.ThesedemographicchangesledtocompetitionoverresourceswithBuddhists.Furthermore,theRohingyasidedwiththeBritishagainsttheJapaneseinWWIIwhilethedominantBurmanethnicitywasbarredfromjoiningthemilitary.TheRohingyaengagedinarmedcombatwithBurmeseBuddhistswhosupportedtheJapaneseagainsttheBritish,whichdegeneratedintocyclesofretributiveviolenceonthevillagelevel.TheBritishthenappointedRohingyatopositionsofpowerinthepost-wargovernment,andsomeusedthesepositionstoretaliateagainstBuddhistswhohadharmedthemduringthewar.Additionally,someMuslimsbelievedthattheBritishwouldgrantthemanautonomousareafollowingthewar,andsomeofthosehopedtosecedefromMyanmarandjoinwithIndiaorPakistan.In1946,afewMuslimpoliticalleadersannouncedtheirintentionstoformanindependentMuslimstate,andthefollowingyeartheymetwithMuhammadAliJinnah,whowouldgoontofoundPakistan.TheRiseofBuddhistNationalismOppositiontoMuslimmigrationbecameakeypointinthemid-centuryBurmeseNationalMovement,whichcoincidedwithaBuddhistreligiousrevival.ThiswouldhaveaprofoundimpactontheexperienceoftheRohingyaandotherethnicminoritiesinBurma.Followingindependencein1948,BurmeseMuslimsbegantosteadilylosecitizenshipstatus.SomeoftheRohingyainArakantookpartinanarmedrebellionagainstthepost-independenceBurmesegovernment,thoughmostRohingyadidnotandsomeMuslimleaderscondemnedthereligiousjustificationsusedbytherebels.However,therebelsissueddemandsthatweresharedbymany,includingbothadesiretoberecognizedasindigenousBurmesepeoplesandarejectionofBuddhistclaimsthatBurmeseMuslimswereoutsiders.Rebels—whileseekinganautonomousstate—alsodemandedthatMuslimsbeintegratedintotheBurmesegovernmentandarmy,andthatthegovernmentworktoimprovetheeconomyandeducationalsystemsinArakan.Additionally,theyinsistedthatthegovernmentliftrestrictionsonMuslimtravelandpermitMuslimrefugeestoreturntotheirvillages.WhentalkswiththeBurmesegovernmentfailed,rebelsintensifiedguerillacombatand

