THE REVOLUTION OF EVERY DAYCHRISTIANITY, CAPITALISM, AND POST-MODERNITY

Joan Carrera i Carrera, sj.

1. THE WORLD IN WHICH WE LIVE .................................................................................

2. HUMANIZING TODAY’S WORLD.CONTRIBUTIONS OF CHRISTIAN ETHICS ..............................................................

3. SIGNS OF THE TIMES THAT HELP USLIVE AS FAITHFUL CHRISTIANS ..............................................................................

4. BY WAY OF SUMMARY ...................................................................................................NOTES ....................................................................................................................................

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Joan Carrera i Carrera sj., with a doctorate in theology and a degree in medicine, isprofessor of fundamental moral theology at the Facultat de Teologia de Catalunya(Barcelona) and collaborating professor at ESADE Business School. He has publishedin this collection: The Kyoto Horizon (no. 122); Identities for the 21st Century (no. 127);A Difficult Relationship: Christianity and Society from an Ethical Perspective (no. 141).He is a member of the team of Cristianisme i Justícia.

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The so-called process of globalizationhas progressively extended this systemto almost all countries, with only a fewresidual exceptions. There are no longerany adversaries that are able to competewith capitalism. Despite the wounds thesystem suffered as a consequence of the last economic crisis and despite themul titude of criticisms and partial alter -natives that have arisen, the fact is thatwe still cannot speak of a global al ter na -tive to the consolidation of capi talism.

1.1. The capitalist cultureEvery economic system highlights cer -tain elements whose effects are trans -ferred to other spheres of society, labor,family, etc. In other words, we can saythat every economic system creates aculture.2 One of the important elementsof any culture is the ethical system,understood as the hierarchy of valuesthat come into play when decisions aremade and that end up permeating thewhole of our lives (social and family

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1. THE WORLD IN WHICH WE LIVE

Trying to describe the world in which we live inevitably results in asimplification since, if there is anything that characterizes this «world,»it is the huge diversity of cultures and mentalities that exist within it.Even so, few people question F. Fukuyama’s thesis1 affirming the endof history and the complete triumph of the capitalist economic system atthe global level.

relations, etc.). That is why it is im por -tant to become aware of the values onwhich our economic system is foundedand to understand what values the sys -tem applies when dealing with questionsas significant as personal happiness andsuccess. When we speak of the values ofan economic system, we are referring to whatever the system considers apriority when it comes to guidingpeople’s behavior, especially in theeconomic sphere. Often the establishedpriorities conceal the real interests ofparticular groups and function as a defacto ideology3 so that the economicsystem is presented as the most rationalstructural solution for the creation ofprosperity and justice. In other words,the system relies on and appeals to thevalues that are desired and accepted bythe majority of people.

Obviously, in the eyes of a differentethical system (whether of a religioustradition or of another culture), thesevalues are perceived as counter-values.

1.2. A global, neoliberal capitalistsystem In the next few pages we will try toanalyze these values, not to pass judg -ment on the economic system (regard -ing how wealth is distributed, whichcountries are most benefited, whatinequality is created, what kind of laborrelations exist, etc.), but to see how thehierarchy of values on which thesystem rests has gradually infiltratedmany other spheres of life, sometimesspheres that are far removed from theeconomy. Despite the compartmentali -zation of our lives, what we experience

in one sphere (the one to which wededicate most of our time) ends upinfluencing the others. This is the case,for example, in familial and personalrelationships that have been affected bythe way people understand work andtheir relation to work. The Gospel, to besure, says it very decisively: «Whereyou treasure is, there your heart willalso be» (Matt 6,21).

We will focus our attention on thesystem as it exists now, in the firstdecades of the 21st century, and not inthat early stage described in MaxWeber’s writings on the spirit of capi -talism and the cultural values asso -ciated with the capitalist system. Norwill we dwell on the second phase, thatof the welfare state, when the earlierform of capitalism borrowed elementsfrom the socialist and Chris tian Demo -crat tradition, such as social rights andthe conception of a state that regulatesthe economy and redistributes wealth.In the present day we find ourselveswith still another kind of capitalism thattakes elements from the earlier phasesand can be characterized with twoadjectives.

a) Neoliberal, because it insists onmaximum freedom of the market, givesthe state a very reduced role, and limitsthe extent of social rights.

b) Global, because it is characterizedby a free global market with no com -mercial or financial barriers.

Certainly it would be pretentious ofme to try to list all values of such asystem, and doing so would result in acertain simplification insofar as it failedto take into account the many variations

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in the system. Capitalism that preservessome of the elements of the Nordic wel -fare state is quite different from the newstate capitalism found in China or Russiaand also from the neoliberal capitalismfound in the U.S. and some other coun -tries. There are many dif ferent varia -tions and sensibilities within the sys temitself. Nor is everything new: some ofthe values we describe were found inearly capitalism, but they have nowbecome more accentuated. Let us take alook, then, at what these values are.

1.3. One system, several values

a) A successful life, closely con -nected to economic success. One wayof understanding success is in terms ofits material components: it is strictlylinked to possession of goods and titles.The material goods make it possible fora person to attain other more intangiblegoods, such as status, identity, ormembership in a specific social group.

b) Private property as a central valueof the system. This has been the casefrom the beginning. The raw materialsand the means of production (land,machinery, etc.) are in private hands,and maintaining this type of ownershipis seen as the best way to producewealth. There is a steady tendency toprivatize more things with the idea thatprivatization will fix the «dysfunctiona -li ties» that prevent the system fromfunctioning optimally. Whatever is com -monly or collectively owned receiveslittle consideration within this system.

c) Another value that modernity haspromoted is individualism, as opposed

to communitarianism. It is the indi -vidual alone who must achieve some -thing in society. The emphasis is placedon the individual person and the rights–rather than the duties– that eachperson has with respect to others and tosociety. The role of the state is toguarantee and protect those rights. Thisconception places great value on theinitiative of the individual, who has toenter into competition with others.When this is carried to an extreme andwhen the «guiding» institutions havelost their influence, the individual isthrown into a process of constantlymaking choices; his own life is basedon making decisions. In the economicsphere competitiveness takes priorityover cooperation, and where coopera -tion exists, it serves only to reinforcecompetitiveness (of my business andmy ideas… against another businessand its ideas). The educational systemreinforces these values even when ittries to justify them or disguise them byusing words like personalization,creativity, and initiative –words thatshould include a social or cooperativedimension. This doesn’t mean thatcooperation doesn’t exist, only that ithas been reserved to specific spheres ofactivity, such as the family, religion,NGOs, etc. Not even these spheres,however, have remained immune to themore individualistic or competitiveelements of the system.

d) Another very important value inthe dominant economic system is thedrive to maximize profit. In order to dothat, values associated with labor,political, or environmental rights aresacrificed to values that are directly

