the road to recovery and rebirth - wur

The Road to Recovery and Rebirth

The Social Construction of Tourism Development in Bandipur,

Nepal

Master Thesis

Wageningen, 2012


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The Social Construction of Tourism Development in Bandipur, Nepal

Student: Elīna Ruska,

850517-717-010

[email protected]

Supervisor: Dr. Chin Ee Ong

Master Thesis Report: SAL-80433

Master programme: Leisure Tourism and Environment (MLE)

Chair Group: Cultural Geography

Department: Environmental Sciences

Wageningen University and Research Center

Wageningen, December 2012

This thesis is a student report produced as a part of Master Programme in Leisure, Tourism

and Environment (MLE). It is not an official publication and the content does not represent an

official position of Wageningen University and Research Center.


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Abstract

This study aims to gain understanding on the activities that have stimulated development in

Bandipur and to explore how Bandipurians socially construct and interpret tourism development and

related socio-cultural tourism impacts. Bandipur is a remote village located in Nepal. This village has

experienced boom-boost-boom development and within the last decade the number of its

inhabitants has almost tripled. Moreover, in line with the activities of Bandipur Eco-Cultural Tourism

Project, Bandipur has become a recognised tourism destination for both domestic and international

travellers. Due to tourism activities, Bandipur is experiencing a great change that affects the local

way of life. Accordingly, this research aims to capture this change by analysing opinions of the

residents and travellers concerning the development in Bandipur and related socio-cultural tourism

impacts. Consequently, tourism development in Bandipur is explained through three main themes,

namely: from “dark ages” to “bright” future, road as a way to modernity and socio-cultural impacts.

Through analysis of the development from “dark ages” to “bright” future, this research shows that

people in Bandipur are very positive due to current tourism development in the village. Additionally,

Bandipurians associate the incoming flows of new residents and travellers with an opposite situation

to the past when most of people who had a possibility to emigrate abandoned the village.

Subsequently, the current immigration of people in Bandipur is socially constructed as an

opportunity for better future. Further it is explored that the development in Bandipur was triggered

by a road link to the highway connecting the country’s two main tourism destinations, Kathmandu

and Pokhara. The presence of a good quality road not only ensures mobility of people, but also

provides accessibility to goods and products. Since the accessibility of the village was the main

precondition why the village was developed as the Eco-cultural Tourism Project area, the presence of

a good quality road is socially constructed as the main cause for development and modernity in

Bandipur. The study shows that the change caused by development may also transform the social

environment of the village; this research has revealed that the respondents are very positive about

the socio-cultural tourism impacts in Bandipur. While majority of the respondents are denying the

negative aspects of the socio-cultural change, such issues as water accessibility, garbage

management, demonstration effect or visual change of the village due to up-coming numbers of new

modern buildings are often reflected as negative effects of the development. In order to minimise

the undesirable tourism foot-print in Bandipur, the recommendation section is oriented on

improvements concerning social environment of the village, attractiveness in terms of sense of place

and necessity for management activities.

Keywords: Interpretivism, rural development, social constructionism, socio-cultural tourism impacts,

Nepal.


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Acknowledgements

The time in Bandipur for me will always remain as unforgettable experience. I experienced the village

as a traveller during my first visit and as a researcher during the second one. Both of these positions

have brought me unforgettable experiences that I am going to cherish for the rest of my life. It was

surprising to me how welcomed local people made me feel through their encounters, even if I was

just a stranger in their environment there.

First of all I would like to express my very great appreciation to Dr. Chin Ee Ong as my supervisor for

his valuable and constructive recommendations during the planning and development of this

research. His critical comments and suggestions during this thesis writing process have been very

much appreciated. I would also like to thank the team of Leisure, Tourism and Environments master

programme who prepared me to go and explore the unknown.

Furthermore my appreciation goes to Lisa Choegyal whose advice and information attracted my

attention to Bandipur as a research area for this master thesis. Very special thanks go to Mrs. Jharna

Joshi (the project manager of Bandipur Eco-cultural Tourism Project) whose enthusiasm and interest

in the project outcomes gave me additional inspiration and new perspectives concerning

development in Bandipur. Further I would like to express my gratefulness to Mr. Bikram Piya whose

excellent work while approaching local people as a translator provided me with the in-depth

understanding over the happenings in the village. Besides, I would like to thank to Bhandari Family

who treated me as their family member and were willing to accompany me whenever exploration of

souring’s was planned.

This research would not be possible without a regular support of my Family in Latvia and friends. The

feeling that I am not alone during this thesis period gave me extra stimulus and motivation to achieve

the goal. I wish to thank my friend and classmate Lusine Margaryan, who always managed to cheer

me up with her comments and optimistic notes. And additional cheers go to my fiancé Rudy van

Bruggen who with his presence supported me either through my stay in Nepal as well as actual thesis

writing process back in the Netherlands. Without you being next to me, the work would seem much

harder and the distance further…

Thank you all!

Sincerely yours,

Elīna Ruska


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Table of Contents

Abstract ................................................................................................................................................... 3

Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................. 4

Words to Explain ..................................................................................................................................... 7

Abbreviations .......................................................................................................................................... 7

1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 8

1.1. Bandipur .................................................................................................................................. 8

1.1.1. Historical Development ................................................................................................... 8

1.1.2. Tourism in Bandipur ........................................................................................................ 9

1.1.3. Bandipur Eco-cultural Tourism Project.......................................................................... 10

1.1.4. Destination Life Cycle of Bandipur ................................................................................ 11

1.2. Problem Statement ............................................................................................................... 12

1.3. Research Objective and Research Questions ........................................................................ 13

1.4. Thesis Structure ..................................................................................................................... 14

2. Literature Review .............................................................................................................................. 15

2.1. Interpretive Paradigm ................................................................................................................ 15

2.2. Social Constructionism ............................................................................................................... 16

2.3. Socio-cultural Tourism Impacts .................................................................................................. 17

2.3.1. Tourism Impacts and Sustainability ..................................................................................... 17

2.3.2. Socio-cultural Impacts ......................................................................................................... 20

3. Methodology ..................................................................................................................................... 27

3.1. Research Design ......................................................................................................................... 27

3.2. Sampling ..................................................................................................................................... 29

3.3. Data Collection ........................................................................................................................... 32

3.4. Data Analysis .............................................................................................................................. 33

3.5. Limitations .................................................................................................................................. 34

4. Results ............................................................................................................................................... 35

4.1. From “Dark Ages” to “Bright” Future ......................................................................................... 35

4.2. Road as a Way to Modernity ...................................................................................................... 39

4.3. Socio-cultural impacts (SCI) ........................................................................................................ 50

5. Discussion .......................................................................................................................................... 62

6. Conclusion and Recommendations ................................................................................................... 66


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6.1. Main conclusions ........................................................................................................................ 66

6.2. Recommendations...................................................................................................................... 71

6.3. Suggestions for Future Research ................................................................................................ 73

Literature list ......................................................................................................................................... 74

Appendix. List of Interviews .................................................................................................................. 80

List of Tables

Table 2.1 Ways of categorizing socio-cultural impacts………………………………………..…………………………. 23

List of Figures

Figure 1.1 Location of Bandipur …………………………………………………..……………………….……….………….……. 9

Figure 1.2 Change in Bandipur …………………………………………………………………….…….…..…..……………….. 10

Figure 1.3 The position of Bandipur in Butler’s Destination Life cycle Model ……..……..……...…………. 11

Figure 2.1 Dimensions of the impacts of tourism ………………………………………………………….………………. 19

Figure 2.2 Host and guest relationship ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 21

Figure 2.3 Model of socio-cultural impacts ……………………………………………………….…………………………… 25

Figure 3.1 Interviewed actors ………………………………………………………………….……………………………………. 30


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Words to Explain

Ward – a territorial division in Nepal

Newari – an ethnical group in Nepal

Banda – a political unrest

Roxy – a local vine

Abbreviations

BECTP – Bandipur Eco-cultural Tourism Project

NTB – Nepal Tourism Board

SC- social constructionism

SCC – Social carrying Capacity

SCI – Socio-cultural impacts

TIC – Tourism Information Centre

T - Tourism

TNR – Tourism nonrelated

TR – Tourism related

VDC – Village Development Committee


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1. Introduction

In this chapter background information over Bandipur as a tourism destination is provided. Overall,

this chapter is subdivided into four sub-chapters. In the first sub-chapter information over Bandipur

as a tourism destination is given. The sub-division is started with an introduction over historical

development of Bandipur. Then, continued with an assessment on existing tourism statistics of the

village. Since Bandipur Eco-cultural Tourism Project (BECTP) is often described as the main trigger for

(tourism) development in Bandipur, information over this project is presented in the section 1.1.3.

Thus, as the last division in the first subchapter, Bandipur Life Cycle is designed and explained. In

second sub-chapter problem statement of this thesis is given. Based on problem statement, the

research objective and research questions of this thesis are provided within the third subchapter of

this introduction. Accordingly, the concluding sub-chapter of this section explains the structure of the

thesis.

1.1. Bandipur

In order to provide in-depth background information over Bandipur as a tourism destination, in this

section tourism development related aspects are provided. Within the first sub-division information

over historical development of the village is provided. As it turns out after literature study, the

happenings in the past are directly contributing to the present tourism development. This section is

followed up with insight information over tourism statistics of the site. In order to provide a visual

impression of the current tourism development, Destination Lifecycle Model of Bandipur is created

and explained in subsequent division. Finally, the section is finalized by providing in-depth

information over Bandipur Eco-cultural Tourism Project that is believed to be the main trigger for the

rapid tourism growth in the village.

1.1.1. Historical Development

“During my stay in Bandipur, I found the single most popular topic of

conversation of my informants was discussion of what Bandipur was like in the

past. There was no end to the countless reminiscent stories and heroic tales

which the people were able to recount to me. I observed that these legends, in

conjunction with related physical evidence, suggested a rich historical base from

which the culture of this area today has, in part, evolved.” (Iltis, 1980).

The above mentioned quote comprises the informative stories of how Bandipur being a free-malaria

location was established as a trading hub between Tibet and India by Newari traders from Bhaktapur

(Kathmandu Valley) on 1768 (Bhattarai, 2012).

Shown in Figure 1.1 this ancient trading village lies 8 km up the hill from one of the main country´s

highways connecting two of Nepal´s must-see destinations - Kathmandu (about 135 km) and Pokhara

(approximately 80 km) (NTB, 2012). Bandipur Village Development Committee (VDC) covers at

around 45 km2 and includes 9 wards (Joshi & Rajoparhyay, 2007) that are located in altitude of about

1000 m above sea level (McConnachie and Reed, 2009).


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According to Badruddin (2010), Bandipur is a story of

“boom-bust-boom” development, since its history can

be divided in three general phases. Firstly, Bandipur

can be seen as a part of the trade route attracting

merchant and trader population due to whom the

village still benefits with its Newari culture and

ancient architecture that is reflected in its buildings,

temples as well as people’s daily rhythms. As a second

wave, Bandipur experienced rapid population

decrease due to the relocation of district

headquarters and construction of the Prithvi highway

(early 70’s) connecting Kathmandu and Pokhara.

Through reflections on this period, Bandipur is often

described as a “ghost town” (Bikram, 2012), since

many inhabitants emigrated from the area to search

better living options. As pointed out in the citation

above, during this period of the down-fall,

Bandipurians were reflecting on their past as an

important part of their current lives.

(Source: Bandipur Eco-cultural Tourism Project, 2007)

Figure 1.1 Location of Bandipur

Nowadays, Bandipur is experiencing its re-birth since the village is recognised as a picturesque

town/village nestled in the Himalayan foothills defined also as a hill queen place (Bhattarai, 2012) or

living museum of Newari culture (Lonely Planet, 2009). In the late 90’s a good quality road was built

linking Bandipur with the Prithvi highway, which stimulated the progress of the village (Badrudin,

2010). The literature sources present that the presence of better road has not only resulted in

increasing number of inhabitants in Bandipur - from 1600 people in “dark times” (Bikram, 2011) to

more than 5000 inhabitants, nowadays (Joshi & Rajoparhyay, 2007); but the village is also receiving a

steady flow of international and domestic tourists.