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droveBuddhistsoutofvillagesinArakan.TheBurmesearmyrespondedbyrazingMuslimvillagesandmosques,whichdeepeneddivisions.TheMuslimrebellionendedwithsurrenderin1961,butMuslimsandBuddhistsremaineddeeplydistrustfulofeachother.Themilitarycoupin1962effectivelyendedformalMuslim(andallotherminority)politicalactivity,whichwasseenasathreattoBurmesenationalidentity.Themilitarygovernmentnationalizedall“foreign”-ownedbusinesses,triggeringmassiveemigrationfromMyanmarintoneighboringcountriesandeconomicallycripplingthelocalMuslimcommunitythatremained.ARefugeeCrisisNumerouswavesofflightfromMyanmarintoBangladeshhavetakenplaceoverthelasthalf-century,andthepersecutionofRohingyaMuslimshasprovedaconstantpointoftensionsinBangladesh-Myanmarrelations.In1978,Rohingyaprotestsagainstextremeanti-immigrationmeasureswereputdownwithviolence,sendinghundredsofthousandsofRohingyafleeingforsafety.Underinternationalpressure,theBurmesegovernmentagreedtorepatriateroughly200,000refugeestoArakan.Manyoftherefugeeswerepreventedfromreturningtotheirhomevillagesuponre-entry.In1982,thegovernmentpassedtheBurmaCitizenshipLaw,whichgrantedcitizenshiptomostethnicminoritygroupsbutstilldeniedcitizenshiptotheRohingya.By1989,thegovernmentbegansettlingBuddhistsinMuslim-majorityareasinRakhine,displacingMuslimfamilies.ReportsofsoldiersrapingRohingyawomen,destroyingorconfiscatingproperty,conscriptingforcedlabor,andmurderingmenandwomentriggeredanothermajorrefugeecrisis.Atonepoint7,000refugeeswereenteringBangladeshdaily.TheUnitedNationsGeneralAssemblyandUNHumanRightscommissionissuedcondemnationsoftheBurmesegovernment,pointingtoboththerepressionofpro-democracyactivistsandviolenceagainstMuslims.Today,theRohingyafacediscriminationinareasofeducation,employment,publichealth,housing,religiousactivity,movement,andfamilylife.InMay2013,theBurmesegovernmentreaffirmedsupportfora2005two-childpolicyappliedonlytoRohingyafamilies,andin2015,fouradditionalpropositionstargetingRohingyaweresignedintolaw.RohingyarefugeesinBangladesh,estimatedat300,000inearly2016,(acensusisexpectedtobeconductedinApril2016)continuetopresentachallengefortheBangladeshgovernment,whichseeksarepatriationsolutionevenasrefugeescontinuetoenterthecountry.Numerousoutburstsofviolencesince2012haveclaimedthelivesofhundreds,includingbothMuslimsandBuddhists,andhavefedtherefugeecrisis.Ironically,speechandcensorshipreformssincethe2011democraticelectionshaveonlyworsenedthesituation,aspublicopinionisloudlyswayedagainsttheRohingya.PrejudiceisalsocommonplaceamongtheSangha.BuddhistmonkssuchasAshinWirathu(apowerfulvoiceintheanti-Muslim969Movement)havebeenaccusedofblockingaidtoMuslims,deliveringanti-Muslimsermons,andencouragingBuddhiststopurchasegoodsonlyfromBuddhistownedbusinessesmarkedwitha969sticker.ThesemonksclaimthatBurmeseandBuddhistcultureisunderattackbyoutsiders,specificallyforeign“Bengali”Muslims,whothreatentodemographicallyovertakethenationduetotheirsupposedhighfertilityrates.Thegovernmenthasfailedtotakeanyrealactionagainsthatespeech,andtherelationshipbetweenanti-MuslimmonksandsomegovernmentfigureshasraisedquestionsaboutcollusionbetweentheSanghaandthegovernmentintheattacks.Anti-RohingyamonksandothersalsoclaimthatradicalIslamistsamongtheRohingyaareadangertotheBurmesestate,andthattheyareresponsibleforplanningtheviolentoutburstsof2013.While

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militantIslamistgroupsinIndonesiaandPakistanhavethreatenedviolenceandhavetargetedBurmesesitesoutsideofMyanmarinresponsetothetreatmentoftheRohingya,internationalobservershavenotseensignificantlevelsofradicalizationamongMyanmar’sMuslims.Thatsaid,organizationssuchastheRohingyaSolidarityOrganizationhavehadtieswithPakistan’sJamaat-eIslamiandmilitantIslamistorganizations. VitriolagainsttheRohingyaispopular,butfarfromuniform.MonksandlayBuddhistsalikehavespokenoutagainsttheviolence.BuddhistsoutsideofMyanmarhavedecriedviolenceagainsttheRohingya,andhavesuggestedthattheisolationofBurmeseBuddhistmonksfromtheinternationalBuddhistcommunityiscontributingtotheproblem.AungSanSuuKyi,leaderoftheascendantNationalDemocraticParty,hasfoundherselfcaughtbetweeninternationalcondemnationofMyanmar’spolicytowardstheRohingyaandthewidespreadunpopularityofanystatementsinsupportoftheRohingyainMyanmaritself.Whileshehascondemnedthetwo-childpolicyasbeingagainsthumanrights,shehasotherwisekeptrelativelysilentabouttheRohingyasituationforwhichshehasbeenroundlycriticizedbybothRohingyaactivistsandsomeintheWesternmedia.InApril2013,theinternationalrightsgroupHumanRightsWatchcalledtheviolenceagainsttheRohingyaacaseof“ethniccleansing”inwhichmonksandsomegovernmentofficialswerecomplicit.InSeptember2013,theToronto-basedSentinelProjectforGenocidePreventionissuedachillingreportwarningthatwithescalatingviolencethereisahighriskofgenocideagainstMyanmar’sRohingya.AninvestigationbyAlJazeeraandFortifyRights,aYaleLawSchoolNGO,revealedevidenceofgovernment-backedgenocide.WhileviolencecontinuestotargettheRohingya,thereisevidenceshowingthatithasspreadtotargetotherMuslimminoritiesaswell,includingtheMuslimKaman,whoarerecognizedaslegalBurmesecitizens.Sources:

DavidBlair,“HowcanAungSanSuuKyi–aNobelPeacePrizewinner–failtocondemnanti-Muslimviolence?”TheTelegraph,October24,2013,accessedNovember22,2013,http://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/news/davidblair/100242929/how-can-aung-san-suu-kyi-a-nobel-peace-prize-winner-fail-to-condemn-anti-muslim-violence/.JarredFerry,“Burma’sConstitutionLikelytoDashSuuKyi’sPresidentialHopes,”TheIrrawaddyMagazine,June20,2013,accessedJune20,2013,http://www.irrawaddy.org/archives/37951.ThomasFuller,“ExtremismRisesAmongMyanmarBuddhistsWaryofMuslimMinority,”TheNewYorkTimes,June20,2013,accessedJune20,2013,http://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/21/world/asia/extremism-rises-among-myanmar-buddhists-wary-of-muslim-minority.html?hp&_r=0.ThomasFuller,“InternetUnshackled,BurmeseAimVenomatEthnicMinority,”TheNewYorkTimes,June15,2012,accessedJuly15,2013,http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/16/world/asia/new-freedom-in-myanmar-lets-burmese-air-venom-toward-rohingya-muslim-group.html?_r=0.HumanRightsWatch,“’AllYouCanDoisPray’:CrimesAgainstHumanityandEthnicCleansingofRohingyaMuslimsinBurma’sArakanState,”HumanRightsWatch,April22,2013,accessedDecember11,2013,http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/burma0413webwcover_0.pdf.

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ShibaniMahtaniandBenOtto,“MyanmarBracesforIslamists’Rage---SignsEmergeofAsianRadicalsRallyingAroundItsMuslims,”TheWallStreetJournal,May11,2013.DanielSchearf,“KamanMuslimsRaiseConcernsofWiderConflict,”VOANews,November29,2012,accessedNovember22,2013,http://www.voanews.com/content/burmas-kaman-muslims-cite-religious-ethnic-conflict-in-rakhine-state/1555524.html.KellyStaples,RetheorisingStatelessness:ABackgroundTheoryofMembershipinWorldPolitics(Edinburgh,EdinburghUniversityPress:2012).TheSentinelProjectforGenocidePrevention,“BurmaRiskAssessment,”SentinelProjectforGenocidePrevention,September2013,accessedNovember22,2013,http://thesentinelproject.org/wp-content/uploads/Risk-Assessment-Burma-September-2013.pdf.JasonSzepandAndrewR.C.Marshall,“Myanmarministerbackstwo-childpolicyforRohingyaminority,”Reuters,June11,2013,accessedJune17,2013,http://in.reuters.com/article/2013/06/11/myanmar-rohingya-idINDEE95A03B20130611.MosheYegar,BetweenIntegrationandSecession:TheMuslimCommunitiesoftheSouthernPhilippines,SouthernThailand,andWesternBurma/Myanmar(NewYork:LexingtonBooks,2002).RomanCatholicismarrivedinMyanmarwiththePortugueseinthe16thcentury.BurmesedescendantsofthePortuguese,knownasBayingyi(derivedfromthePersianfarenji,“foreigner”atermusedwidelythroughouttheIndianOceanregionandalegacyoftheCrusades),makeuptheoldestCatholiccommunity.RomanCatholicsmakeupabout1.3%oftheBurmesepopulation,90%ofwhomcomefromtheKaren,Chin,Kachin,Chin,Shan,andKawethnicminorities,andtheyarealegacyofCatholicproselytizationundercolonialism.InJanuary2015,PopeFrancisnamedCharlesMaungBothefirstcardinalofthecountry.Sources:DonaldSeekins,HistoricalDictionaryofBurma(Lanham,ScarecrowPress:2006).“Myanmar,”WorldChristianEncyclopedia,2nd.Ed.,Vol.I,eds.DavidBarrettet.al.(Oxford,OxfordUniversityPress:2001).