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prejudicial to human rights. In order tomaximize profits which benefit only afew people, there is no hesitation insacrificing whatever must be sacrificed–always in the name of progress.Perhaps the only brake or limit on thistype of exploitation is the fear ofupsetting the stability of the system; theimportant thing to allow the exploitationto continue as long as possible.

e) Another value is that of utility,understood in the economic sense,which considers only the functionalityof the means without ever asking aboutthe ends. Utilitarianism can lead togreat effectiveness and efficiency, whichare positive values in themselves, but inthe process many other values aresacrificed.

f) Quantity is also given priorityover quality. Present-day capitalism hasextended the reach of consumer societyby marketing a multitude of products.The objective is to promote compulsiveconsumption, which is the principal fuelfor the capitalist system of production.Many of these products are of dubiousquality, and they are designed to wearout quickly so that they can be replacedby new products. The whole systemrequires excessive consumption of ener -gy, squandering of natural resources,and production of tremendous waste.

g) Another value is the effort putinto work. This was value characteristicof early capitalism, but it has becomemore and more irrelevant, especiallysince the West has developed a de cided -ly hedonist culture and the financialworld has made it possible to obtainprofits without exerting much effort.

h) The system has placed ever morevalue on short-term gains rather thanlong-term benefits, thus threatening thesustainability of production and con -tributing to environmental deterioration.Very few people are conscious of whatthe consequences of their presentactions will be for future generationsand for the environment, so that theseconsequences play little role in theplanning of economic activity.

1.4. Capitalism and post-modernity In order to understand the western worldfrom an axiological viewpoint, we mustbe able to comprehend as well a) thevalues related to so-called post-moder -nity or advanced modernity and b) theliberal political values related to moder -nity, such as the rights of the person,democracy, dialogue, and freedomfrom tyranny. Both the sociopoliticalvalues and the values of post-modernityhave been modified by an economicsystem with which they have oftenbeen in conflict (think, for example, ofthe power of non-regulated markets).Unfortunately, when social and culturalvalues have vied with economic values,the former have taken a beating. Thedemocratic ideal that was once guaran -teed by the classical nation-states hasbeen mortally wounded by the globalmarkets that are regulated by no one.

Some postmodern cultural valueshad their origin precisely in people’sdiscontent with the values of moder -nity, others arose as a reaction to thevalues of the economic system, and stillothers were promoted by the constel -lation of values undergirding the eco -

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nomic system itself, for the sole pur -pose of reinforcing those values. Forexample, the emphasis on the self andon emotional well-being reinforces theimage of the individual who is com -pletely dedicated to consuming in themarketplace and whose ideal is the per -fectly healthy, muscular body. The lossof a liberating utopian vision, whichresulted from disillusionment about thepower of human reason, provoked allkinds of wars and disasters in the twen -tieth century. Society has thus producedindividuals who are totally centered onthemselves and who refuse to believethat the economic system can change;they believe that there are no alterna -tives and that mobilizing for change isfutile. All this contributes to the de -velopment of neo-conservative socialmovements that do not question theeconomic system.

Post-modern individuals no longerbelieve in science as savior becausethey realize that science has broughtwith it potential disasters, such nuclearmeltdowns and ecological calamities.Nevertheless, they continue to usetechnology, and they seek happiness byconsuming all kinds of hi-tech products.The weak convictions of post-modernindividuals make them more tolerant ofwhat goes on around them, but also lessinvolved, so that they live in their ownworld and are not much concernedabout others. Their tenuous convictionsalso make them more vulnerable to themanipulation of marketing techniquesand misinforma tion. These are only afew of the post-modern values whicheither reinforce the values of the eco -nomic system or are compatible with it

to the extent that the system meets theirneeds for new consumer items.

Post-modernity does contain somevalues that are clearly contrary to thevalues of the capitalist economic sys -tem, such as «hedonistic presentism,»4

the lack of commitment, and theunwillingness to make an effort.

1.5. Some «counter-values» to the systemFinally, some values originating in thenew social moments have managed topenetrate western society. They arecritical of capitalist values and actagainst them, or at least they havemodulated some of the extremes of thiseconomic system. I speak, for example,of feminist consciousness, which haselements quite incompatible with manycapitalist values. There is also ecolo -gical consciousness, which is unfortu -nately often very superficial; ratherthan question the productive systemand propose radical changes, it simplyproposes patchwork solutions that areof an esthetic nature.

Many of the values we have men -tioned, especially those related to so-called post-modernity, are deeply rootedin the West and have less influence inother cultures, although globalizationhas propagated them extensively, espe -cially among the well-connected elites.In this regard, it would be interesting toanalyze non-western societies to seewhat influence the capitalist system hashad on them and how it has evolved.There are still so cieties into which post-modern values have penetrated little;they have main tained their more tradi -

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tional values. It would be interesting tostudy the influence of Confucianism orMaoism in modern-day Chinese so cie -ty or to investigate what is unique aboutJapa nese or Korean capitalism becauseof the influence of their traditions. It

would also be worthwhile to examinehow western societies like those inLatin America are influenced by theindige nous cultures which preservecommu nal elements in their economicand juridical systems.

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To be sure, other religious and seculartraditions can also contribute something,since the fundamental traits of Chris -tianity, as found in the central ethicspresented in the New Testament, are notexclusively Christian but have beenfound in other traditions as well.

2.1. The community dimension European society has become the ulti -mate expression of egocentric individu -alism. The ideal is the ever moreisolated individual who is focused on

personal fulfillment defined in terms ofemotional well-being. Such an indi -vidual has lost a sense of communityand has ceased to be involved or eveninterested in the res publica, preferringto leave everything in the hands ofprofessional politicians. The communitydimension is reduced to its minimalexpression (family, partner, children,friends). The consequence of this hasbeen the worsening of social atomiza -tion, which is increasingly seen as a rootof many social pathologies. Christianitycan help us to recover a certain sense of

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2. HUMANIZING TODAY’S WORLD. CONTRIBUTIONS OFCHRISTIAN ETHICS

In this section we will try to show what Christian ethical reflection cancontribute to the world of today and to Christianity itself. In other words,we want to see what aspects of our faith can help to humanize ourpresent-day world.

community; it can help us achievegreater harmony between the impor -tance given to individuals and the senseof community that fosters solidarity andcommitment that go beyond the limitsof our familial and cultural circles, sothat the person is fulfilled both indi -vidually and socially at the same time.

The project of Jesus is thus pre -sented as universal and as compatiblewith a great diversity of cultural forms.Every person is considered worthy ofbelonging to a universal fraternity whichis realized in communion (= commonunion). Other traditions, such as theBuddhist, speak of the same ideal butuse instead the language of universalcompassion or interdependence, con -cepts that can contribute to a more justglobalization.