1.1.2. Tourism in Bandipur

The information available over visitor statistics in Bandipur is contradictory. During the desk and field

research, two sources over tourism statistics in Bandipur were found. The first source published in

Nepali national newspaper on May, 2010 comprises information over 60 daily visitors visiting

Bandipur in 2010 (The Himalayan Times-a, 2010). On the other hand, in the publication of an

interview with the formal chairman of Bandipur Tourism Development Committee taken in

November 2010, the data differ, informing the visitor growth till 200 daily visitors, if previously there

were only 40 new (daily) arrivals (The Himalayan Times-b, 2010). Although there is a high

inconsistency in this data, the difference may be explained by the period when the data is published.

Consequently, it can be assumed that the article published on May, 2010 reflects the incoming

tourist numbers during low tourism season and the second article provides approximate statistics of

tourist arrivals in Bandipur in high season. Furthermore, in none of the sources information over the

characteristics of the visitors (e.g. international, domestic) has been included. Therefore it is not clear

if these statistics reflect international visitors or international and domestic visitors combined.


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Additionally, there is also no information about the ways how any of these statistics have been

collected and by whom.

Moreover, there are no further statistics or tourism development plans discovered that would

provide information over the tourism scenarios of Bandipur. Nevertheless, based on the destination

analysis it can be said that there are three main groups visiting Bandipur: domestic tourists,

international independent travellers or backpackers as well as organised international travellers

(Cooper et al 2005). Thus, it has been observed, while organised international travellers are mainly

up-market and middle-class target groups who are staying overnight in the local resorts, then

majority of international backpackers traveling in Bandipur are budget travellers. Bandipur is

receiving a steady flow of visitors and there are evidences that tourism development in Bandipur

experienced a rapid growth due to the activities related to Bandipur Eco-cultural Tourism Project

(BECTP) that was run from 2003 till 2007 in Bandipur (Joshi, 2012).

1.1.3. Bandipur Eco-cultural Tourism Project

According to Bhattarai (2011) the main objective of BECTP was: “to develop Bandipur as sustainable

eco-cultural tourism centre with a network of similar hill towns to revitalize, protect and promote

their cultural and natural resources with programmes that have replication values.” The project was

designed as a sustainable approach to new destination promotion and it was supported by the Asia

Urbs Programme that was launched by the European Commission in 1998 as an initiative in

decentralised (city-to-city) collaboration, to bring together local governments from Asia and

European Union (in this case Municipality of Hydra (Greece) and Comune di Riomaggiore (Italy))

(Joshi & Rajoparhyay, 2007). During the project period, the village experiences both physical change

of place through infrastructure development (see Figure 1.2) as well as growth in tourism related

knowledge gathered through workshops, trainings and communication with local people.

(Source: Jharna Joshi, BECTP, 2003)

(Source: Author’s photo, 2012)

Figure 1.2 Change in Bandipur

Advocated by Bhattarai (2011) BECTP was established to provide support for cultural and heritage

conservation, education and training, documentation, development of cultural inventory and for

foundation of Bandipur tourism information centre. The main focus of this project was orientated on


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the potentials of Bandipur as a sustainable eco-cultural destination that would contribute to the

development of other related tourism activities in a way that this experience could be implemented

also in other similar destination of the country (Joshi & Rajoparhyay, 2007). BECTP has been

described as successful in raising self-confidence of the local people as well as in providing them with

an essential knowledge and skills related to eco-cultural activities, heritage preservation as well as

tourism development and promotion (Bhattarai, 2011). Currently, although the project has been

accomplished for several years, Bandipur Eco-Cultural Tourism Project is still explained as the main

pull-factor for the growth of Bandipur as a tourism destination by various stakeholders. In order to

demonstrate recent tourism development in the village, Butler’s Destination lifecycle has been

applied and explained in the following section.

1.1.4. Destination Life Cycle of Bandipur

Although several authors for some case studies are criticizing Butler’s Model for destination life cycle,

this model has been applied in terms of this research in order to demonstrate the current (2012)

tourism development in Bandipur. Displayed in Figure 1.2, the model consists of six following stages:

exploration, involvement, development, consolidation, stagnation and decline/ or stagnation

followed by rejuvenation (Getz, 1992).

Though, these segments have a tendency to co-exist (Mason, 2008), the stage marked with a circle

between consolidation and stagnation might describe the current situation of tourism development

in Bandipur. In this phase the number of visitors still increases and the local efforts are made to

extend tourism season (Murphy, 1985). Additionally, there is a believe that visitor numbers in the

future could increase due to Bandipurs proximity to Pokhara (a must-see destination of the country)

and the accessibility from a highway connecting Pokhara and Kathmandu. Therefore, there is an

assumption that the destination has not received its peak number of visitors, yet.

Figure 1.3 The position of Bandipur in Butler’s Destination Life cycle Model


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While there is a chance that the number of visitors could increase in Bandipur, it has been observed

that the overall capacity level has been reached and there is a concern of increasing negative

environmental, social and economic impacts (Devashish, 2011) related to tourism development. The

development in the village is getting close to the final stage that reflects a range of option from

rejuvenation to decline (Mason, 2008). Lack of any centralized tourism planning and management

institutions in Bandipur raises a question, if tourism development in Bandipur can be developed in a

viable manner so that tourist experiences are kept high and local tourism awareness remains

positive? The future of the destination is unclear. Though, Bandipur has high competitiveness in

comparison to other similar Nepali destinations due to its location and popularity between domestic

and international visitors. This research is focussed on discovering socio-cultural tourism impacts in

Bandipur from the lens of the destination related stakeholders. An explicit problem statement for

this research is provided in the next sub-chapter.

1.2. Problem Statement

The starting point of this study involves seeking to understand how social, cultural, economic and

environmental processes operate on and through tourism development (Mowforth & Munt, 2009). It

can be said that tourism is increasingly seen as an attractive development opportunity for many parts

of the least developed world (Talfer & Sharpley, 2008). Tourism is one of the largest and fastest

growing industries in the world and it has an impact far beyond its economic and business aspects

(United Nations Economic and Social Council, 2005). Based on the explanation provided by Mowford

& Munt (2009), development can be best understood as a hegemonic discourse that originates from

and is largely affected by transnational institutions, governments, agencies and theoretical

knowledge generated by the First World. In purposes of this paper, the term developing countries or

the Third World: “embraces all nation states that are not generally recognised as being developed

(Telfer& Sharpley, 2008)”. Nevertheless, is it the First World or the Third World, the main driving

force on which rapid tourism development over the past century is based on is generally associated

with economic benefits (Cooper et al, 2005).

Nepal is a low-income developing country (Murshed and Gates, 2005) with a weak law and order

situation, poor information management and political uncertainty in terms of national development

of the country (Holmes&Uphadya, 2009). Lack of centralised management affects not only life in the

cities, but also in rural parts of Nepal. Nepal (2007) based on her research done in Anapurna Trekking

Region argues that the effects of international tourism on a remote destination in developing country

are similar to the effects of counter-urbanization in the developed Western countries. Thus, in the

case study of Bandipur counter-urbanization movement affects the destination in two ways. Firstly,

Bandipur as a rural destination is receiving a steady flow of people (Nepalese) from urban (as well as

other rural) areas who are building new houses and are settling down in the village. And secondly,

this steady population increase from about 1600 till at around 5000 inhabitants (Bikram, 2012)

during the last decade is raising the question: Is Bandipur still a village (currently run by the VDC) or is

it becoming a town?


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To support the above mentioned question, farming in Bandipur has been discovered as another

sector of unalterable change. Several developing countries try to embrace the tourism industry and

link it with local agricultural production as a means of expanding local markets which, in turn,

contributes to economic development (Anderson & Juma, 2011). It has been explored that Bandipur

is not this case, since several families are giving up their traditional income from farming and are

shifting (at least partly) their occupancies to rapidly growing tourism sector or they are going abroad

for better income possibilities. So to say, the global forces are affecting the local life in Bandipur in

various ways and in order to ensure further destination’s viability, there is a need to assess the

impacts that the development is creating.

There seems to be a research gap about impacts created by tourism development in rural

destinations of developing countries. Hall & Lew (2009) describes impact as a positive or negative

change of a given state over time as the results of external stimulus. Thus, the impacts of tourism are

“usually considered in the context of the destination where tourism development occurs, where

tourists come into contact with local people and the environment, and where there is arguably the

greatest need to identify measure and manage such an impacts” (Telfer& Sharpley, 2008). Yet, there

is a significant amount of confusion related to the meaning of sustainability and whether or not, it is

achievable with respect of tourism sector (Cooper et al, 2005).

As Bandipur in the national level is recognised as an eco-tourism destination, this destination is

frequently described as a positive example of sustainable tourism development in Nepal. Bandipur

Eco-cultural Tourism Project (BECTP) is often described as the main pull-factor that has stimulated

tourism growth in the village. For example, according to the manager of BECTP, there are unofficial

data that contain the growth from 2 guesthouses on 2003 (before the project was started) till about

55 accommodation providers in 2011 (some years after the project was implemented) (Joshi, 2012).

Thus, the development is observed also in other related sectors and there are evidences that the

destination is still experiencing a steady growth in terms of tourism numbers.

This study has been conducted after discovering that there is no previous research done that would

focus on tourism impacts in Bandipur. Tourism as an industry has been often criticized for causing

more problems in terms of unequal benefit distribution, socio-cultural issues and much

environmental damage (Sin, 2012). The main motivation for this research is to give voice to diverse

destination related stakeholders in order to explore and understand the processes that stimulated

development in Bandipur as well as to discover people’s attitudes towards tourism development

with a special focus on socio-cultural impacts. Badruddin (2010) describes Bandipur as a village which

is trying to balance economic growth with the prevention of the pollution and preservation of its

heritage. However, there are more sectors where awareness should be raised in order to stimulate

future viability of the destination.

1.3. Research Objective and Research Questions

In this section the research objective and research questions of this thesis are identified. Based on

the problem statement presented within previous section, the following main objective of this thesis


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has been established:

To gain understanding over the activities that have stimulated development in Bandipur and

to explore how Bandipurians socially-construct and interpret tourism development and

related socio-cultural tourism impacts.

Complementary to the main objective of this research, two main research questions were identified:

RQ1. How do Bandipurians socially-construct and interpret tourism development in Bandipur?

RQ2. What are the socio-cultural tourism impacts in Bandipur and how are they socially

constructed?

Additionally, the sub-questions of this study have been derived from further theoretical study and

therefore are recognised after model of socio-cultural impacts was created in section 2.3.2.

1.4. Thesis Structure

This thesis is comprised of six chapters. In general, each chapter of the thesis starts with an

introductory section in which the main aims of the section are explicitly stated. The first chapter

introduces the reader to the context and background information of Bandipur. It has been done with

an aim to create better understanding of the destination as a complex system. Within second

chapter theoretical framework of this thesis is provided. As the main three theories, interpretive

paradigm, social constructionism and socio-cultural tourism impacts are emphasized within this

chapter. Methodology section of this thesis is covered within the third chapter. In this division

research design, sampling, data collection, data analysis and limitations are reflected. Methodology

section is followed up with a result chapter. In this chapter, the research results are subdivided into

three broader themes: migration, development and socio-cultural impacts. Thus, each of these

themes are analysed as a separate sub-chapter from three different views: respondents reflections,

my reflection on these issues as well as general reflection on my positionality. In order to answer the

research questions of this thesis, fifth chapter contains the discussion section. Consequently,

conclusion is provided in the final sixth chapter.


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2. Literature Review

To date, there has been little tourism- research in Nepal. By doing desk research, it was noted that

tourism research in Nepal is mainly focused on the Himalayas and Anapurna region. Thus, the

research themes are mainly dealing with climate change and conservation. As Bandipur is a

destination that has been developed through the activities of Bandipur Eco-cultural Tourism Project

(BECTP), it was surprising to find out that there is no follow up research to measure locals’

perception of the development. Subsequently, it was observed that Bandipur is lacking research and

attention. This thesis is aiming to fill up this research gap.