MyanmarFiguresandOrganizations

AshinWirathu(b.1968)isaBurmeseBuddhistmonk,apowerfulvoiceinthe969nationalistBuddhistmovement,andkeyfigureinMaBaTha,amoreorganizednationalistgroupthathassuccessfullyuseditsreligiouspowertoexertpoliticalpressureandinfluencelegislation.Hehasreceivedinternationalnotorietyforhisanti-MuslimrhetoricandwasdescribedonthecoverofTimeinJuly2013as“TheFaceofBuddhistTerror.”Hewasjailedforeightyearsbythemilitarygovernmentintheearly2000sandhasrepeatedlystokedBurmesefearsoftheMuslimminoritysincehisrelease.AlthoughWirathuassertsthathisspeechesdonotexplicitlyadvocateviolence,hisfollowersareseenasresponsibleforanti-Muslims

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riotsandtheviolencethatbrokeoutinMyanmarin2013.HealsopromotestheboycottofMuslim-ownedbusinesses,andcallsforBuddhistbusinessownerstousea969MovementstickertoidentifythemselvestoBuddhistcustomers.Sources:HannahBeech,“TheFaceofBuddhistTerror,”Time,July1,2013.ThomasFuller,“RadicalmonkcallsforangerinMyanmar,”TheInternationalHeraldTribune,June21,2013.AndrewMarshall,“SpecialReport:Myanmargivesofficialblessingtoanti-Muslimmonks,”Reuters,June27,2013,accessedJuly15,2013,http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/06/27/us-myanmar-969-specialreport-idUSBRE95Q04720130627.TheAssociationofSoutheastAsianNations(ASEAN)isapoliticalassociationfoundedin1967inBangkok,Thailand.ItwasoriginallycomprisedofIndonesia,Malaysia,Philippines,Singapore,andThailand,butgrewtoincludeBrunei(1984),Vietnam(1995),LaosandMyanmar(1997),andCambodia(1999).Itsdeclaredaimsarethesupportofeconomicgrowth,culturaldevelopment,and“socialprogress”initsmemberstates;thepromotionofregionalsecurityandruleoflaw;thepromotionofinterstateeconomic,technical,andscientificcollaboration;andothergoalswhichareoutlinedinitscharter.TheASEANchairrotatesannually,withMyanmarholdingthechairin2014.TheunprecedentedselectionofMyanmarforchairofASEANrepresentedavoteofconfidenceonthepartofothermemberstatesthatreflectedpositivelyonBurmesepoliticalreforms,butalsoheightenedtensionsovertheRohingyacrisis.WhileASEANhasnottakenaclearpositiononthesituation,individualmemberstatesincludingIndonesiaandMalaysia—bothofwhichhaveMuslimmajoritypopulations—haveexpresseddeepconcernoverhumanrightsabuses.OthermemberstaterepresentativesfearthatthestatelessRohingyawillbepushedintoradicalization,thusweakeningthesecurityofalltheASEANnations.Sources:AssociationofSoutheastAsianNations,“Overview,”ASEAN,2012,accessedDecember12,2013,http://www.asean.org/asean/about-asean/overview.LukeHunt,“ASEANNeedstoDoaRethinkonBurma’sRohingyaIssue,”TheDiplomat,May10,2013,accessedDecember12,2013,http://thediplomat.com/2013/05/asean-needs-to-do-a-rethink-on-burmas-rohingya-issue/.JamesPomfret,“Myanmartakeslong-awaitedASEANchair,butcanitcope?”Reuters,October10,2013,accessedDecember12,2013,http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/10/10/us-asia-summit-myanmar-idUSBRE9990DV20131010.YohannaRirihena,“ASEANchief:Rohingyaissuecoulddestabilizetheregion,”TheJakartaPost,October30,2013,accessedDecember12,2013,http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2012/10/30/asean-chief-rohingya-issue-could-destabilize-region.html.