Unfortunately it must also be saidthat the sense of community has beendevalued even within the Christianreligion, especially in the West, with theresult that a person’s relation with Godis more individualist than communi -tarian. The decline in the celebration ofthe sacraments has been one of thesigns of this, though not the only one.

2.2. Life as giftIf we learn to appreciate as a gift givenfreely and not just as a personalachievement, then we will appreciatemore the gratuitous dimension ofhuman relations and of our own lives.We will often discover that we owemuch those who, when we were weak,loved us and expected nothing inreturn. Not everything in life is subjectto contracts or based on selfish

interests. Often the need arises in oursociety to highlight clear instances ofgratuity, such as volunteering. But suchgratuity should also be present in areasthat are controlled by some kind ofcontract. I am thinking of work and alsoof leisure time, which has beenprogressively commercialized to thepoint where it has an almost functionalrelationship to work. Leisure time hasbecome preparation for work, orperhaps simply a time of rest thatallows us to keep working more. Weshould reclaim our leisure time as thespace for freely relating with otherpeople; it should cease to have a purelyeconomic character and be instead atime for play, a «waste of time» as faras productivity goes.

The introduction of a dimension ofgratuity into our contractual relation -ships would give them a different, morehuman quality, and it would perhapshelp us realize that, without the definitevalues proper to the sphere of gratuity,our contractual relationships inevitablyend up getting degraded and destroyed.There is no question but that mutualconfidence and the sharing of ideasabout the common good do not harmthe contract but rather reinforce it.

2.3. Ability to discernChristianity should help people todevelop a capacity for discernment, forwe live in a world in which everyperson has to make options constantlyabout how to proceed in life. Discern -ment presupposes a capacity for inte -riority, silence, and calm which allowpersons to make decisions from deep

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within, decisions that are based onreali ty and not on conditioning factorsor pure illusions. Modern-day sociolo -gy observes that there has been aweakening of the guiding institutionswhich in earlier times provided assis -tance for the decisions people had tomake: family, social class, school, re -ligion, etc. This observation is true, butat the same time other, more subtleconditioning factors have appeared,such as the market forces that we some -times absorb unconsciously and thatinfluence our lives more than we wouldlike to believe. Since the influence ofthese forces is not noticed, we have theimpression that we have made a freechoice, but there is only the illusion offreedom. We think that we have decidewhat to buy, what clothes to wear, whatcomputer or cell phone to use, but allthese preferences have basically beeninduced within a definite social sphere.

Orienting our lives from the perspec -tive of the discerning self means notletting ourselves be influenced byomnipresent lures or by noisy distrac -tions. We need to learn to cultivate afreer self that knows how to listen andis more aware of its feelings and itsattractions. There are many practicesthat help us cultivate this freer self.Indeed, the traditional ascetical andreligious practices are oriented mainlytoward training us to be free withregard to things. Orienting our livesfrom within means recognizing ourown disordered affections and trying toorder them in the direction of who wewant to be. The practice of meditation,understood simply as concentration,can also prepare our human conscious -

ness to make choices in an environmentwhich is filled with an excess of stimuliand fragmented information.

Christianity presents Jesus as theideal model of detachment from self.He is the fully free person who is notattached to material things or even tohis own Jewish religion as it waspracticed in his day. Jesus was a modelof listening and discernment. Insofar asit is reflection on human action in thespirit of Jesus, Christian ethics is opento the Spirit of God when it offersoverarching principles but allows per -sonal and community discernment tomake decisions in each concretesituation. This flexibility is necessary incomplex undertakings where there arealways conflicting values. Christianethics offers a path between «funda -men talist ethics,» which offers securityby simplifying reality and strictlymonitoring people’s behavior, and«emotive ethics,» which holds thathuman behavior should be guided bypure feeling even when such feeling isfragmentary and fleeting. Neither typeof ethics can offer any help to personswho are discerning. Neither type is ableto help to find solutions to the commonbut complex problems that now afflicthumanity, especially solutions that donot simply redound to the benefit ofthose who are already privileged.

2.4. The hope factorChristian ethics contains a hope factor.Christian faith maintains the hope thathuman fulfillment is always possible.Even the small steps taken in a soli -darity project are not useless; even if

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immediate results are not seen, ourefforts are not in vain. Such hope is inno way naïve for it is strong enough tobreak through the discouragement ofthose who think they can do nothing.The dominant ideological systemsprivi lege certain collective enterprisesand present themselves as the onlypossible solutions to existing problems;they provide recipes that are crediblebut biased. In the past such ideologiesspared no violence or repression in theirefforts to impose themselves on thosewho refused to follow them. Nowadays,especially in democratic so cieties, theseideologies have aban doned their moreviolent forms, but they still presentthemselves as hege monic, thus per -petua ting the idea that there are no otheroptions. They also promote fear aboutany change affecting the status quo thatdoes not proceed from them selves.Utopian hope is a good antidote againstsuch ideologies and against fear for itmakes it possible for us to imagine thatanother world is possible and that realsocial change can come about.

2.5. Participation in the commongood

Our western society has interiorized thevalue of democracy, that is, the par -ticipation of all citizens in the makingof decisions about society or at least inthe election of those who will makesuch decisions. There are movementsthroughout Europe that are seekingreforms that will make democraciesmore authentic. The financial crisis of 2007 has shown the weakness ofpolitical power (which comes through

elections) with respect to transnationaleconomic power (which comes throughmarkets rather than elections). It wouldtake a long time to enumerate andexplain all the formulas that have beenproposed for the reform of democracy,as well as to describe the great re -sistance to reform that has been mountedby the classical party apparatus and thelarge transnational economic groups. Insummary, though, this whole processhas progressively weakened the confi -dence that people have in politicalpower.

These reform movements are verymuch in need of a solid set of values,either those provided by a «human rightsethics» or those that come from the greatreligious traditions. True democra cy isfounded precisely on these values: thebasic rights of the person, humandignity and equality, freedom, the rightof participation, freedom of conscienceand belief, etc. If these values are notinteriorized, democracy can stumbleand easily decline into demagogy. Wesee this happen when democracy is notpracticed at the basic levels of society(neighborhood associations, schools,unions, etc.). We see it also in thosecountries where formal democracyexists (there are regular elections) butwhere there is no equality of opportu -nity and where oligarchic groups effec -tively hold all the power. In our worldtoday religiously based ethics canmotivate people to defend these basicrights by creating a framework of soli -darity as the foundation for democracy.The religious traditions have often beenaccused of having little commitment todemocracy, but it is forgotten that

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extreme liberalism has led to a type ofindividualism that ends up fragmentingour societies. A democratic system canfunction only if people have a minimumconsciousness of community. Peoplemust feel that they are involved in acommon project in which their dutiestoward others do not derive simply fromlegal obligations. Rather, they must beconvinced that cooperation is the bestway to promote the good of all and tobring about the personal fulfillment thatall desire. Extreme individualism leadspeople to be concerned about them -selves alone and not about what happensto their neighbors, and that is a suresign of the eclipse of true democracy.