Although there is an opinion that measurement of destination accessibility is not more subjective

than the measurement if destination attractiveness and spatial separation (Fortheringham, 1986),

this aspect has been assessed as the main pull-factor for rebirth of Bandipur as an acknowledged

destination. Though the BECTP includes the objective of developing Bandipur as a sustainable eco-

cultural tourism destination, the success of these efforts are questioned. While there is a steady flow

of travellers visiting Bandipur, concerns over viability of Bandipur as a tourism destination is

increasing. Consequently, there is a worry over the further development of Bandipur life cycle. Will it

be rejuvenation or a decline? Accordingly, the main attention is focused on the factors that influence

the extent and/or importance of tourism impacts on host communities and environments (Prosser,

1995). As this research aims to discover opinions over development and tourism in Bandipur from

the perspective of the community members, social constructionism and interpretive paradigm have

been applied as basis for theoretical approach of this thesis.

Through this literature review, a theoretical framework representing mine as author’s point of view

concerning the subject-matter is designed. This study has been conducted to learn socio-cultural

impacts (SCI) perceived by destination stakeholders in rapidly growing rural tourism destination of

Bandipur village, Nepal. The objective of this chapter is to provide this research with appropriate

theoretical background on topics, methods and theories related to this study. Therefore, three main

concepts have been applied as the basis of this literature review: Social Constructivism,

Interpretivism and Socio-cultural tourism impacts (SCI). Outcomes of this literature study are further

displayed in a theoretical framework that is applied as a model of this thesis.

2.1. Interpretive Paradigm

Based on the ideas of Boeije (2009, pp.6), interpretivism may be explained as the ways “how people

construct reality while interpreting the acts of others and the world around them and grafting their

own behaviour on these interpretations.” So to say, through application of interpretive paradigm, the

main aim is to understand the subjective world of peoples experience (Jordan & Gibson, 2004).

According to Putnam (1982) in interpretivism reality is socially constructed through the subjective

understandings of its members. More explicitly, the social entities are not pre-given, but people

ascribe meaning to their social reality, therefore the people’s actions can be considered meaningful

(Boeije, 2009). Consequently, explained by Ford-Gilboe et al (1995) reality in interpretivism exist as

multiple mental construction of everyday life experiences that are often conflicting and mainly


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situation and context dependent. It can be said that the behaviour of people through interpretive

paradigm are viewed within the context in which it emerges (Bedim & Guinan, 1996).

Reflecting on tourism research, Hollingshead et al (2009, pp.432) says “nothing is ever seen nakedly

or found to be in and of its own raw/pure/original self.” This means that every happening and

experience of a human’s life is perceived based on everyone’s personal background and earlier

understandings. Therefore this thesis seeks to discover the ways how diverse stakeholders in a

selected tourism destination construct their understanding of the social place they are living/being

in.

2.2. Social Constructionism

During the last three decades, social constructionism (SC) has developed as a powerful source in

social sciences (Halling and Lawrence, 1999). In the literature related to SC the emphasizes are on

researches that explore interactional basis of social organisation in diverse social contexts and at

different levels of analysis, staring from one-to-one relations and including also researches on

society-wide social problems (Kemeny, 2002). Based on the philosophy of social constructionism, the

social world is not something that exists independent of the views and ideas of the persons involved

in it (Jackson, 2007). It is rather seeking to study the process of interaction within a focus group

(Silverman, 2011).

Due to its complexity, there is no one common standpoint how SC is described in literature sources.

Different authors are reflecting on SC as a movement, a position, a theory, a theoretical orientation

or as an approach (Stam, 2001). Although its status is insure, opposite positivist, realist or rationalist

approach, social constructionists reject the idea of knowledge being a direct perception of reality,

but explain it with the indication of having different realities constructed by individuals based on

their own backgrounds and experiences (Burr, 1995). Explained by Turner (1998), constructionists

share an argument of something being constructed as a fact based on the resources and knowledge

that this constructor ensures. As a result, through the research process, epistemology should not be

seen separate from ontology and vice versa, since the knowledge what is gained and the way of how

it is gathered are related to the process of social construction (Phillimore and Goodson, 2004). In

general, SC is seen as a part of interpretive paradigm and it is challenging modernist assumption

about the possibility to have an objective science (Halling and Lawrence, 1999). Silverman (2011)

defines constructionism as:

“A model which encourages researcher to focus upon how phenomena come to be what they

are through the close study of interaction in different contexts.”

Seen in the definition above, constructivism is perceived as a model rather than a paradigm. Since SC

do not have determined boundaries related to assured ontological and epistemological assumptions

and as it does not combine pre-stated methodologies and methods supporting epistemological

assumptions, it cannot fulfil the philosophy of paradigm (Parnecky, 2012). In general, the approach

of social construction supports the assumption that everyone can be a “knower” (Phillimore and


17

Goodson, 2004). So to say, the constructionist’s argument that: “something is constructed as a fact

through means that are available to the constructor (Turner, 1998)”.

The idea of social constructionism has serious implications, since it suggests that even if the basis of

our opinions is based on broader social concepts and values, we do not only engage them simply and

live them out in our lives (Burr, 1995). There are views supporting the idea that human nature is

socially constructed (Halling and Lawrence, 1999). In tourism research, a growing concern is related

to tourism researchers, as they are frequently indefinite about the philosophical underpinning and

the use of constructionism/vism in their researches (Parnecky, 2012). Acknowledged by Phillimore

and Goodson (2004) through SC in tourism, tourism spaces are rather seen as socio-cultural

constructions than physical locations. Yet, tourism development brings a dilemma, since new

opportunities may lead to associated costs (Telfer & Sharpley, 2008). The associated costs or tourism

impact study is further explored in the subsequent sub-chapter.

2.3. Socio-cultural Tourism Impacts

Due to the specific of this subject, this subchapter is further divided into two following sections:

tourism impacts and sustainability and socio-cultural impacts. Based on theoretical study a model of

socio-cultural impacts is designed in the final stage of this theoretical framework. Additionally,

followed up to the theoretic study, two additional sub-research questions for this thesis are set.

2.3.1. Tourism Impacts and Sustainability

Starting from late 1980’s, the term sustainable development has developed as a buzzword for both

development studies in general and in tourism research in particular (Zhenhua, 2003). However,

tourism often contradicts this term, since it is a highly resource competitive activity and it often gains

the supremacy over its competitor-industries (McKercher, 2008). In spite of this fact, for many

countries and destinations tourism has become as an essential source of income and employment

(van Egmond, 2008), as well as many new destinations are seeing this industry as the trigger for their

future empowerment. Though there are literature sources which support the idea that the economic

gain is the main significant reason used by actors in public and private sectors for tourism

development (Page & Connell, 2009), the future vision of tourism industry is full with promises

(Geoldner & Ritchie, 2012).

From a positivist point of view, tourism is a magnificent industry that provides job opportunities for

destination related people from all: skilled, semi-skilled and non-skilled levels (Swain & Mishra,

2012). However, by seeing tourism through sustainability perspective, sustainable tourism

development should be seen as a part of sustainable development; consequently it also should be

developed with the main aim to fulfil the objectives of this phenomenon (Tosun, 2008). Bruntland

Report’s (1987, pp.261) defines sustainability as following:


18

“Meeting the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future

generations to meet their own needs”

Nowadays, sustainability in tourism is one of the most common concepts used in tourism

development discussions (Cooper et al, 2005). As a sub-branch of sustainable development,

sustainable tourism has achieved overall acceptance in both – academia and practice (Sebastian &

Rajagopalan, 2009). In spite of increasing popularity of the idea, principles of sustainable tourism are

easy to manipulate with; therefore, it is always necessary to analyse who are applying the new

knowledge and for what reasons (Mowforth & Munt, 2009). Therefore, sustainable tourism

development is a highly controversial concept (Telfer & Sharpley, 2008). Defined by World Tourism

Organisation:

“Sustainable tourism meets the needs of present tourists and host regions while protecting

and enhancing opportunity for the future. It is envisaged as leading to management of all

resources in such a way that economic, social and aesthetic needs can be fulfilled while

maintaining cultural integrity, essential ecologic process, and biological diversity, and life

support systems” (Worlds Tourism Organisation, 2002).

Based on the above mentioned, sustainable tourism should:

• Make optimal use of environmental resources,

• Respect the socio-cultural authenticity of host communities, as well as

• To provide socio-economic benefits to all stakeholders (UN-WTO, 2008).

Following up the sustainability definition, in literature, four dimensions of tourism impacts are mainly

elaborated when reflecting on sustainability in tourism: economic impacts, environmental impacts,

social impacts and cultural impacts. Presented in Figure 2.1 several authors tend to combine the last

two impacts as socio-cultural dimensions while measuring tourism induced cultural change (Hall &

Lew, 2009). As Cooper et al (2005) acknowledges, traditionally SCI are seen as joint outcome due to

the difficulty to make a distinction among social and cultural impacts. Hence, in some literature

sources new sub-categories of impacts are created by combining each two of the above mentioned

dimensions (see Figure 2.1).

While relating on sustainable tourism development, Miller et al (2010) emphasizes that in case if

tourism can develop as a part of more sustainable lifestyle, there are changes needed to the patterns

of behaviour adopted by the communities. However, research practice shows, when doing impact

study, it is complicated or impossible to draw a line between consequences that are brought from

tourism and aspects affected by other processes related to globalisation and development (Hall &

Lew, 2009). Since several processes determine how we perceive various situations and contexts,

different realities are lying in the lived experiences of individuals (Humberstone, 2004). So to say,

what we feel is partly dependent by how we perceive the world around us (Jokinen & Veijola, 2012).


19

(Source: Hall & Lew (2009), pp.55)

Figure 2.1 Dimensions of the impacts of tourism.

The assumption stated in the previous paragraph is supported by several authors who have found

that tourism is bringing uneven distribution of benefits (Nunkoo & Ramkissoon, 2011) among various

stakeholders, while most of the community is affected by positive and negative impacts related to

behaviour and lifestyle of travellers (Small et al, 2005). Due to the inequality, the possibility is high

that when reflecting on tourism impacts, diverse actors may assess similar aspects through different

lens of view. Mbaiwa (2004) explains this idea with an unalterable change caused by tourism impacts

that may threaten the quality of life in the particular destination.

Yet, change is often wanted by the communities and tourism is frequently applied due to its

economic benefits even if at the same time there is also a fear of change within the society (Wall &

Mathieson, 2006). Nonetheless, all society members should not be measured in the same way, since

based on their lived experiences as well as diverse situations and contexts of reality, similar aspects

might be perceived differently (Humberstone, 2004). So to say, if one community member sees

tourism as a very positive feature, for someone else presence of tourists can bring highly negative

experiences.

It has long been recognised that introduction of tourism is bringing impacts to any site and culture

(Telfer & Sharpley, 2008). Stated by Wall & Mathieson (2006), the supporters for an idea of

sustainable development frequently in tourism literature are putting emphasizes on considering

positive aspects of economic and environmental impacts while the significance of SCI are often

disregarded in discussions concerning sustainable development. With a respect to the overall focus

of tourism literature, this study aims to explore socio-cultural impacts in Bandipur village; therefore

an in-depth theoretical framework concerning this dimension is provided in the following section.


20

2.3.2. Socio-cultural Impacts

Tourism has emerged as a growing sector in many economies in national, regional or destination

levels, and consequently an increasing part of World’s inhabitants are becoming directly or indirectly

affected by this industry (Faulkner and Tideswell, 2008). As consequences to tourism activities,

various forms of impacts are brought to destinations. Starting from early 70’s, the issues related to

socio-cultural impacts (SCI) have been the research subject for several scholars (Nunkoo &

Ramkissoon, 2011). Butler (2008) emphasizes three generalized areas where social impacts affect

destination’s communities the most: resources used by local residents, economic wellbeing, and the

lifestyles of the local people.