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AungSan(1915-1947)wasaBurmesenationalistandgeneralwhoisconsideredthefounderofmodernBurma.HeisthefatherofAungSanSuuKyi.AtthebeginningofWWII,in1939,hebegansecretconversationswiththeJapaneseandultimatelycollaboratedwiththemintheirinvasionofBurma.By1945,however,heturnedagainsttheJapaneseandhelpedliberateBurmawiththeBritish.AlthoughmanyintheBritishgovernmentviewedhimasatraitor,theyultimatelynegotiatedwithhimaboutthefutureofMyanmar.Heledthe1947PanglongConference,inwhichBurmansandotherethnicgroupscametogethertoopposeBritishcolonialismanddraftedaConstitutionfortheUnionofBurma.Hewasassassinatedin1947byafellowBurmesepolitician,transforminghimintoanationalmartyr.HisportraitwasfeaturedoncurrencyinBurmaforsome40yearsuntilthepoliticalascentofhisdaughter,AungSanSuuKyi,followingthe1988coup.Atthattime,hisimagewasremovedfromthepubliceyeonagrandscaleinanattemptbythemilitaryjuntatominimizeconnectionsbetweenAungSanandhisdaughter.Sources:DavidI.Steinberg,Burma/Myanmar:WhatEveryoneNeedsToKnow(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2012).MatthewJ.Walton,“Ethnicity,Conflict,andHistoryinBurma:TheMythsofPanglong,”AsianSurvey48.6(2008).AungSanSuuKyi(b.1942)isaBurmesepoliticaloppositionleaderaffiliatedwiththeNationalLeagueforDemocracy(NLD).SheisthedaughterofBurmeseindependenceheroAungSanandDawKhinKyi,laterMyanmar’sambassadortoIndia.Shewastherecipientofthe1991NobelPeacePrize.AfterschoolinginIndiaandEngland,shemovedtoNewYorktoworkfortheUN.ShemarriedaBritishscholarofHimalayanstudies,MichaelAris,andraisedtwosonswithhiminEngland.In1988,hermotherfellillandAungSanSuuKyireturnedtoMyanmar.Afewmonthslater,popularunrestseizedthecountryandAungSanSuuKyibegantoaddressthenationasamemberoftheNationalLeagueforDemocracy(NLD),anoppositionpartyshehelpedfoundwithtwoformergenerals.In1989,whenthemilitarygovernmentbannedgatheringsofmorethanfourpeople,shedefiedthebanandtouredthecountry,givingspeechesoutlininghervisionofademocraticMyanmar.Afterenduringmonthsofharassmentandconfrontationswiththemilitarygovernment,AungSanSuuKyiwasplacedunderhousearrestin1989.In1990,theNLDwon82%oftheseatsintheParliament,butthemilitarygovernmentrefusedtorecognizetheresults.Sheremainedunderhousearrestfrom1989-1995andagainfrom2000-2010.InApril2012shewonaseatinParliament,andgarneredamajorityofthevotesinthepresidentialelectionsof2015,althoughshewaspreventedfromtakingtheseatofthepresidencyduetoaconstitutionalclausedrawnupin2008bythemilitary.Still,in2016shewasnamedMyanmar’sfirstStateCounsellor,anewpositioncreatedforherwhichgrantsherpowersevengreaterthanthepresident.Sources:NobelPrize.“AungSanSuuKyi–BiographicalFootnote.”AccessedJuly10,2013,http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1991/kyi-bio.html.