2.6. The political factor Christian ethics must be aware that it isproposing values that are often con -sidered unessential in societies wherethey in fact need to be developed andput in practice. This is true even insocieties with a Christian tradition.Living in a Christian manner is not easyin pluralistic societies; it requires con -stant discernment whenever decisionsare made. It is true that pluralisticsocieties allow Christian values to bepracticed as long as the other norms of civility are observed. Dissent isexpressed in the way we live when wepractice the values that are important inour lives, even while recognizing thatthose around us may have another typeof ethics and other visions of the world.

Christians can and should play acertain denunciatory role when theybelieve that the social ethos violatesvalues they consider important. Denun -

ciations, as we have said, are bestexpressed by living authentically or bydialoguing with those who think dif -ferently. The advantage of democraticsocieties, not always sufficiently recog -nized, is that they provide forums inwhich questions can be discussed andthe different ethical options present in asociety can be heard. Often Christianscan appeal to the ideal values of theirown society, values that are recognizedbut often not respected, such as thoseformulated in terms of human rights; inthis way they can provide support formany critical social movements. In allsocieties, including the most democratic,the rights of minorities and the rights ofthe poor are often endangered; in suchsituations the prophetic and denuncia -tory role of Christians should play animportant role.

2.7. A positive vision of authorityDuring the twentieth century the con -cept of authority lost much of its value,having been weakend by various typesof totalitarianism and by the world wars.Authority was badly abused by thosewho held power. There is now wide -spread suspicion of authority, which isseen as the exercise of power by an elitefew, even when it is legitimized byregular elections and exercised withinthe limits of a state of law.

This crisis of authority exists not justin the political realm but in all areas ofsociety, including family, school, andchurch. The church existed for centuriesduring which the faithful never disputedthe authority of bishops or theologians.Nevertheless, when the magis terium

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(pope, bishops, theolo gians) gave theo -logical and rational reasons for theirpronouncements, the faithful trustedmore in the authority that was issuingthe pronouncements than in the reasonsgiven. Today all that has changedbecause of the diversity of opinions thathas come with modernity.

Moreover, the ecclesiastical institu -tion itself was affected by an exerciseof authority that was not very evan -gelical. Christian ethics must thereforebe very conscious of what it contributesand how it contributes to society;simple appeal to authority can becounterproductive if authority haspreviously been abused. The church hasbeen tempted and continues to betempted by power, by the desire topossess wealth, and by the belief that itpossesses all truth. There exists thetemptation to exercise power in order toimpose the church’s ethics and truthand thus to extend the Kingdom ofGod. In Christianity authority mustexist for the service of others; authoritystoops down to wash the feet of theneighbor, as Jesus did. The authority ofJesus was most clearly shown in hisextreme descent onto the cross. It is thiskenosis that will give credibility to thechurch. When the church serves andwhen she becomes the servant of thosewho are poorest and most needy, thenshe will be exercising the power ofpowerlessness. This way of under -standing authority can be a tremendouscontribution to our societies. In ourChristian communities we should re -mem ber the words of Bernard Häring,who defined the «magisterium» of theChurch in the Dictionary of Moral

Theology in this way: «The first magis -terium is exercised by the saints.»

2.8. Recovering and rethinkingthe Tradition Another reality related to the theme ofauthority is that our world has been«detraditionalized,» that is, traditionshave lost their meaning. They have notdisappeared, but they have lost theirstability and are constantly being adapt -ed. As a result, they have entered intocrisis since by definition a tradition ischaracterized by the stability andpermanence with which it is repeatedover time. In the past traditions helpedpeople to make important life decisionsbecause they provided security and atthe same time slowed down socialchanges. The fact that our industrialand technological society has becomedetraditionalized has greatly affectedreligious institutions, which partlydepend on traditions. Nowadays wehave to learn to live in a society that isconstantly changing. We need to learnto distinguish what is perennial (Tra -dition with a capital T) from what mustbe adapted or changed (traditions witha small T). There has been tremendousresistance to change in the Church,where traditions have had great forceand where fidelity to Jesus has easilybeen confused with fidelity to tradi tions.Actually, traditions are simply historicalrealities that are good and necessary butthat in the course of time can becomehindrances for the institution itself. Ifwe look at history, we are surprised atthe extraordinary capacity for adapta -tion that the Church has shown. From

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the beginning she experienced verydeep cultural changes, the principal onebeing the incorporation of Hellenicphilosophies into theological reflectionon the message of Jesus.

Consequently, the Christian com -mu nity should not be afraid to rethinkthe current traditions in its effort torespond to social changes and theemergence of other non-western cul -tural forms. Christians should not beafraid to shed the added things thatwere good but were expressed in formsdetermined by western culture. TheChurch was one of the first institutionsthat became globalized and that

inculturated herself in many countries,thus becoming a model of how to makeuniversality compatible with particu -larity. In the realm of ethics, Chris -tianity contains excellent principlesregarding human fulfillment, but themeaning of a full human life haschanged over the course of history andhas assumed constantly different forms.The great ethical principles can guideus, but they must adapted to the timesand to concrete situations. A paradig -matic example is the way the com mand -ment «not to kill» has been understoodin the history of the Catholic moraltradition.

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3.1. Fine-tuning discernmentDiscernment means knowing how todecide what values are good in thesense that they are humanizing. We asktherefore: what values express anevangelical morality that can be appliedto the new situations that appear in ourworld, and what values work againstthe humanization of the person? Thetask of discernment is not an easy one;it requires great prudence in order to

avoid facile condemnation of valuesthat are mixed with elements whichmay seem strange to our Christianlanguage and our manner of doingthings but which actually convey aChristian vision and make it a reality inimportant ways.

At the same time, discernmentshould refuse to recognize other valuesthat enjoy widespread social acceptancebut are not compatible with Christian

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3. SIGNS OF THE TIMES THAT HELP US LIVE AS FAITHFULCHRISTIANS

Since the beginning Christian communities absorbed ethical valuesfrom their cultural environment, adopting intuitions of Stoicism, Plato -nism, Aristotelianism, etc. In modern times also, some of the values thatwere a central part of Christianity (and in the course of time have grownweaker) were paradoxically recovered by secular oppo nents and socame to form part of modern culture and contemporary ethics. TheChristian community needs to discern these signs of the times and seewhat it can learn from them and what it can incorporate (or re-incorporate) into Christian practice.

ethics. Discernment has always been adifficult task that requires the help ofthe Spirit of Jesus, for only the Spiritcan help us to know how to apply thegreat evangelical principles to particularsituations that are often unprece dented.With regard to this kind of ambiva -lence, we should re call the words Bene -dict XVI addressed to the Bundestagwhen referring to the Green Party ofGermany:

I would say that the rise of the ecolo -gical movement in German politics,starting in the 1960s, even if it has notopened windows, nevertheless hasbeen and is a cry for fresh air, a crythat cannot be ignored or discountedas something irrational. Young peoplerealized that something was wrong inour relationship with nature; theyunderstood that matter is not justmaterial for us to use; rather, the earthpossesses its own proper dignity andwe must follow its indications. (Berlin,22 September 2011)

3.2. Amidst sectarianism,dialogue, and dissolution

In the western Church today twodifferent stances are taken. They areperhaps not extreme in the form theytake, but they do reflect tendenciesanchored in the past and closed off tothe signs of the times, even though bothstances contribute positively to theChurch. It is not a question of judgingthem but of noticing how little attentionthey pay to the signs of the times. Theyare failing to intuit the new inspirationsof the Spirit.