In tourism literature the population of a destination or concept society is defined as a community,

nation, broad grouping of persons who have common traditions, institutions, activities and interests

(Cook et al, 2010). Thus, explained by the same authors, the definition of culture represents the

practices of a society. By linking these definitions to tourism sector, it may be resolved that the

exchange of values, views and the ideas brought through tourism is also leading to the change in

socio-cultural environment of a destination (Góssling, 2008).

Although there is a strong assumption that destinations are experiencing social and cultural change

due to presence of tourism, the degree of change may be influenced by various factors, e.g. the type

and numbers of tourists/ tourist behaviour, the size and structure of tourism industry, the relative

importance of tourism industry (dependence of it), the pace of tourism development (Telfer &

Sharpley, 2008). Subsequently, there are different ways in which the relationship between tourism

development and socio-cultural change can be examined (Cooper et al, 2005). However, it is always a

complex process, since broader processes related to Worlds economics and social changes are

affecting destinations all over the globe (Hall & Lew, 2009).

By applying these acquaintances to tourism destinations, it can be witnessed that based on the

interconnections both guests and hosts in some level are affected by a socio-cultural impacts.

Evaluated by Wall and Mathieson (2006) SCI are the outcomes of specific types of social contacts that

occur between tourists receiving community and tourists themselves. Nevertheless, Telfer &

Sharpley (2008) argues that in cases when one culture is stronger and more dominant than the other

one, there is a high possibility that this cultural borrowing will be a one-way process, since tourists

mainly do not stay long in one and the same destination, but destinations are receiving a regular

visitor flow. Subsequently, tourism impact studies are receiving more and more attention (Hall &

Lew, 2009). Although social and cultural impacts are often analysed as one phenomenon, there is a

significant difference in them which Telfer & Sharpley (2008) explains with the following description:

“Social impacts may be thought of as the more immediate effects of tourism on local

people and their lifestyles, whereas cultural impacts refer to longer term changes that occur

in the context of social values, attitudes and behaviour, as well as changes in the production

and meaning of cultural art forms and practices.”

Due to the specifics of this research, SCI are perceived as one joint dimension rather than two

separate ones. As a result, sociocultural impacts are understood with the subsequent definition:


21

“Socio-cultural impacts are the ways in which tourism is contributing to the changes

in the value systems, morals and their conduct, individual behaviour, family relationships,

collective lifestyles, creative expressions, traditional ceremonies and community organisations

(Mathieson & Wall, 1982).”

In summarizing this definition, SCI of tourism are established through high number of aspects which

are mainly dependent on differences in socio-cultural features between hosts and guests like: basic

values and logic system, religious beliefs, traditions, customs, lifestyles, behavioural patterns, dress

codes, sense of time budgeting and attitudes towards strangers (Cooper et al, 2008). Based on these

differences tourism is a prime threat to the destination cultures due to its culture of exploitation,

dislocation and desecration (George, 2002). Consequently, there is a complexity of factors that are

affecting destination from socio-cultural perspective.

Summarized by De Kadt (1979), community attitudes towards tourism and therefore also host-guest

relationships depend on: type of contact between host and guest, importance of the tourism

industry to the community as well as community tolerance threshold. Page and Connell (2009)

explain guest and host relationship with the model shown in Figure 2.2. This model demonstrates

that there is a little doubt that the most dramatic socio-cultural tourism impacts are received where

there are major cultural and economic differences between the host and guest society (Butler, 2008).

So to say, tourism activities practiced in a destination have the potential to either increase or reduce

the quality of experiences for the members of both, guest and host societies (Hall & Lew, 2009).

(Source: Page and Connell (2009))

Figure 2.2 Host and guest relationship

Advocated by Buttler (2008), socio-cultural impacts is one of the major areas which in spite of its

importance appear to be researched the least in comparison to economic and environmental

impacts. Through comparing literature sources, it has been discovered that here is no one common

way how social scientists are indicating SCI. To support this statement, three authors and their ways

of categorising SCI are presented in table 2.1.


22

Author Impacts Impacts

Telfer & Sharple,

(2008)

S: Demonstration effect, crime,

religion, prostitution.

C: Acculturation, commoditization,

redevelopment of traditional art forms

and production techniques, behavioural

change (clothing and language).

Wall & Mathieson

(2006)

S: Demonstration effect, Prostitution,

Crime, Gambling, Religion, Language,

Health, overcrowding with tourism

facilities, labour and employment.

C: Staged authenticity, commodification,

preservation and renaissance of traditional

art forms, deterioration of traditional art

forms, cultural arrogance.

Cooper et al (2005) +: Tourism fosters local pride, socio-

cultural awareness, Shared

infrastructure, conservation and

restoration.

-: Sex, crime, health, other

(commodification, staged authenticity,

standardisation, alien cultural experience

of tourists) labour factors, behavioural and

demonstration factors, Resource use

factors.

S - social

C - cultural

“+” - positive

“-” - negative

Table 2.1 Ways of categorizing socio-cultural impacts

Specified by Page and Connell (2009) various ways of evaluating the extent of SCI have arisen over

the last three decades with the main aim to provide some proof over the effects of tourism on host

communities. Throughout the development it has emerged that some authors are distinguishing SCI

as social and cultural impacts while in other literature sources these impacts are analysed as positive

or negative ones. Based on desk research results, various indicators explaining SCI of tourism in

literature sources has been collected and explained further in the text in alphabetic order:

acculturation, commodification, conservation and restoration, crime, demonstration effect,

gambling, health, infrastructure, labour and employment, life styles, preservation of cultural values,

prostitution, religion, resources, staged authenticity, socio-cultural awareness as well as

standardization. Thus, these impacts purposely have not been classified in subcategories, but are

rather perceived just as independent samples of socio-cultural tourism impacts.

ACCULTURATION - process may be described as a psychological process that occurs after two

distinct cultures interrelates (Berman, 1990). In the intercultural encounter of tourism either

of both guest society and tourists are experiencing a change (Funk and Bruun, 2007).

COMMODIFICATION – is a process during which the demand of tourism leads to the

transformation and sometimes destruction of the meaning of cultural performances and

events in the host community (Cooper et al, 2005). In some literature sources

commodification is compared with inauthenticity that would be already consequences of this

process (Hannam and Halewood, 2001).

CONSERVATION AND RESTORATION – is one of the most cited positive tourism impacts on

host destinations, since it stimulates revitalization of traditional arts (Hall & Lew, 2009) and


23

other forms of cultural characteristics.

CRIME – as socio-cultural impacts is rather as an assumed impact, then actual one (Wall &

Mathieson, 2006). On the one hand there is a little evidence which would prove the increase

of crime with the development of tourism, but on the other hand, there is inevitability that

where there is a steady tourism flow, also the level of crime is increasing (Telfer & Sharpley,

2008).

DEMONSTRATION EFFECT – is reflecting the change of values and attitudes from people in

tourism receiving destinations after they get to know tourists as consistently “wealthy

people” who are constantly enjoying all the good things in life (Cook, 2010). By referring on

Telfer & Sharpley (2008) domestic people may try to copy behaviour and ways of dressing as

well as to strive to attain well-being demonstrated by tourists.

GAMBLING – on its basis, in literature sources is recognized as a tourism attraction, but

nowadays it lies between the growth industries of the World (Wall & Mathieson, 2006).

HEALTH – together with fire, police and transportation is between the sectors where

development is often stimulated by steady flows of tourists in a way that also locals may

benefit (Butler, 2008). In general four ways how tourism and health are linked are

distinguished in travel literature: the health of tourists going to particular destinations (e.g.

health education), medical tourism, the standards of health services in destinations are

increased to tourist needs as well as diseases that can be brought by tourists (Wall &

Mathieson, 2006).

INFRASTRUCTURE – on one hand by meeting the needs of tourists is often facilitating also

the needs of the domestic population, but on the other hand, through infrastructure

development the common resources may be used for tourism needs in a level that local

people are experiencing difficulties in terms of accessing these resources (Cooper et al,

2005).

LABOUR AND EMPLOYMENT – is a sector that in tourism literature is explained with positive

benefits and changes at least to some members of destination communities (Buttler, 2008).

LIFESTYLES – are between SCI that are the hardest to measure. By connecting people from

wide variety of different places and cultures together, hosts and guests have a possibility to

learn about each other’s differences and similarities (Cook et al, 2010). Through this learning

process, the cultural change is induced through both – internal and external factors (Wall &

Mathieson, 2006).

PRESERVATION OF CULTURAL VALUES - or tourism fosters local pride may be described as a

positive development, since destination’s heritage may be inspired through tourism growth

(Cooper et al, 2008). Explained by Butler (2008), tourism may become as an agent of

preservation, as long as local culture is concerned.

PROSTITUTION – The fact that numerous tourists during their travel abroad are willing to


24

appreciate casual sexual encounters is a known phenomenon (Cooper et al, 2005).

Furthermore, van Egmond (2008) acknowledges that prostitution of women, men or children

is indissolubly connected with development of mass rather than low scale tourism.

RELIGION – in several tourism destinations, religious buildings, shrines and practices are

becoming commoditized and are becoming as a part of tourism product (Telfer & Sharpley,

2008). This kind of development is dangerous, since it can bring conflicts between domestic

communities and their guest visitors.

RESOURCES – in many areas tourism development means that all the resources which used

to be used only by local communities, after tourism development has been started also have

to be shared with guests, or even pre-empted by visitors for their own use (Butler, 2008).

SOCIO-CULTURAL AWARENESS – through tourism travellers have a possibility to learn from

other cultures and environments (Cooper et al, 2005). By showing the interest in the

destination also local people are starting to notice that there are special because of their

traditions and lifestyle.

STAGED AUTHENTICITY – is a process during which “pseudo-events” are used to provide

tourists with new experiences (Cooper et al, 2005). Argued by Wall & Mathieson (2006), this

process is dangerous to destination communities, since it can lead to establishment of

contrived attractions or experiences as well as dilutions of the tourist desire for unaffected

authentic experiences.

STANDARDIZATION – is a long-term process during which the search of tourists for the

familiarities, leads to the loss of cultural diversity (Cooper et al, 2005) in a destination.

Although academic researchers are mainly tended on negative tourism effects (Wall & Mathieson,

2006) socio-cultural impacts should be perceived as positive and negative consequences triggered

through tourist and guest contact. By questioning if there are cultural limits to tourism, Craik (1995)

concludes that often cultural products in tourism are positioned as cultural experience. Thus, these

experiences can lead to both – satisfaction and irritation. To measure the irritation generated

through tourist and host interrelation, Doxey has developed Irritation Index that measure overall

attitude on guest-host interaction (Cooper et al, 2005). In this index, five levels of scenarios are

distinguished: the level of euphoria, the level of apathy, the level of irritation, the level of antagonism

and the final level (Hall & Law, 2009). In the first stage of this index the hosts are very positive due to

tourism development while in final level the destination is starting to lose its identity and

attractiveness in the eyes of both – hosts and guests.

As an option to prevent destination from the undesirable phases, calculation of social carrying

capacity (SCC) as well as strong destination management policy is suggested by quite a few authors

(Mowforth & Munt, 2009). The definition of SCC refers to: “the amount of visitor use that individual

visitors can sustain before the number of visitors begins intrudes upon individual quality of the

experience (Manning, 1997)”. Nonetheless, since there are difficulties in assessing and measuring the

thresholds, the concept of SCC is often criticised and delimited as a research tool (O’Reilly, 1986).


25

Explored by Cooper et al (2005), in order to provide a common framework for the SCI, the

researchers from Bournemouth University have attempted to link the SCI within the environmental

and economic model of tourism impacts. In the result, such a model applied to socio-cultural impacts

works in two ways. Firstly, it allows considering SCI as direct and indirect impacts. And secondly, it

contains an option to study social and cultural change as a result of non-tourism related factors or

induced impacts. While no source defining these three terms from socio-cultural impact perspective

was found in tourism literature, Zamora’s (2009) definitions related to chain of effects in the context

of economic impacts is applied:

• Direct – directly affected by business activity/ development;

• Indirect – impacts caused by inter-industry exchanges;

• Induced – impacts created by household spending by those directly and indirectly

employed by the industry/ development.