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Reuters,“MyanmarConstitutionlikelytodashSuuKyi’spresidentialhopes,”accessedJuly10,2013,http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/06/19/us-myanmar-suukyi-idUSBRE95I1P920130619.JonahFisher,“HundredDaysofMyanmar’sDemocracy,”BBCNews,July8,2016,accessedAugust1,2016,http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-36732270.TheBurmaSocialistProgrammeParty(BSPP)/NationalUnityPartytookoverthegovernmentofMyanmarinamilitarycoupin1962andheldpoweruntil1988.Duringthistime,itwasledbyGeneralNeWinandcalledforgovernmentownershipofallformsofproduction.UndertheBSPP,thegovernmentlargelycutitselfofffromtherestoftheworld,discouragingtourismandforeigninvestment.Aftercivilianuprisingsin1987and1988,powerwastransferredfromtheBSPPtoanewmilitary-ledgovernment,theStateLawandOrderRestorationCouncil(SLORC).TheNationalLeagueforDemocracywasformedduringthepopularrevolutionsof1988andemergedasthemajoroppositionpartyinthe1990elections.AlthoughitsleaderAungSanSuuKyiwasunderhousearrestatthetimeoftheelections,thepartywon392ofthe447seatsinparliamentthatwerecontested.TheirvictorystunnedMyanmar’smilitaryleaders,whopromptlyinvalidatedtheelectionresultsandrefusedtohandoverpower.Morerecently,AungSanSuuKyiherselfwonaseatinparliamentandin2015waselectedpresident.However,thetitlewasshort-livedasherattemptsatgettingconstitutionalamendmentClause59Foverturnedwereunsuccessful.ShegovernedthroughhertopaideandnewlyelectedPresidentHtinKyaw,untilbeingnamedMyanmar’sfirstStateCounsellorinthespringof2016.Sources:HumanRightsWatch.“Burma:By-electionsastep,butnotrealreform,”accessedJuly10,2013,http://www.hrw.org/news/2012/03/30/burma-elections-step-not-real-reform.JonahFisher,“HundredDaysofMyanmar’sDemocracy,”BBCNews,July8,2016,accessedAugust1,2016,http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-36732270.GeneralNeWin(1910-2002)wasthesupremecommanderoftheBurmaSocialistProgrammePartyandafigureheadinthe1958and1962coupd’états.HerepealedmanyoftheBuddhistlawsthathadbeenputinplacebyhispredecessor,UNu,andinstitutedcontrolsoftheSanghaasameansofcurtailingoppositiontothemilitarygovernment.SLORC/SPDCTheStateLawandOrderRestorationCouncil(SLORC),andlater,theStatePeaceandDevelopmentCouncil(SPDC)isthemilitarygovernmentthathasruledMyanmarsince1988.From1988-1997,thegovernmentusedtheacronymSLORC;sincethen,theirpreferredtermhasbeenSPDC.UNu(1907-1995)wasaBurmesenationalistandthefirstPrimeMinisterofBurma,rulingfrom1948to1962.HewasadevoutBuddhistwhosoughttomakeBuddhismthestatereligion.HewasdeposedbyGeneralNeWinina1962coupd’etat.UOttama(1879-1939)wasaBuddhistmonkwhowasactiveintheBurmeseindependencemovement.HetraveledandtaughtthroughoutAsia,ultimatelyreturningtocolonialBurmatoseekindependence

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nonviolently.HewrotearticlesforTheSuriya,anationalistnewspaper,includinganopenletterofprotesttoReginaldCraddock,thethen-Britishgovernor,entitled,“CraddockGetOut!”Hewaseventuallyimprisonedforhispoliticalactivityanddiedinjail,becomingamartyrforthecauseofindependence.Sources:“AnniversaryofMonkLeader’sDeath,”TheIrrawaddy,December28,2009,accessedJuly11,2013,http://www2.irrawaddy.org/print_article.php?art_id=17479.MichaelMendelson,SanghaandStateinBurma(London:CornellUniversityPress,1975).