3.2.1. Nostalgic reminiscence andrestorationism The first tendency longs for past epochswhen the Church was respectfullyheeded and had great social influence.This tendency in the Church has madeit difficult for her to adapt to themodern era and even now causes her to be unduly disturbed by the irruptionof post-modernity.

The tendency gives rise to a desireto return to pre-modern forms, some ofwhich are commenda ble5 but others ofwhich are anachro nistic and incapableof responding to the new challenges ofpresent-day society. The danger in thistendency is that it inclines peopletoward sec tarianism; it makes them feelpersecuted and despised by society sothat they take on the fundamentalistattitudes of a mistreated minority. Thistendency is especially attractive topersons who are disoriented or insecuresince it offers them clear and distinctiveguidelines. The problem is that it failsto consider the complexity of situationsand per ceives reality only in black-and-white terms. The tendency also runs therisk of falling into a certain disem -bodied spiritualism that emphasizestypes of devotion that have little con -scious ness of social morality but insteadare preoccupied with a rigorist moralityin matters of sexuality and bioethics.This rigorist mentality causes manypeople (including believers) to becomealien ated from the Church and to jointhe ranks of those whom the sociolo -gists call «non-religious believers,»6 acate go ry of people that has growncontinually in Europe in recent years.This ten den cy is also in danger of being

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manipulated by conservative politicalinterests that see in religion a sociallycohesive force that allows them toachieve greater visibility in the publicforum. This is what has been happeningwith the neo-conservative movements.It would be unjust to fail to appreciatethe positive values of this tendency, for it is what prevents the Church frombecoming diluted in contemporarysociety and losing its unique identity. Itrepresents a longing for a Church that isable to confront society without fear oranxiety and to deliver a message that noone else can offer.

3.2.2. «Progressive Christianity»The other tendency in the Churchgroups together ecclesial movementsthat are more concerned about socialquestions. These movements are strongin denouncing injustice and defendingpoor people against structures that areviolating their rights. Our present timestill needs the voice of these move -ments since the globalizing world hasgenerated great wealth but has alsoconsiderably increased inequality bothat the international level and withincountries. But these movements mustbe attentive to the new signs of thetimes, to the new forms of inequalityand injustice, and to the new forms ofsocial exclusion and marginalization,such as those affecting the environmentand cultural minorities. These ecclesialmovements can no longer continue tooffer models that were valid in the1970s but are now insufficient orinappropriate. We believe that theymust listen carefully to the new socialmovements and to young Christians. In

other words, they should leave behindthe old schemas of the classical left andgrasp the complexity of the problems ofjustice in a globalized world. Moreover,they should not be afraid to manifesttheir Christian identity in a societywhich no longer sees it as allied withpolitical power and which is becomingmore conscious of the value and theimportance of spirituality and of thenew forms of religious experience anddiscernment that can help people todiscover the new frontiers of marginal -ization.

Without pretending to be exhaustive,I want to offer some examples from ourmodern world –actions, words, andideas– that are worth considering.

3.3. Signs of the times,evangelical signs

3.3.1. Against the idolatry of themarket: the concept of interdependence As church teaching has often de -nounced, there exists in our world anidolization of the «market god,» withall that that implies. In response to this,alternative spaces of solidarity havebeen created, such as responsible con -sumer cooperatives, fair trade programs,ethical banking, socially responsibleinvesting, exchange of services amongspecific groups, etc. Never before havethere been so many examples of alter -native economic spaces! It is interest -ing that many of these movements havebeen promoted within religious set tings.In some countries these alternativeeconomic forms are beginning to havea certain weight in the marketplace;

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such is the case with fair trade and withorganically produced foods. Proof ofthis is seen in the quantity of theseproducts that are becoming availableand can even be found in conventionalmarkets.

The ecological problematic resultingfrom unsustainable consumption andthe alarming data we are receiving withregard to climatic change are makingpeople more aware that we cannotcontinue this way. It is becoming in -creasingly evident that we need to seekreconciliation with creation on the basisof a new understanding of the theologyof creation and of our relation to nature.There is also greater conscious ness ofthe need for intergenerational solidarity;we are becoming more aware that ourneighbors include those who will comeafter us, our descendants, since ourpresent actions will affect their lives or at least the quality of their lives.Therefore, our idea of who our neighboris becomes more inclusive, no longerlim ited to the man we see on the road toJericho, whose distressed face appealsto us for a compassionate response.Rath er, our neighbors are also thepersons we do not see either becausethey’re on the other side of the world orbecause they will be born in latergenerations.

Consequently, it is extremely im -por tant to preserve a diversity of animaland plant species, not only because ofthe intrinsic value of diversity butbecause of the intimate connectionsamong all the living beings of theplanet. By safeguarding animal andplant life now, we are protecting notonly present-day human life but also

the human life to come (that of ourdescendents). Let us remember thatdiversity will allow us to adapt moresuccessfully to whatever new habitatsmay appear as a result of climaticchange. There is a basic value in theinterdependence and the intercom -munion of living beings with oneanother, as we are reminded in para -graph number 26 of Gaudium et Spes.Unfortunately, however, the prevailingculture encourages us to think first ofourselves, and it fails to promoteconsciousness of the reality of interde -pendence among all beings, that is, ofhow we are all interrelated and howmuch human life depends on otherbeings. We don’t experience our realityas a gift from others and for others sothat when we relate with them, we oftentreat them as mere objects. We are notaware of what they think or what theyfeel; we do not experience their suf -fering as our own. Rather, we relate tothem as if they were objects to beobserved and manipulated withoutimposing any obligation on us. We haveinteriorized the idea that the individualself can thrive all on its own; whateverit needs from others is made into anobject in function of itself. We need,then, to begin to relate to others interms of interdependence and thusbegin to understand that the good of the individual and the good of thecollective are inseparable. Failure tounderstand this has condemned three-quarters of humanity to suffering, and it has placed nature itself under greatpressure. Consciousness of interde -pend ence should result in an ethics ofuniversal compassion that allows all

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living beings to thrive, especially thosewhich are weakest and most threatened.Only we human beings can take on thisgreat responsibility; we must behave asif we were the conscience of the planet.We must be capable of responding withcompassion both to the members of ourown species and to the members ofother species since we all have a com -mon destiny in this great biosphere.