Through relating these themes to the case of socio-cultural tourism impacts, the samples provided by

Cooper et al (2005) when taking “demonstration effect” as an example are displayed further in this

paragraph. According to the authors, demonstration effect is an aspect of direct socio-cultural impact

of tourism, since the presence of tourists is directly affecting the behaviour for tourism sector related

members of host community. Thus, there is a big chance that these tourism related demonstration

effect affected stakeholders will bring behavioural change to tourism non-related population of the

community; this second phase of alteration is explained as an example of indirect SCI of tourism. The

third or induced SCI are dependent not only on tourism sector, but on overall economic growth in

the destination. Explained by the authors, induced SCI are the result of raising income levels and

consequently changing consumer spending habits within the local population (Cooper et al, 2005).

Figure 2.3 Model of socio-cultural impacts

Due to the nature of indirectness, several authors are seeing SCI as difficult to measure (Ratz, 2000).

Therefore, mostly in the research process, these impacts are approached in two simplified forms –

positive and negative impacts (Kreag, 2001). To demonstrate this effect better, based on literature

study a model of socio-cultural impacts has been designed and presented in Figure 2.3. In this model


26

it can be seen that SCI consist of all - direct, indirect and induced impacts. Hence, these impacts

further are classified as positive or negative impacts. Furthermore, since not always a clear

distinction can be made, the little arrow between positive and negative impacts demonstrates an

interrelation between both of these aspects, depending from the perspective through which SCI are

analysed. Subsequently, based on the literature study in terms of this thesis, two sub-research

questions for have been set:

SRQ1: What are the positive socio-cultural tourism impacts in Bandipur?

SRQ2: What are the negative socio-cultural tourism impacts in Bandipur?

The intention of this study is to show that the consequences of tourism development related to SCI

should not be viewed from a simplistic and descriptive perspective, but there is a necessity to

manage destination resources in a manner which respects domestic values, customs as well as local

development needs (Telfer & Sharpley, 2008). Tourism and its impact studies are formed through our

ways of analysing it (Phillimore & Goodson, 2004); therefore to create an understanding over the

methods applied for this thesis, methodology is explained in the next chapter.


27

3. Methodology

This thesis is written by applying qualitative methods. From my viewpoint, qualitative research is

equally a way of conceptualizing and approaching social inquiry as it is a way of doing research

(Phillimore and Goodson, 2004). Since I aimed to gain in-depth understanding of how people in

Bandipur socially construct and interpret tourism development and impacts in the village it was

decided to apply semi-structured interviews and field-observations as the main data gathering

method. Therefore, this thesis is all about exploring issues, understanding phenomena and

answering research questions by using people as the main source of information. I assume that the

outcomes of this research have relevance beyond a single case of Bandipur. Since Bandipur is located

in the rural area of Nepal, there is a chance that the outcomes of this research may be somewhat

contextually applied also to other rural destinations of the country. However, Bandipur has been

acknowledged as an outstanding case, since its raise as a tourism destination has been mainly

triggered by the activities of Bandipur Eco-cultrural Tourism Project.

This chapter is designed in a way that it discusses the research methods with which the objective of

this study is fulfilled and research questions and the problem statement answered. Belsky (2004)

argues that methodology frames the questions being asked, determines the methods and types of

evidence to be used and shapes the analysis. In order to do that, details about the applied type of

research, research sample, as well as the ways how the respondents have been approached is

provided in this section. Additionally, the means of the data analysis are discussed. Thus, in the final

stage of this chapter research limitations are indicated.

3.1. Research Design

This study has been conducted as a cross-cultural descriptive research made by a white, Latvian,

female student studying in the first world country (the Netherlands) and doing her research in one of

the Worlds least developed countries – Nepal. The research country was selected based on the

researcher’s personal interest as well as previous experience gathered through doing an internship at

Bhaktapur Tourism Development Committee, Nepal. During the internship period, the student made

a roundtrip in the country during which also Bandipur was visited. The visit in Bandipur (September,

2011) attracted her professional interest due to its uniqueness in comparison with other popular

Nepali destinations. During this visit and through conducting further research, the researcher learned

that the village is experiencing a fast growth that is partly stimulated by tourism (eco-tourism)

development in the site. The more preliminary research was conducted, the more questions arose,

like: What were the preconditions why this remote village have its historical centre? What aspects

stimulated to make this village traffic-free and how do locals experience it? Who are coming here

and why? How local people perceive the change? Based on the in-depth study, the interest into

development and socio-cultural impacts of Bandipur become as the research issue for this thesis.

The main objective of this study is to gain understanding over the activities that have stimulated

development in Bandipur and explore how people in Bandipur socially construct and interpret

tourism development and related socio-cultural tourism impacts. During this study the perspectives


28

from people related to Bandipur have been collected through semi-structured interviews. This

method has been chosen to have an opportunity to learn about social life of Bandipur through the

perspective and experience of those people who are living in it (Boeije, 2010) or who are in other

ways related to the village. Thus, as Tribe (2004) acknowledges, there is difficulties in communication

between those operating in business of tourism and those who directly don’t benefit of tourism

activities. This study, therefore, intentionally includes opinions of all groups – tourism non-related

stakeholders, tourism related actors and tourists. Furthermore, the sample has been selected in a

way that the voice from people of lower and higher social castes is present.

During data collection process, Bandipur has been selected as a case study of this thesis. The data

was collected through actual fieldwork during March and April, 2012.In order to support researcher’s

argument additionally to the interviews, field observations have been conducted. Since there is a

high possibility that researchers as well as the researched construct their own multiple versions of

reality (Goodson and Phillmore, 2004); in this research interpretive study approach is applied. This

means that the interviews are treated as topics rather than as a research resource (Silverman, 2011).

Furthermore, the analyses of this study are conducted from the lens of respondents. Only in the final

stage of the data analyses, an expert-orientated approach is applied. The research has been

conducted through application of interpretive paradigm. Through application of interpretivism, the

data were gathered by conducting in-depth face-to-face interviews (for some translator was

arranged) during which the respondents were asked to reflect on their experiences and to bring up

issues that are important to them (Jordan & Gibson, 2004). In this way, the interview questions were

rather used as research methods in order to stimulate the discussion as well as to discover new

viewpoints concerning the research project.

All the interviews were conducted on voluntary basis and respondents were informed that they can

stop the interview at any moment, if it is necessary. Based on the outcomes of preliminary research it

was decided that no voice-recorder will be used in order to increase trustworthiness and openness of

the respondents. Instead, the researcher was taking interview notes that were transcribed shortly

after every interview. In cases where interview notes were not taken, the researcher tried to

memorise the interview content and wrote it down straight after the interview took place.

Nonetheless, with some of the respondents it was agreed that their responses will be treated

anonymous. Based on this, for some respondents their real names are given and some other

respondents are categorized with changed names. Thus, emphasize of this research is put on the

respondents relation to the tourism sector in Bandipur (tourism non-related stakeholders, tourism

related actors and tourists). It has been done to recognise if the views vary when different actors are

reflecting on similar issues. Translator was used for conducting some of the semi-structured

interviews.

Although some social scientists state that translators are the medium of interaction and dialogue,

relaying questions and answers between researcher and the respondent (Jobbins, 2004), due to the

specifics of the destination, seven interviews for this study were conducted by employing a local

English speaking translator. As the research was conducted by a European student in Nepali rural

environment, the need of translator was recognised while planning the research. Before reaching the

destination, tourism specialists in Kathmandu valley were approached and asked to suggest a reliable


29

tourist guide whose help could be used for research needs. Apparently the selected translator – a

local tourist guide - was not reliable and new translator had to be found. This aspect worked out

better than expected, since a principle of Bandipur Campus couple of days after the interview with

him showed an interest into the further research and offered help as a translator. By noticing that all

approached persons agreed to make an interview appointment, it could be concluded that this

person in Bandipur is well known and respected that resulted into in-depth communication with the

respondents. This person not only translated interviews through face-to-face communication with

the respondents, but also approached these people, introduced with the research topic and

relevance as well as asked if the respondents would like to take part in this research.

In general it was concluded that it has been a valuable action to arrange a locally respected, English

speaking male person as a translator or a gatekeeper in communication with local people in

Bandipur. Although translators as a gatekeepers are being perceived as medium of interaction and

dialogue, communicating between researcher and a respondent (Jobbins, 2004), they also became as

collaborators which reinforce the accuracy of language-based inquiry (Larkin et al, 2007). So to say,

this person knows the environment and understands the issues what local people are reflecting on.

Furthermore, through participation in an interview himself, the translator understood the aims of the

research that created a smooth communication between the respondents and gatekeeper as well as

between the translator and the researcher. However, by using a translator there is a chance that the

interviews have been steered or translations changed according to the translators personal

perceptions. Additionally, the interviews with English speaking respondents were organised based on

snowball sampling method or by approaching respondents directly. Sampling methods are more

elaborated in the next section.

3.2. Sampling

In terms of this research, the nonprobability snowball sampling method is applied. This means that

only those people who are connected to Bandipur have been chosen for convenience and the results

of this study are not generalizable (Vaske, 2008); but rather should be perceived as a single case

study. Through asking initial number of participants to provide names of other relevant persons and

approaching these people (Boeije, 2010), the existing research sample has been selected so, that

representative study can be created. To fulfil the research objective, only those respondents who

had a connection to Bandipur were invited for an interview.

Nevertheless, not only the relation was important, but it was also of a high importance that the

sample includes variety of respondents: Bandipurians, the people who moved out in the past and

have returned recently, people from surrounding villages who are coming to Bandipur for study/

business purposes, tourism related actors, tourists as well as tourism non-related stakeholders.

Additionally, the respondents were selected in a way that they cover different age groups;

consequently, the youngest respondent was 15 years old and the oldest one – 71 years old.

To ensure the data quality, a local person was employed for translating the interviews with people

whose English was not sufficient and whose opinion (in researcher’s point of view) should be heard


30

(porters, farmer, tailor, local driver etc.). Although the research response was high and there were no

people who refused to participate in the research, some of the interviews were ended when just

started, because of various reasoning’s from the side of interviewees. Nevertheless, some of the

short interviews have been kept as actual research material due to the information they contain.

Presented in Figure 3.1 a total number of 29 valid interviews with end number of 32 respondents

(see Appendix ) were conducted.

Figure 3.1 Interviewed actors

The main focus of the field work was to organise individual interviews, since in that way people do

not steer or interrupt each other. However, also three interviews with a focus-group were arranged –

one with four female porters, one with a local family and a repeat interview with the project

manager and assistant of BECTP. It was observed that during the group interview there are positive

and negative aspects. On the one hand respondents are starting also discussion with each other and

more in-depth information can be gathered and on another hand some of the respondents stop

sharing their opinions. Based on this observation individual interviews were selected as the main

method of data gathering.

Additionally, the interview with a project manager and a project assistant of Bandipur Eco-cultural

Tourism Project (BECTP) was taken more than once. It was done before and after field-work in order

to gather the insight information of the village as well as to clarify some data that was collected

during the field research. These above mentioned interviews were conducted in Kathmandu Valley

(Bhaktapur and Patan) and the rest of the research material was collected during the actual field visit

in Bandipur and its area. Moreover, although the project manager and project assistant have


31

contributed to the tourism development of Bandipur in the past, in terms of this research, they are

classified as tourism non-related stakeholders (see Figure 3.1.) due to their present relationship to

the destination.

The first contact with the manager of BECTP was established through an e-mail. Thus, the contact

information was gathered during the preliminary research while I was consulting with tourism

specialists in Nepal in addition to my internship. After more than two months e-mail communication,

the first meeting was arranged during which the insight information over the project (BECTP), overall

development of the village and the change in Bandipur was collected. In order to gather contact-

information over the local people whose opinion should be represented during this thesis research, a

follow up interview was conducted and another pre-fieldwork meeting with both the project

manager and the project assistant was organised. After arrival in Bandipur the actors mentioned

during the interview were approached. Furthermore, these people were also asked to suggest other

local persons whose opinion should be included.