MyanmarTerms

TheBurmaCitizenshipActof1982grantedcitizenshiptoindividualsresidinginBurmawhocouldtracetheirfamilyresidencytopriorto1823,thatis,theyearofthefirstBritishmilitarycampaignonBurmaandwithit,awaveofimmigrationfromIndiaandChina.Thelawwasdeeplyproblematic,asformanyfamiliesofvariousethnicgroups,transnationaltieswerecommonandtherewasrarelydocumentationtoprovewhetherapersonhaddeeprootsinBurma.ThelawwaspartofaseriesofactionstakenbythenationalistBurmesegovernmentmeanttoshoreupBurmeseethnicpower.Thelawcreatedthreecategoriesofcitizenship:thefirstcategoryappliedtoethnicBurmansandmembersoftheKachin,Kayah,Karen,Mon,ArakanBuddhists,Shan,andanyotherethnicgrouppresentinBurmapriorto1823(thoughtheydidnotincludeRohingyaMuslims,renderingthemstateless).Thelawgrantedthisgroupfullcitizenship.Thesecondcategorygrantedpartial“associate”citizenshiptothechildrenofmixedmarriageswhereoneparentfellintothefirstcategory.ItalsoappliedtoindividualswhohadlivedinBurmaforfiveconsecutiveyears,ortoindividualswholivedinBurmaforeightoutofthetenyearspriortoindependence.Associatecitizenscouldearnanincome,butcouldnotserveinpoliticaloffice.ThethirdcategoryappliedtotheoffspringofimmigrantswhoarrivedinBurmaduringtheperiodofBritishcolonialrule.Sources:MosheYegar,BetweenIntegrationandSecession(Lanham:LexingtonBooks,2002).IsitcalledBurmaorMyanmar?In1989,theSLORCgovernmentmandatedthattheircountryshouldhenceforthbeknowninEnglishasMyanmarinsteadofBurma.(Inall,severalhundredplacenameswerechanged;anotherprominentexamplewastherenamingofRangoontoYangon).Thisnamechangehasnotbeenacceptedbyallmembersoftheinternationalcommunity.Some,suchastheUnitedStatesandtheUnitedKingdom,didnotrecognizethelegitimacyofthemilitarygovernment,andthereforecontinuedtorefertothecountryasBurma,adecisionthatprovokedresentmentintheBurmesegovernment.Others,suchastheUNandtheASEAN,avoidedtakingthisstep,andinsteadreferredtothecountryasMyanmar.

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Thiscountryprofileendeavorstousethepreferredtermofthegovernment,andthereforereferstothecountryasBurmabefore1989andasMyanmarfrom1989tothepresentday.Sources:LowellDitmar,“Burmavs.Myanmar:What’sinaname?”AsianSurvey48(2008).The1947PanglongAgreementwastheoutcomeofthePanglongConference,ameetingontheeveofindependencebetweenBurmesenationalistheroAungSanandrepresentativesofseveralofthelargestminoritygroupsinBurma,namelytheChin,Shan,andKachin.ThesegroupsagreedinprincipletotheformationoftheUnionofBurma,whichbecamethefirstpost-colonialgovernment.However,otherethnicgroups,mostprominentlytheKarenandRohingya,didnotparticipateinthisconference.TheKarenbegantheircivilwaragainstthecentralgovernmentin1949,theyearafterBurmaattainedindependence.TheRohingyawerenotrecognizedbythePanglongagreementandeventothisdayarenotseenasalegitimateminoritygroupbythegovernment.Contemporarypoliticiansseekingethnicreconciliationsometimesappealtothe“spiritofPanglong,”thoughthisconferenceisremembereddifferentlybythevariousgroupsinMyanmartoday.A“Panglong21stCenturyConference”hasbeencalledforlateAugust2016inordertonegotiatepeaceandgreaterautonomyforminorityethnicgroups.Representativesfromover20minoritygroupsareexpectedtoattend,thoughspokespeoplefromminoritygroupsarealreadyvoicingtheirconcernsabouttheconference.Sources:MatthewJ.Walton,“Ethnicity,Conflict,andHistoryinBurma:TheMythsofPanglong,”AsianSurvey48.6(2008).