3.3.2. AusterityOur comments in the previous sectionassume an appreciation of the value ofausterity. There exist today movementswhich promote more austere ways oflife. The movement advocating slowergrowth7 has given rise to an interestingdebate about this question. It advocates«living with less» so that those whocome after us will have a planet that ismore habitable. Austerity requires aseries of behaviors and attitudes thatbecome concrete in a different sort ofdaily life:

a) Consuming responsibly andsustainably, not leaving our norms forconsuming in the hands of the themarket and its advertising strategies.

b) Paying special attention to the trapsset by the market, such as the program -med obsolescence of many products,thus favoring continued consumption.

c) Re-educating and restraining ourdesire to have more and more, a desirewhose only objective is attaining acertain social status or identity.

With regard to this last idea, weshould note that the market does notlimit itself to offering products that

satisfy our material needs; by itsdifferent product brands and logos italso offers imaginary ideal worlds thatgive us a sense of identity and meaning.As a result, we are urged to acquire oursense of identity and meaning throughwhat we buy and consume. Our identityseems to come less from our family orour social class and more from what weconsume and how we dress. In this waywe create collective identities that giveus status or that identify us as athletes,as rebels, as young people, etc. Ourconsuming habits and the brands webuy introduce us into a particular sub -culture which give us an identity andtherefore a certain security. These areidentities that are not imposed on us butcan be freely chosen. As a consequence,they are seen as acceptable since theyallow us to exercise freedom of choiceeven though in a superficial way.

This can be seen more clearly withregard to adolescents since they arehighly influenced by the group or thefaction to which they feel closest.Adherence to or rejection by the groupdetermines their identity. We depend onour identity to protect us againstinsecurity and fear of failure. Identitysatisfies our desire for recognition andour need for affection. The personsmost susceptible to the attraction ofcertain brands are precisely those whofeel most needy, and adolescents arevulnerable in this regard. They areseeking a personal identity, and theireager consumption corresponds to thephysiological and psychological changesthey are experiencing. They are espe -cially malleable and are in constant needof being accepted and of belong ing to a

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group. They satisfy their needs mainlyby controlling external things such as theclothing they wear or the music theylisten to, but they also place much im -portance on the physical shape of theirbodies and so engage in dieting, sports,and exercise. This sector of the popu la -tion is so important that some commen -tators speak of the «global adolescents»who are inde pendent of any culture–they prefer Coca-Cola to local prod uctsand Nikes to sandals. There is littledoubt that for some decades now com -panies have stop ped producing thingsand have dedi cated them selves insteadto pro ducing «brands.»

Returning to the signs of the times,the ecological crisis has given birth to amovement that speaks in terms of«environmental justice.» That is becausethe poorest countries are those thatsuffer the worst consequences of climatechange,8 such as droughts, migrations,floods, and the exhaustion of foodsources (e.g., fishing). This movementreveals how poverty is related toecological problems, and it helps us torealize that distributive justice cannotbe separated from ecology. In the Westwe are often made aware that ecologi -cal movements have the most strengthprecisely in poor countries and the so-called emerging countries. Many Chris -tians and many Christian communitiesare working for the defense of theenvironment and environmental justice.

3.3.3. New spiritualitiesIn the midst of a western culture that ispredominantly hedonist and materialistthere is a resurgent interest in new forms

of spirituality. Despite the ambiguityinherent in these new spiritualities, theyreveal people’s profound dissatisfactionwith the status quo and their desire forsomething else. Although many of thesenew spiritualities are extremely centeredon the inner self, their emergence insociety is a symptom of something thatwe should not deride. Some authorsspeak of a post-materialist era that isseeking to replace the materialist cul -ture that dominated the West soon afterthe Second World War ended.

It is important to ask why the spiritu -ality offered by the Catholic Churchand Christian churches in general is solittle accepted in the West, especially in Europe. Sociological data reflect astrong decline in religious observancein Europe, although the decline hasslowed down in recent years.9 We shouldalso analyze here the post-modern formsof religiosity with all their ambiguity(some authors even talk about «thereturn of the witches»).10 Our analysisshould avoid considering these forms tobe anti-religious or purely negative(manipulative, self-centered, emotional,etc.). We should concentrate instead onthe symptoms that give rise to them,such as dissatisfaction, and on thecharacteristics that make them at trac tiveto many people. Without seeking toundertake an in-depth analy sis, webelieve that these new forms of reli -giosity often offer a valuable critique ofcertain religious forms to which theChurch has long been wedded. We haveinherited a very rationalist religiositythat is centered on argument; it is ex ces - sively ethical, minimally celebratory oraesthetic, and highly individualistic (or

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at least lacking in community spirit).Such religiosity has always viewed anyexpression of feeling as highly subjec -tive. This implicit critique should betaken seriously by the Church to see ifthere is any truth in it. The Churchshould now take the same attitude thatthe Council was advocating when itspoke of atheism (cf. Gaudium et Spes,19-21). The context that the Councilwas then addressing in the West wasdifferent from what is happening now.It was focused on the increase in prac -tical atheism and the prevalence of athe -istic, materialist systems that viewedGod as a impediment for the progressof the human race. Gaudium et Spestherefore insisted that the Church has toperform her own examination of con -science: «Believers themselves fre quent -ly bear some respon sibility for thissituation. For, taken as a whole, atheismis not a spontaneous development butstems from a variety of causes, in clud -ing a critical reaction against reli giousbeliefs, and in some places against theChristian religion in particular. Hencebelievers may have more than a little todo with the birth of atheism» [GS 19].Still, the document continues, the Church«strives to detect in the atheistic mindthe hidden cause for the denial of God.Conscious of how weighty are the ques -tions which atheism raises, and moti -vated by love for human beings, theChurch believes these questions oughtto be examined more seriously andmore profoundly» [GS 21].

A similar effort needs to be under -taken by the Church and Christiansgenerally with regard to the newspiritualities.

3.3.4. The recovery of local culture The homogenizing tendency of globali -zation is causing people to be con -cerned about recovering and revaloriz -ing the diversity of local cultures. Thisdevelopment presents a challenge to theChurch, especially in Africa and Asia,where the Church is growing fastestand where there are more conversionsand vocations to religious life. The chal -lenge is how best to inculturate the faithamong peoples who do not have thewestern philosophical tradition, even asthe Church is suffering a significantloss of influence in the western worldthat has that tradition. The challenge, inother words is how to situate theChurch between universality (as catho -lic) and respect for what is local. Thischallenge is by no means new but hasbecome all the more urgent withglobalization and the development ofbetter means of communicating andtraveling. It is quite possible that todaymore than ever we are conscious ofcultural conditioning and of the need toinculturate the faith in ways that willallow it to grow and expand.