As another method, some respondents (e.g. tourists) were also approached directly, including one

Bandipurian family with which a friendly relationship was developed during my first visit in Bandipur

(September, 2011). All of the interviews were conducted through face-to-face communication and

for seven of them translator was arranged. More detailed list of the respondents is provided in

Annex 1. Furthermore, the interviewees were selected in a way that the opinion of local people

related to tourism business are present, the view of the inhabitants unrelated to tourism business

are discovered as well as attitudes of tourists are obtained.

Although the research process went smoothly, during first days after arrival it was observed that

some locals were taking a distance after learning my purpose of visit in Bandipur. It could be

explained with the fact that no previous research was done in Bandipur and people are not common

with the idea that somebody wants to gather their view-points. Nevertheless, after they got used to

the presence of researcher, various locals were showing interest in my work through asking

questions about it. This observation led to a conclusion that people in Bandipur are not used to and

are not common with researches which sometimes led to unfinished interviews. It seemed that they

are rather shy or confused from the attention they got. Based on that, some interviews included in

this research are short in length, but are kept due to the relevance of information provided. It was

also observed that people are confused when their opinion over their everyday life is asked,

especially when speaking with people from a lower caste. There were some encounters when people

agreed to participate in interview and after first couple of questions they acknowledge that there is

not much they can tell about their own experiences, because it was weird that I am actually

interested in their own life story. Additionally, it was witnessed in various ways that majority of

people in Bandipur perceive researcher as a volunteer, because they are receiving voluntary tourists

on regular basis and according to various locals, this study was the first research conducted in

Bandipur after the BECTP was completed on 2007.


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3.3. Data Collection

In terms of this research semi-structured interviews were used as the main data gathering method.

This data collection technique was applied to the research needs and the main focus of the study was

orientated on exploring respondent perspectives over the change in the village throughout time –

past, present and future. Advocated by Joshi & Rajoparhyay (2007) the essence of Bandipur lies in:

its proximity to the major tourist destinations in Nepal, its temperate weather, its culture as well as

the variety of tourism attractions. All mentioned characteristics of Bandipur stimulate steady

increase in the number of both new residents and tourists. Thus, these regular movements are

contributing to increasing demand for living area, which arouses physical expansion of the village.

During the preliminary study it was discovered that majority of Bandipurians sees (tourism)

development mainly in terms of positive economic aspects (Talfer & Sharpley, 2008) and they are

disregarding other sectors where impacts are brought to. In order to fill the gap, this study is aims to

explore and raise awareness about the processes related to socio-cultural impacts (SCI).

Before the data collecting process started, all interviewees were introduced to the project purposes

as well as they were asked to confirm their willingness to participate in the project. After receiving

approval, the respondents were instructed that they are free to stop the interview at any time they

wish. Moreover, they were asked to give permission on taking research notes so that their main

ideas could be fixed and afterwards transcribed. Although the researcher was using a previously

prepared list of topics that should be covered, follow-up questions were asked based on the

direction of the interview. Thus, all the questions were open-ended and related to the following

bigger question groups:

• How was the life in Bandipur in past?

• How is the life in Bandipur nowadays?

• Have you noticed significant change and if so in which sectors?

• How do you think, what caused the change?

• Have you noticed any positive aspects in Bandipur caused by this change?

• Have you noticed any negative aspects in Bandipur caused by this change?

• How do you see the future of Bandipur?

The interview structure given above was an end-result, which was created based on the practical

experiences during interview conduction. Furthermore, during interviews with tourists (with one

exception) no questions were asked related to the past or change, due to the specific of this target

audience. Rather their future vision of Bandipur was questioned. Additionally, in all cases the

respondents were not introduced with literature related to the topic; yet, interview questions were

designed in a way of conversation so that above mentioned issues related to SCI in Bandipur would

be covered. The collected data from all respondents afterwards have been transcribed and analysed.

The methods used for data analysis are comprised in the following sub-chapter.


33

3.4. Data Analysis

Although within the social constructivism paradigm the question: “do individuals determine the

society or does society determine individuals?” (Burr, 1995) is of a discussion, this research is not

about determining the human-society relationships, but rather to explore and understand the ways

how the people in Bandipur see and explain the change in their society. In order to do that, a total

number of 29 valid semi-structured interviews with 32 respondents (see section 3.2) were conducted

and transcribed. Additionally, researcher’s field observations were made in order to gather in-depth

understanding over the processes of the destination. For the data analysis a theoretical framework of

interpretivism approach is applied.

After the data collection the researcher repeatedly was analysing the transcripts with the main aim

to break up the data and divide the research material into relevant pieces. By making constant data

comparison some initial themes were derived. Several data analysis attempts were made and as a

result, some certain basic issues were established on which the final coding categories are based.

Overall, the whole transcript at different points of the thesis writing process was coded and re-coded

for several times due to the need of data analysis. Explained by Boeije (2009) coding is the most

important tool for qualitative data analysis. Therefore, in order to make the coding process more

efficient, Nvivo qualitative data analysis computer software was applied and the responses were

coded by using inductive and deductive codes. In general, it can be said that the data are categorised

in codes with the main aim to discover common themes and categories presented in the transcript.

As a result of the data analysis, three bigger themes were derived - mobilities, development and

socio-cultural impacts. Since due to migration flows in the past Bandipur had become a ghost town

(as the locals name it), the related subchapter describes the ways how respondents socially construct

their past, present and future in relation to these mobilities. The development in Bandipur is closely

linked with the modernization of the village. As Bandipurians were almost isolated before the main

road connecting with Prithi Highway was built, in the second sub-division I am telling how the

respondents socially construct the road as a symbol of modernization of Bandipur. Thus, in the final

section, people’s perceptions of various socio-cultural activities in the village are combined and

through application of theoretical knowledge they are related to socio-cultural impacts in the

destination.

Furthermore, the analytical part is structured in a way that firstly respondents’ voice is represented

by summarizing their opinions and providing quotes. In the further stage, my personal reflection on

the respondents’ opinions is provided. Moreover, in order to reflect on my own positionality, in the

final section of each sub-division I am reflecting on my field experiences where I am providing the

reader with my own understandings and background information on which I am basing my personal

reflection. Additionally it can be noticed in the text that on my own perspectives I am always

reflecting in first person while for respondents opinions third person is used.


34

3.5. Limitations

In order to deal with possible subjectivity, data analysis have been consciously organised in a way

that in different sections diverse viewpoints are presented (see 3.4). Through separating the voices of

the respondents from my personal opinions, the research reliability and validity has been aimed to

increase.

Since snowball sampling method was used in order to gather contacts of the persons relevant to the

research, there is a possibility that interviewees were nominating people whom they know very well

and therefore there could be some similarity in their answers. To avoid this trend, the researcher

asked different interviewees for suggestion. Furthermore, through collaboration with the translator

the researcher made a list of the occupancies which preferably should be included in the research

sample. Additionally to the sector of employment in several cases I indicated the area of the village

where the respondent should be coming from. In this way, the representativeness of the sample was

ensured and opinions of residents from different parts of the village gathered.

Nevertheless, since seven interviews were conducted with the help of the same person as a

translator, there is a chance that similar issues are described in exactly the same way so that the

individual way of expressing opinions has been modified. In general the research was conducted in

English in Nepali speaking environment and therefore there is a chance that interviewees were

expressing themselves differently than if the same interview would have been done in Nepali. In

addition, the researcher herself is a white person studying in the Western World which also could

affect the respondents’ behaviour and responses given during the interaction.

Moreover, the researcher was aiming to gather more in-depth interviews. If there were no difficulties

when local people were approached, then interview conducting with tourists turned out to be a

more complicated task, since most of the respondents were on a short stay in the destination and

acknowledged that they do not feel confident in assessing it. Nevertheless, to increase data

representativeness, also short tourist opinions were gathered and included as valid data sources.


35

4. Results

In this section findings are presented. The data results have high importance in order to recognise

the activities that have contributed to tourism development in Bandipur. Based on the historical

development, the village suffered from mass emigration in the past so that very little people were

left there. The locals reflect on this period of time as a very difficult phase for everyone and they are

naming Bandipur as a ghost town while reflecting on this period of time. In comparison with

nowadays, the situation has significantly changed. Due to the presence of a good quality road,

Bandipur has been opened for new development and nowadays it is known as a rapidly growing

tourism destination. Consequently, this thesis aims to reflect on the change in Bandipur by using

respondent’s perspectives as evidences of these happenings. These outcomes contribute on creating

an understanding over the processes that have stimulated tourism development in Bandipur as well

as to provide resident perspectives over these activities. The findings are further divided into three

subsections. In the first division From “Dark Ages” to “Brighter” Future I narrate how migration has

affected the central flow of residents in Bandipur and the related social history of the village what

local people call “dark ages”. In the second section I reflect on how the presence of a good quality

road was socially constructed by Bandipurians as signs of development and modernization of the

village. Subsequently, respondent perceptions of development related socio-cultural impacts in

Bandipur are revealed in the final division. Consequently, in the last section of each division what has

been named as Living in the Field, I am reflecting on my own interpretations in order to create an

understanding over the processes and experiences that have affected my own opinion provided in

this chapter.

4.1. From “Dark Ages” to “Bright” Future

During the field work I was experiencing Bandipur as a person from the outside who has already

known and experienced several destinations in Nepal and five other countries of South-East Asia. In

general, throughout the field work I observed that respondents with long-time connection to

Bandipur are becoming sensitive when issues related to migration are asked. Momentarily it was

discovered that this anxiety is related to the past experiences, rather than present activity. People in

Bandipur while reflecting to the life in the past are relating it with the “dark ages” of the village, the

period when Bandipur was a “ghost town”. This time span matches with the end of 60’s and start of

90’s. In the words of Mr. Bikram Piya (TNR),

“The movement was caused by the fact that Bandipur was not a district headquarters

anymore that was shifted to Damoni (town in 25 km distance from Bandipur). After that

happened, people started to move out in order to find better business options. As a second

main cause why Bandipur population decreased was construction of highway connecting

Pokhara and Kathmandu. This new road excluded Bandipur from the “business map.” People

started to shift to Dumre, Landzung etc.”

Although there were attempts to attract new inhabitants in Bandipur during the “dark ages”, it was a

difficult task for a place with hard access and limited facilities. According to Sister Evanzuela and


36

Sister Mirium (TNR),

“When Notre Dame School was opened in Bandipur, as a result of construction of Kathmandu

and Pokhara road as well as relocation of the district headquarters, Bandipur was a ghost

town. The school was made with a hope that more people would be attracted to the village.

At that time the village was empty. Almost any house could be used for school at those

times.”

Many local people remember the difficulties which they had to face during the “dark ages” of

Bandipur. In the words of Mr. Nawal, (TR),

“Before, it was difficult in Bandipur. More than 60% of the people were poor and also for

those who had a shop, the business went slowly. During that time many people left Bandipur

and now, when there is development, more people are returning, including me.”

While educational possibilities are mentioned as one reason for the rebirth of the village, the main

factor attracting new visitors and inhabitants in Bandipur is the presence of a high quality road

connecting Bandipur with Prithvi Highway. Accrding to Mr. Manihumar Pradhan (TNR),

“When the road was finished it increased possibilities to move. The number of people

circulation increased. Thus, the road also stimulated people from surrounding villages to

come to Bandipur that brought increase for business possibilities.”

Additionally, the accessibility is the main precondition why Bandipur was selected as the destination

for running the (Bandipur) Eco-cultural Tourism Project (BECTP). Specified by Mrs. Jharna Joshi and

Mr. Manoj Rajopadhyay (TNR),

“A possibility to access Bandipur by good quality road was the key reason why Bandipur was

selected as a project area.”