DenisD.GrayandEstherHtusan,“Myanmar’sAungSanSuuKyi:FallingStarorBeaconofHope,”StarTribune,July9,2016,accessedAugust1,2016,http://www.startribune.com/myanmar-s-aung-san-suu-kyi-falling-star-or-beacon-of-hope/386089301/.Themilitarygovernment’sdecisiontoraiseoilandgaspricesin2007ledtowidespreaddiscontent,ultimatelyculminatingintheshort-livedSaffronRevolution.Thoughorganizedbypoliticaloppositiongroups,Buddhistmonkswerecentrallyinvolvedintheseprotests;“saffron”alludestothetraditionalcolorofmonks’robes.HigheroilpricesplacedagreaterburdenonanalreadyimpoverishedBurmesepopulace,andsuchhardshipsweretransferredtotheSangha,whichdependedonfoodofferingsfromlayBuddhistsfortheirsustenance.Initially,thegovernmentshowedsurprisinglatitudeintheirmutedresponsetotheprotests,aresponseattributedtotheheavyparticipationoftheSangha.However,thetenoroftheprotestsshiftedastheybecamemorepoliticalinnature.MonksstoppedatthehomeofAungSanSuuKyi,theleaderoftheoppositionNationalLeagueforDemocracywhowasunderhousearrest,andcalledforademocraticgovernment.Inresponsetothischallengetotheirauthority,themilitaryrespondedbrutally,attackingthemonasticprotestors.

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Theseactionswererecordedbyonlookerswhousedcellphonesandportablevideocamerastodocumentthecrackdown.Despitethegovernment’sefforttocensortheseimagesbyshuttingdowntheinternetinMyanmar,thefootagefounditswayintohouseholdsacrossthenationthathadgainedaccesstosatellitetelevisionsinrecentyears.Burmesepeoplewitnessedthegovernment’sviolenceforthemselvesandthisattackontheSanghacausedthegovernmenttoloselegitimacyintheeyesofmany.Inaddition,theseimageswerebroadcastaroundtheworld,leadingtoaninternationaloutcry.Sources:StephenMcCarthy,“LosingMyReligion?ProtestandPoliticalLegitimacyinBurma,”GriffithAsiaInstituteRegionalOutlookPaper,No.18(2008).DavidSteinberg,“Globalization,Dissent,andOrthodoxy:Burma/MyanmarandtheSaffronRevolution,”GeorgetownJournalofInternationalAffairs,9.2(2008).TheSanghaistheBuddhistmonasticcommunity.AlthoughBuddhistmonkstraditionallyrenouncetheresponsibilitiesoffamilylife,theydonotremovethemselvescompletelyfromsociety.Rather,theyexistaspartofaneconomywithlayBuddhists,whoofferthemonksmaterialsupportinexchangeforreligiousteachingsandpositivekarma,ormerit.Assuch,theSanghacanserveasatremendouslegitimizingforcebyprovidingmeritforindividualswhomakeofferingstothem.Ontheotherhand,asinthecaseinthe2007SaffronRevolution,themonks’unwillingnesstoacceptofferingsfromthegovernmentcanenablethemtostandwiththeopposition.TheSanghathuscanconferpoliticallegitimacytoBurmeseleadership,butalsocanserveasapowerfulcounterbalancetogovernmentauthority.Burmeseleadersthroughouttheageshavesoughtto“purify”theSanghacitingmonasticcorruption,butinmoderntimesthispurificationhasservedtoreininmonasticoppositiontothemilitarygovernment.In1980,theBurmaSocialistProgrammePartyplacedtheSanghaundergovernmentcontrolandcreatedtheSupremeSanghaCouncil.ThisallowedthegovernmenttooverseeallreligiousandeducationalfunctionsperformedbytheSanghaandmonitoranydissent.TheStateReligionActwaspassedin1961afterPrimeMinisterUNuresumedleadershipofBurmafollowingabriefperiodofmilitaryrule.Unlikethe1947constitution,whichdidnotestablishanationalreligion,thisactmadeBuddhismtheofficialstatereligionofBurmaandformalizedthegovernment’sroleasareligiouspatron.Passageofthisactledtounrestamongnon-Buddhistminorities,whichwasusedbyGeneralNeWintojustifythe1962militarycoup.NeWinundidmanyoftheprovisionsofthisactintheyearsimmediatelyfollowingthecoup.


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