3.3.5. The recovery of values in keysectors There are signs that people are con -cerned that the market and the newtech nologies not be guided solely bythe goal of economic profit. Never be -fore have has there been so much dis -cussion of values in the areas of poli -tics, business, finance, or medicine, butthe fact is that there are still manypractices that fail to consider any valuesat all, and these have brought us to the

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extreme of treading on the dignity ofmany persons, especially those who aremost vulnerable. True concern forvalues is still just getting underway, butit is real. In the field of bioethics, forexample, steps have been taken tointroduce the study of values into thecurriculums for medicine and nursing,though this kind of reflection is stillvery scarce in Catalonia and Spain. It ismore difficult to introduce reflection onvalues into the curriculums of businessschools, perhaps because such reflec -tion inevitably leads students to ques -tion the values of the present system.Because of the present economic crisis,the worst since the crisis of 1929, someof the major economics faculties arebeginning to examine what they areactually teaching in their classrooms.They are increasingly aware that thetraining they currently impart is whatgave rise to a business culture thatproduced dishonest financial specula -tion and paved the way for the presentcrisis. This process of rethinking theeconomic model and its unsustainablecharacter is very slow, however. In theend it will be the emerging countriesthat will set the norms for this kind ofethical reflection in the coming years.

3.3.6. The horizon of a global ethics Faced with the many problems of ourworld, the great religious traditionshave made an effort to show that theyare bearers of peace and graciousnessamong peoples and that they can helpprevent conflict. They have facilitatedethical agreements that show that theyare in favor of world peace, respect forthe environment, and a just economic

order. Some of the values the great reli -gions share can be seen, for exam ple, inthe «Declaration Toward a GlobalEthic» that was issued by the Parliamentof the World’s Religions at their 1993meeting in Chicago.11 This Declarationhas contributed greatly to the creationof a world ethics. The Parliament of theWorld’s Religions proposed that a newworld order is not possible without aworld ethics, understood as «a funda -mental consensus on binding values,irrevocable standards, and personalattitudes. Without such a fundamentalconsensus on an ethic, sooner or laterevery community will be threatened bychaos or dictatorship, and individualswill despair.» Let us recall what theDeclaration tells us in Part 2 of itsintroduction:

We all are fallible, imperfect men andwomen with limitations and defects.We know the reality of evil. Preciselybecause of this, we feel compelled forthe sake of global welfare to expresswhat the fundamental elements of aglobal ethic should be–for individualsas well as for communities and organi -zations, for states as well as for thereligions themselves. We trust that ouroften millennia-old religious andethical traditions provide an ethicwhich is convincing and practicablefor all women and men of good will,religious and non-religious.At the same time we know that ourvarious religious and ethical traditionsoften offer very different bases forwhat is helpful and what is unhelpfulfor men and women, what is right andwhat is wrong, what is good and whatis evil. We do not wish to gloss over or

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ignore the serious differences amongthe individual religions. However,they should not hinder us from pro -claiming publicly those things whichwe already hold in common and whichwe jointly affirm, each on the basis ofour own religious or ethical grounds.

The Magisterium of the Church hasalso commented on the need for auniversal ethics in a document issuedby the International Theological Com -mission: In Search of a Universal Ethics.The Church, conscious of the need toseek common norms for living togetherin justice and peace, wants to sharewith the other religious and philosophi -cal traditions of our time the concept ofnatural law, a concept which, despitesome biased interpretations, is in noway static or determined only bydefinitive and immutable precepts. Tothe contrary, the natural law is a sourceof inspiration that arises precisely fromthe search for an objective foundationfor a universal ethics (no. 113). It doesthis by appealing to what is universal inevery human being and by inviting theother traditions to do the same whiledrawing on their own sources. It is,therefore, an attempt to win a commonacknowledgement of universal moralnorms that are founded on a rationalapproximation to reality. This urgenttask goes beyond our particular reli -gious convictions and our diverse cul -tural presuppositions in order to gainthe mutual recognition and peacefulcooperation of all members of thehuman family (no. 116). The documentreminds us, though, that «Christianitydoes not have a monopoly on the natu -ral law. In fact, since the natural law is

based on the power of reasoning that is common to all human beings, it pro -vides a solid foundation for collabora -tion among all persons of good willwhatever their religious convictions»(no. 9). «The nature and the extension ofthese tradition can vary considerably,but they bear clear witness to the exist -ence of a patrimony of moral values thatare common to all peoples, no matterhow these values are justified within aparticular vision of the world. For exam -ple, the ‘Golden Rule’ is found in oneform or another in most of the world’swisdom traditions.12 Moreover, the dif -ferent traditions generally agree that thegreat ethical norms do not apply only toparticular human groupd but haveuniversal validity for every individualand for all peoples. Finally, manytraditions recognize that these universalmoral behaviors are required by thevery nature of human beings» (no. 12).

In the concrete case of the Church,she has acted as mediator and recon -ciler in many conflicts and has helpedopposed parties to find reconciliationand forgiveness.

3.3.7. «Networks of indignation andhope» Finally, for some time now in Europewe have seen the beginnings of socialmovements that have been called«networks of indignation and hope.»13

This label sums up very well thesemove ments which, like all social mobi -lization, appeared first as a cry of indig -nation but then little by little began topresent concrete proposals for alterna -tive policies. These movements have

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had great success in mobilizing peoplein the face of a world that is desperatecrisis. As Manuel Castells explains,small groups of people began to com -municate through the social networks,and that communication led them tooccupy the streets and propose concretemeasures that were opposed to large-scale economic and financial interests.This movement bypassed the existingpolitical structures and distrusted themass media that were controlled byeconomic interests. The different aspectsof the movement were not highlyorganized, but they had many things incommon. They were determined to workfor new forms of participative democra -cy, and they showed a clear distrust ofpolitics and the democratic game asportrayed in the social networks.

In a relatively short lapse of time themovement spread around the world. InTunisia and Egypt we saw the so-called«Arab Spring,» in which people criedout for democracy and protestedagainst autocratic governments. In theUnited States we saw the «Occupy WallStreet» movement, which started inSeptember of 2011.14 In Spain we sawthe protests of the Indignados, the«indignant» demonstrators of the 15-Mmovement. The alternative proposalsput forward by these different move -ments have already been analyzed in anearlier booklet of this same collection.15I would like to stress here, however, areality that I consider important, name -ly, the ability of these movements tomobilize people of all ages and to give

them hope. Contributing to the dyna -mism of these movements were popularmanifestos such as «Real DemocracyNow!»16 and S. Hessel’s ¡Indignaos![Get Indignant!],17 which gave its nameto the movement in Spain. Anyonereading proposals such as those of the«Sun Assembly»18 held on May 20thwill see that they are requesting veryrealistic measures, ones that many po -litical analysts and social organiza tionshave been proposing for a long timenow; they are measures that includemaking democracy more effective,working for greater economic equality,and developing an economy that ismore sustainable.