Indirectly the road and evidently the BECTP are the two circumstances that contributed to the

development and tourism in a scope as they are, nowadays. Recognised by Mr. Basudev (TR),

“After ECTDP was run in Bandipur, many people are returning in the village as well as new

people are arriving and are building their houses. Although I used to know everyone in the

village, nowadays there are people I do not know anymore due to immigration, what is

unusual.”

Bandipurians see the population increase as a very positive development, since more opportunities

are created. According to Mr. Bikram Piya (TNR),

“Change is prevailing in Bandipur. Due to development of tourism, the population of the

town is growing and also farmers are able to sell their meat, vegetables, milk…”

Overall, local people are seeing tourism as a good sector for empowering different social groups.

Furthermore, it is also a niche they are relating the future development with. Explained by Mr. Ram


37

Sharan Shrestha (TR),

“When tourists are coming, everyone has a job. In comparison with situation 12 years earlier,

everything in Bandipur has been changed. At that time almost nobody came there, but now

also domestic travellers from Chitwan, Pokhara, Kathmandu etc. are coming”

The local people in Bandipur support tourism development greatly and relate it positively with the

development of the village in general. According to Mr. Marihuman Pradhan (TNR),

“I have not noticed people who would be negative due to the change in Bandipur. People,

who do not want change, also do not want development. I am happy to experience the

change – I myself believe in it.”

Through interaction with local persons it could be noticed that people in Bandipur when asked about

their past were a bit shy at the first moment. While reflecting on peoples’ experiences I tried to draw

similarities with other Nepali destinations (like Bhaktapur) where I was visiting and conducting

research. However, soon I had to realise that Bandipur is different. I could observe that people, due

to the hard times in the past, may be over-optimistic about the future of the village, which they

argue should be based on tourism development. So to say, through experiencing difficult times in the

past aggravated by emigration, Bandipurians perceive new arrivals as a chance for having a better

future. From my personal knowledge, I see positive and negative aspects in tourism development,

but it was observed through the interviews and fieldwork in Bandipur that many local people do not.

It can perhaps be assumed that Bandipurians due to their hard times in the past, by noticing

increasing numbers of inhabitants, perceive it as a positive sign that gives them safety feeling about

their home village and further development in it. However, the author doesn’t share the same

feeling.

Within the last years the numbers of both new arrivals in Bandipur as well as presence of domestic

and international tourists have experienced a rapid growth. Mostly, locals perceive this tendency as a

very positive development without questioning the local capacity. Therefore local (tourism)

awareness should be investigated. For example, it has been experienced that some locals by greeting

tourists with namaskar (the most polite and respectful form of greeting in Nepali language) are

showing a very welcome attitude to the guests; while some other field experiences show that there is

also a part of society that is annoyed by the presence of regular visitors.

It has been learned that increasing number of inhabitants and visitors in a destination does not only

means more flows, but also a need for management and planning. By experiencing a situation where

some local people are giving negative comments on tourists I could experience that the local optimal

capacity at least in some parts of the village is reaching its limits. Consequently, I think that this

situation may lead to negative consequences in future where uncontrolled migration becomes

problematic for both development of the site and the local way of living. By this it is meant that

conflict situations among the locals and tourists and locals and locals may occur if no attention on

carrying capacity for both Nepali immigrants as well as tourist flows is paid.

By observing local people and having conversations with them it may be noticed that people are


38

consciously or unconsciously starting to divide into a group supporting further development and a

group being annoyed by the development. Although this division is on a small scale so far, there is a

risk that it could lead to increasing struggles in future. Based on the author’s personal travel

experience in South-East Asia, a lack of tourism support by the local people can significantly reduce

the quality of travellers’ experiences in a site that could possibly lead to overall decrease in tourism

numbers as well as shortening of destination life cycle.

Although majority of people in Bandipur are relating their future economic growth with tourism

development and related flows, there is a doubt if tourism sector may fulfil the needs of increasing

numbers of population. It is very likely that increasing population in Bandipur will raise the tourism

supply while it is doubtful if there is a possibility for further increase in tourist numbers visiting

Bandipur due to the lack of capacity for the only international airport of the country through which at

around 75% of all international (except Indian) travellers are arriving in Nepal. As a result, the

current development may lead to increasing competition. Thus, competition may result in changing

relationship between stakeholders in the village.

Living in the field

This reflection I would like to start by an overview of my brief bibliography and some information

that would provide a better understanding of the ways how and why I am reflecting on the issues in a

way I do. First of all, I originate from a very remote village in Latvia (a Second World country). My

childhood I spent in Soviet Latvia where situation dramatically changed all around the country after

Latvia becomes a sovereign state at the beginning of the 90’s. Together with this shift the life in the

country and very much in the countryside changed and people were changing with the time, too. It

was surprising how fast the priorities and overall relationships of people there were affected by the

influence of new “conditions”.

While growing up, during my study years, I had a possibility to go for exchange studies in the

Netherlands. Till then I was mainly living in the low density destinations and poorly inhabited places

in Latvia. It is approximately five years since I live in one of the cities of the Netherlands that is one of

the dense inhabited countries of the world. Based on this change I often realise, that I am looking

back into my past and I am trying to understand what happened with the small place where I spent

my childhood? Although Bandipur is located in a different country, I have noticed that probably

based on my own roots, I am interested in the developments of remote destinations rather than

urban ones in whatever country I am visiting at.

During my stay in Bandipur I was prepared that the presence of a European female researcher

approaching local people could be a difficult task due to the low participation level of the local

people. Fortunately, the research went better than expected and opposite to the expectations,

people in Bandipur were very open to my presence in their environment. After conducting two

researches in Kathmandu Valley I already learned that the locals (for some reason) are more open to

the person from outside (non-Nepali), since they are assumed of not having subjective interest on

steering research outcomes. In Bandipur this assumption was reaffirmed even when translator was

used. Furthermore, it was a strange situation for me to hear from my translator that the outcomes of

some interviews were unexpected and interesting for him, as well. At these moments I felt that my


39

work has an added value already, since the locals can also have a possibility to learn from each other

views.

Nevertheless, I was unprepared for how many of the respondents would reflect with some sorrow

and a kind of happiness at the same time while reflecting on their past. On the one hand sadness

could be observed even in peoples facial-expressions while reflecting on their past, since those were

difficult times for everyone. But on the other hand, people emotional expressions changed

immediately when they were reflecting on their life nowadays and possible future. During the first

couple of interviews I did not realise why there is happiness in their eyes. Only after having

communication with more actors I understood that in spite of the lack of water or electricity, people

are happy to see new arrivals, because the increase in population means that the village is not going

to become a “ghost town” again. By discovering this fact I was a bit confused and uncertain while

approaching my next respondents. From one side I understood their point, but on the other side I am

seeing the development in Bandipur from a current perspective and in my opinion some

management is needed and soon. And at the same time I am wondering if I as a person from the

outside should interrupt this little idyll by providing information which nobody (with some

exceptions) really wants to realize. Of course, tourism is a sector that brings many benefits to

different stakeholders of the value chain. However, it also has its limits, preconditions and impacts

that have to be managed.

To discover the opinions of the locals on management or the lack of it during some of the interviews I

was steering people to look at and potentially cover this issue. It was a difficult task, since mainly

people were not willing to reflect on this issue. At that moment I assumed that they are afraid of the

management since it could (possibly) change the current way of working in Bandipur. However, while

looking back I remember that some of the people were reflecting on me as a person who is coming

from more developed country (by assuming that I am Dutch, since mostly people did not know about

country named Latvia) and therefore this fact could made them shy to reflect on their own

incompetence’s. I have to say, as longer I stayed in Bandipur the more I had a feeling that there is

kind of anarchy in that village due to the lack of management. However, I could notice that there is

also some way of ordering in the place, which probably is very normal for locals, but difficult to see

for people from outside.

4.2. Road as a Way to Modernity

During the first arrival in Bandipur it was very common for me to experience that there is a good

quality road to ride my motorbike up to the village. I was enjoying the little traffic and numerous

curves on the road. Most of the times the bike went slowly due to the low visibility and these eight

kilometres up felt like double the distance… At that time I did not know that twenty minutes till half

an hour for managing eight kilometres can be super-fast for people who used to make it on foot on

their daily basis. While driving the road and seeing some cars and buses every now and then, it was

difficult to imagine that in the past the goods including building materials used to be carried to the


40

village by human power. After learning this fact, I realised that the road for Bandipurians is the main

aspect affecting the recovery and rebirth of the village. Specified by Manihumar Pradhan (TNR),

“The people who stayed in the village started to approach people who left Bandipur and

requested them to return. And if they could not return, they were asked to help in terms of

education, health, water supply etc., including the road. Consequently, people from Bandipur

living outside used their social networks to build a good road.”

Although the local actors are satisfied with the current quality of the road, there are people who are

expressing their fear that with the current development the quality and width of the existing road

may become insufficient. From the perspective of the local experienced driver, the future of

Bandipur is dependent on the quality of road and accessibility of water. Reflected by Mr. Gehendra

Kayastha (TNR),

“The road to Bandipur has only one line and if the road will not be made wider, there is a

chance for increasing numbers of accidents.”

Although the villagers are starting to get concerned about the future use of the main road connecting

with Prithi Highway, most stakeholders are expressing their gratitude for the traffic-free central

streets of the village. I have to acknowledge that after receiving the request from local people to park

my motorbike outside the village area during my first visit in the destination (September, 2011), I was

very surprised. Since I spent more than four months in one of the country’s top destinations, often

reflected as the living museum, i.e. Bhaktapur, I was asking myself what is so special about this place

to have traffic free central streets while a very touristic city cannot refuse the pressure of local

people? Afterwards I learned that BECTP has been run in the village and the Bazaar has been made a

traffic free area as a part of this project. Specified by Mrs. Jharna Joshi and Mr. Manoj Rajopadhyay,

(TNR),

“The central streets of the village have been made vehicle free to increase working

possibilities for porters and other unskilled and uneducated inhabitants as well as to provide a

better atmosphere.”

And indeed, through communication with different stakeholders I learned that people in Bandipur

although they were sceptical about this development in the beginning, are very positive about it

now; especially the porters,

“Before we had more domestic animals, but nowadays we are keeping them only for basic

needs. We think that the life is good, now. We have a possibility for regular income, if we are

able to carry. After the bazar was made vehicle free, the working possibilities have

increased.” (Kamala, Aite, Suku and Kamala, TNR).

A visit to Bandipur indeed can surprise. Many travellers reflect that the experience while visiting the

village is better than the expectations before reaching it. There were people met who acknowledged

that they have come to the village to spot the beautiful range of Anapurna Circuit. During the

research period the visibility was poor and almost no visitor succeeded their plan. However, there

was mostly no bitterness in their reflections. Majority of tourists in Bandipur if they were not able to


41

reach their expectations compensated them with other experiences. A traveller from Germany

reflects,

“After spending half a day in Bandipur I am amazed by the village. This village… When I came

here I expected a Nepali village with the road, you know… but here it really looks like in

Europe! I did not expect this here.” (Alexander, T).

Additionally, not only tourists, but also other local people are reflecting on the central streets being a

traffic free area as a very positive development, which could be related to the modern approach in

the village. For example, the Sisters Evanzuela and Mirium (TNR) have observed that the quality of

life in the village has improved. According to them, the amount of dust has decreased and

consequently villagers have become less annoyed by each other. Moreover, Bandipurians are also

reflecting on other facilities that have improved within recent years. Specified by Mrs. Luna Pradhan

(TR),

“Such possibilities as education and hospital are important improvements in the village.

Bandipur is just a village, but you can have the same services as in a city. The life for people is

easier here.”

Consequently, through the interviews it was experienced that the respondents do not have a

common understanding of the status of Bandipur. Although officially Bandipur is led by a village

development committee, different respondent in various moments reflect on it differently – a city, a

town and a village. As one of the reason mentioned for this increasing confusion are the various

educational opportunities provided in the village. Thus, there are respondents in Bandipur who are

relating education also with the further change/ development of the village. Explained by Mr. Patthar

Pradhan (TR),

“If seven years ago there was a choice of three governmental schools in the village, then

nowadays there are 7 schools including 2 colleges for better education.”