There were many Christians amongthe young people who were setting upcamps and leading demonstrations,because many of the proposals of theprotesters coincided closely with theprin ciples defended by the Church’ssocial doctrine. For example, the en -cycli cal Caritas in Veritate of BenedictXVI (2009) touches key issues relatedto the unjust character of present-dayglobalization, and its proposals coin -cide with some of the proposals of thismovement. It is true that, like anymovement, this one includes people ofevery sort, and there is need for verycareful discernment. We should keep inmind, however, that serious efforts todiscredit the movement are being madeby the minority elements that controlthe financial sector and by parties thatare afraid of losing their privilegedpositions.

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4. BY WAY OF SUMMARY

The main objective of this booklet has been to invite the reader to reflecton the values we find around us and to become conscious of them. Weall live and move in a twofold axiological matrix: a) that of our society(the social ethos)19 and b) that of our religious faith (e.g., Christian,Islamist, or Buddhist ethics) or of an ethical system of a non-religiousnature (such as human rights). When a person acts or has to make adecision about some question, he is influenced by this double matrixand by his personal experience of how the two ethical systemsintersect. We have focused on western society, which possesses apolitical and social tradition of a liberal democratic character but whoseethos reflects the capitalist economic system –and all of this is situatedin a context of post-modernity. Our aim has simply been to take note ofsome of the values of these contrasting ethical systems. Our second aim was to comply with the demand of the Second VaticanCouncil that we reflect on what values Christian ethics can contribute tosociety. Accordingly, we have entered into an ethical dialogue in asincere attempt to humanize the society that we all experience andshare. The reader can surely add many other points to this dialoguesince it welcomes the contributions of all. Finally, we have tried to describe the signs of the times which reveal tous where the Spirit is calling our western societies, and we have tried todo this from a vision centered within the Christian community even aswe realize that believers work and interact with members of society whoare not believers. The signs of the times and the movements of theSpirit need to be embraced by the Christian community since theyrespond to the problems of our world; they make proposals and offersolutions that are not foreign to Gospel values despite their secularcharacter. Our final section is also an invitation to see the «new signsof the times» and to discern them in community in order to determinewhether they truly respond to the Gospel of Jesus of Nazareth.

1. Francis FUKUYAMA, The End of History and theLast Man, 1989.

2. Culture can be defined in many way. One defi -nition, inspired by the classical sociologicaltreatise of G. Rocher and modified by J. Mi -ralles, sociology professor at ESADE, is thefollowing: «culture is the whole complex offorms of feeling, acting, and thinking sharedby a society which allows members of thegroup to survive, provides them a sense ofidentity and belonging, and gives their livesmeaning.»

3. The classical definition of ideology is the onefound in G. ROCHER, Introducción a la so cio -logía, Barcelona, Her der, 1982: «A system ofexplicit and generally well organized ideas andjudgments that serve to describe, interpret, orjustify the situation of a group or collectivity;the system draws its inspiration from a set ofvalues and gives a precise orientation to thehistorical action of the group or collectivity.»

4. The expression was coined by J. M. MARDONES,Neoconservadurismo, la religión del sistema,Cuaderno Fe y Secularidad, Santander, SalTerrae, 1991, p. 10.

5. This tendency understands the importance of thefamily as a positive factor in the process ofsocialization and as an integral component ofChristian community, but it needs to avoid anidealization of the patriarchal family of earliercenturies, in which the father had excessivepower and the woman had to be submissive.Such a model of family is not evangelical.Also, this tendency should refuse to idealizethe morality of earlier societies which upheldthe norms of the noble class and the bour geoi -sie and imposed on others a type of obediencethat depended more on mechanisms of socialcontrol than on an evangelical, and thereforeautonomous, sense of responsibility.

6. For further information on this question, see M.ARROYO MENÉNDEZ in Tendencias en identi da -des, valores y creencias, Madrid, Sistema, 2004

7. One thinker who gave great force to this move -ment in the 1990s was Serge Latouche. Themovement’s origins go back to the mathema -ti cian and economist Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen, who in 1971 published The EntropyLaw and the Economic Process, which elabo -rates his theory about the bioeconomy. Otherinfluences include critics of the industrializa tionthat took place in the decades of the ’50, ’60s,and ’70s, such as Günther Anders (La obso -lescencia del hombre, 1956), Hannah Arendt,(Condición del hombre moderno, 1958), and theClub of Rome (The Meadows Report, 1972).

8. See, for example, the critique made in theUNDP Report for the year 2007-8.

9. In our Catalonian context it is interesting to see,for example, the data offered by T. MELLÉN,«Religió i valors» in Javier ELZO and ÀngelCAS TIÑEIRA (dir.), Valors tous en temps durs:La societat catalana a l’enquesta europea devalors de 2009, Barcelona, Barcino, 2011, pp.279-298.

10. The expression is from a book with that titlePAUWELS and J. BERGIER, El retorno de los bru -jos, Barcelona, Plaza Janes, 1981. It is cited inGON ZÁLEZ-CARVAJAL, Ideas y creencias del hom - bre actual, Santander, Sal Terrae, 1991, p. 173.

11. The declaration can be found at http://www.parliamentofreligions.org/_includes/FCKcontent/File/TowardsAGlobalEthic.pdf.

12. «The Declaration Toward a Global Ethic» ofthe Parliament of the World’s Religions(Chicago, 1993) is based on the Golden Ruleas formulated in the great religious traditions.The Golden Rule as found in the Gospel ofMatthew reads thus: «Do unto others the sameas you would have them do unto you» (7,12).

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NOTES

13. This is the title of a new book by sociologistManuel CASTELLS, Redes de indignación yesperanza: los movimentos sociales en la erainternet, Madrid, Alianza editorial, 2012.

14. http://occupywallst.org/15. See O. MATEOS and J. SANZ, Cambio de época.

¿Cambio de rumbo? [Change of Epoch. Changeof Direction?], Barcelona, Cris tianisme iJustícia, Cuadernos 186, 2013.

16. http://www.democraciarealya.es17. Stéphane Frédéric Hessel (Berlin, 1917 - Paris,

2013), Indignez-vous!, 2010. Published in 2011in Spanish and Catalán.

18. The proposals may be found at http://madrid.tomalaplaza.net/2011/05/20/propuestas-20-mayo/

19. Within the social ethos (which consists of thevalues that float in the environment and areaccepted de facto by a good part of society asguides for their conduct) we can also find twoother sources of moral orientation: the laws of a country and the professional codes ofconduct that are specific to a particularoccupation or business. As can be imagined,this social ethos and one’s personal moralitycan enter into conflict.

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