For example, the founders of Notre Dame School acknowledge that their intentions are related not

only to provision high quality education, but also on minimising caste system in the village. Their aim

is to teach equality in the society and therefore they have introduced uniforms in the school. They

believe, if girls and boys as well as pupils from low and high castes look the same, also the gender

and caste inequality may be decreased.

However, in terms of tourism education and training, even if it is five years after the project was run

in Bandipur, the respondents are emphasizing the importance of BECTP. For example, Bhandari

Family (TNR) recalled that during this project, home stay programme was created during which local

people were trained to provide accommodation for tourists. Overall, almost every respondent

reflected on this project and could somehow relate it also to their personal experiences or as a

positive event for the village as such. According to Mr. Bikram Piya (TNR),

“The main pull factor for tourism development was Bandipur Eco-cultural Tourism

Development Project, that helped to develop Bandipur through: 1) Promotion work inside and

outside Nepal; 2) Infrastructure development, such as: signing, stone streets in the main


42

streets of Bandipur, renovation of houses etc.; 3) training for local guides, plumbing, cooking,

hospitality, electricity etc.”

In general it was explored that local people are seeing a further need for tourism education and

training. This reflects in the fact that shortly before the research was conducted a tourism school has

been founded in Bandipur that provides training in hospitality, cooking, service and English language.

In addition to this, employees of upper-class accommodations acknowledged that in each of the

guesthouse they are providing a special training during the first months of test period. Moreover, the

representatives of one guesthouse were reflecting over the importance to attract volunteer tourists

who are involving also society into various educational activities. Specified by Mr. Ram Sharan

Shrestha (TR),

“We regularly attract voluntary tourists and participate in various projects, like: children’s

library, garbage collection, renovation of temples (including wooden carvings), repainting

hospital… As a part of these projects we also educate local people how to work in tourism

sector, because in the hotel itself we are employing only locals from Bandipur and

surrounding villages.”

Aside of tourism-related activities, the respondents acknowledge that the founding of goat and silk

farms have significantly contributed to the development of the village. On the one hand, these

businesses are providing additional income for people who are recruited there and on the other

hand, Bandipurians have an easy access to meat products. Additionally, the respondents specified

that both of the companies can be visited by tourists as unique tourism attractions of the village.

Although it was not explored if tourists have ever used the services provided in the local hospital, the

respondents are relating improvements of the health system in Bandipur with tourism development

of the village. In general the improvement of health system has been positively assessed by most of

the interviewees. Reflected by Mr. Bikram Piya (TNR),

“Like 6-7 years ago, doctors were not attracted to come to Bandipur due to bad salary and

practice. At that time community medical axillary was running instead of hospital. There were

no doctors and there were less nurses operating at that time.”

While the respondents are sharing a common opinion on most of the facilities, the views on the food

and accommodation sector differ. On the one hand interviewees are acknowledging that the number

of accommodations has dramatically increased. And on the other hand there are respondents (also

apart from tourist) who are claiming low quality standards for the services. Explained by Mr. Patthar

Pradhan (TR),

“Nowadays people are cheating and providing low quality. Competition is high; just there is

no orientation on quality. Some rooms are cheap and dirty… It is not good for the place.”

Several respondents are explaining this situation with their personal observation. According to them,

in the past there were only two guesthouse opportunities in Bandipur, but nowadays they are

everywhere. Some respondents claim that there were fifty-five accommodation possibilities during

the research period, thus it was explored that also new accommodations are being built and


43

prepared. According to an individual traveller,

“Bandipur is losing its attractiveness and is getting too crowded with guesthouses and

facilities that soon it could lose its attractiveness in the eyes of visitors.” (Klauss, T).

In any case, tourism development cannot be made without the provision of food and

accommodation possibilities. Thus, while the respondents are reflecting over the origins of tourism

development in Bandipur, they tend to relate it with the opening of the first accommodation or

Bandipur Mountain Resort at around 20 years ago; or, with the activities run by BECTP. Specified by

Mrs. Jharna Joshi and Mr. Manoj Rajopadhyay (TNR),

“The preparation and proposal submission for the project started in 2003; and the actual

project duration was from the 1st of January, 2005 till the 31st of March, 2007. At that time,

Bandipur was highly affected by Maoist conflict; therefore the project was mainly led from

Kathmandu. Nevertheless, during the project planning process Nepal Tourism Board already

listed Bandipur on a list for tourism development. Based on that, the project (BECTP) received

support.”

Explained by Mrs. Jharna Joshi and Mr. Manoj Rajopadhyay (TNR) their preliminary goal of BECTP was

to encourage domestic travellers for visiting places (in this case Bandipur) without religious reasons.

The manager and assistant of the project acknowledge that the project was realised more

successfully than expected and the destination is receiving not only domestic visitors, but also

international tourists are attracted to Bandipur. Respondents are mentioning the following attraction

as the main tourism products of the site: silk and goat farms, picnic spot, Tourism Information Centre

(TIC), Paragliding, Mountain View, Bazaar (central traffic free streets), souvenir shop, Siddha cave and

hiking route to Ramkot.

Although Mountain View and traffic-free Bazaar by most of respondents are described as the main

tourism products contributing to the atmosphere for international travellers, the local picnic place or

Tundikhel (big, empty and picturesque field) is attracting organised buses with domestic travellers on

weekend. Although, the village is receiving high numbers of domestic picnickers on the weekends,

Bandipurians acknowledge that they are not highly satisfied with this target group due to their little

expenditure and big disturbance in terms of noise and visual pollution. Explained by Mr. Kalpana

Piya (TR),

“The existing picnic spot in Bandipur will be replaced, since it makes too much noise and

pollution. A park is planned to be created in this place instead.”

While Bandipurians are not satisfied with the presence of domestic tourists (the general attitude

towards international tourists has not been discovered), the international tourists are reflecting on

the poor service, limited information and irregular opening times of the Tourism Information Centre

(TIC). It is possible that the provided services in TIC do not fully match the expectations of the

international travellers. However, the work of TIC has been started by BECTP and is continued as a

voluntary project by the initiative of Mountain View Resort who is also paying a salary for the

employee there. While TIC is only a small issue reflected by the visitors, the attractiveness of the


44

village is questioned by both – locals and travellers. Reflected by Mr. Ram Sharan Shrestha (TR),

“Bandipurians are supporting tourism and it is important to preserve its traditions (typical

culture) in an approach of keeping the old ways. Many new buildings for tourists are made,

but they should be made in the old way.”

In spite of their occupation and relation to Bandipur, most of the respondents are seeing the physical

appearance of the village as a threat to further tourism development. Although the visitors in

Bandipur appreciate the traffic-free streets, they also acknowledge that the appearance of the rest of

the site is also of a high importance. Some respondents have recognized that it is already difficult to

take a picture of the village without the big concrete buildings. Thus, more of these modern houses

are being built. Overall, Bandipurians as well as their guests are seeing that the village is changing,

but nobody specified the exact ways how/if this change is changing their perception of the village.

In general, the respondents see tourism development as a very positive trend in the village. The

interviewees express their satisfaction with such statements as “nowadays it is better”, “the locals

are happy”, “tourism makes people come to Bandipur” etc. People from various sectors see the

positive aspects of tourism. Explained by Mrs. Luna Pradhan (TR),

“Many people in the surroundings are very happy that tourists are coming. Even non-

educated people who are working as porters, farmers, builders etc., they have regular job

possibilities, nowadays. I think that because of tourism people can send their children to

school and support their family.”

For some reason, in many cases respondents while asked to name some negative tourism influences

could not name them and were rather starting to defend the industry and convince how good it is for

different actors of the village. Overall, people in Bandipur reflect on tourism as an important sector

through which empowerment may be reached. According to Mr. Gehendra Kayastha (TNR),

“Presence of tourists does not affect harvest, tourists rather are providing with extra

possibilities and job. I don’t think tourism is bringing any bad impacts.”

While some Bandipurians share the belief that together with the new income possibilities, also the

living costs in the village have increased, they also acknowledge that together with the tourism flow

more diversity is offered in the market so that also local people may benefit. Reflected by Mr.

Patthar Pradhan (TR),

“In the village only basic products as rice, oil etc. was available. Together with tourism

development more variety came into the market. People can also buy water, chocolate, meat

etc.”

Though locals are relating the attractiveness of the village with the daily expenditures, from the view

point of some travellers in Bandipur, the village is losing its attractiveness. Before visiting Bandipur,

travellers are expecting a countryside since the village is promoted as a remote and undiscovered

area. However, from the view-point of diverse respondents, the reality has been changed and so has


45

the village. Explained by a traveller visiting Bandipur,

“There is a feeling that people here (in Bandipur) run guesthouses and other services not

because they love doing it, but because it seems an easy way of income” (Klauss, T)

Although some travellers are not optimistic over the current development of the village, the

mainstream of local people are seeing a promising future for Bandipur. Nonetheless, diverse actors

see the future of Bandipur through different lenses. On the one hand, there are interviewees who

are orientated on improvements brought by development but on the other hand there is a minority

of the respondents who are reflecting on possible treats in the future. These future concerns are

mainly related to: increase of garbage, water supply, people basing their income only on tourism

industry, lack of management, decrease in farming production, Bandipur becoming retirement village

as well as Bandipur losing its attractiveness as a tourism destination.

Only some of the actors were reflecting not only to the actual consequences, but were also sharing

their ideas about what should be done in order to improve the life of Bandipur in future. However for

most of the scenarios tourism development is reflected as the main theme or solution. According to

Mr. Manihumar Pradhan (TNR),

“In case if the flow of tourism increases it could happen that the development becomes

unmanageable, that could affect the image of the place. Local people want to keep tourism

development under control. It has to have slow and steady development not only in Bandipur,

but also spreading to the surrounding villages.”

In spite of the various concerns and possible scenarios, the mainstream of the respondents in

Bandipur are expecting positive development in a long term. With the words of the respondents

themselves, they are seeing a bright future for the village. Reflected by Mr. Birja Lal Pariyar (TNR),

“The future of Bandipur is bright. Bandipur will achieve more progress. Even if it will not

happen in my lifetime, at least it will be for my sons.”

Although in this sub-chapter I have assumed that the road is the main reason for the rebirth of the

place and modernisation; by approaching this issue from a broader perspective, it is not clear, if the

presence of the road is going to remain as a positive development for most stakeholders, or it is

going to become an issue of conflict in a future. This assumption is mostly based on the impacts of

regular circulation of new people in the village. During the field work it was experienced that in some

(mainly non-touristic) areas of Bandipur, local people are getting annoyed by presence of tourists in

their private space. A direct encounter with locals was experienced while reaching one remote

guesthouse located in the suburbs of the village. In order to visit this particular accommodation, the

guests always have to walk through the yards of other people’s houses. In this way there is a feeling

that in some cases the “backstage” of people’s lives is exposed to tourists (MacCannell, 1976), which

has resulted in annoyance from the side of the villagers.

Different situation has been observed in the central, traffic free streets of the village. There you have

a feeling that people perceive tourists as their big possibility for better future. On one hand, people

living in this area seem to share a silent pride about the space they inhabit. In this area it can be


46

often observed how adults are instructing their children to greet tourists and to wave at them while

they are passing. On the other hand, the vehicle-free area is quite big in comparison to the village

itself and it is surprising to see the amount of upcoming tourism services locals provide there. It

almost feels like the majority of the new entrepreneurs are not even orientating to fulfil the needs of

tourists, but are rather providing a service, because his/her neighbour was/is successful with it. In

general, Nepal is practicing so-called copy-paste economy. It means that if one person is successful

with one product, the same service will soon be provided by the neighbours. In Bandipur it is not

happening on a large scale, yet; nevertheless this is an issue which can not be left without attention

since there is a chance of Bandipur losing its attractiveness.

Before doing the research in Bandipur, I was doing my internship in Bhaktapur which is a UNESCO

World Heritage city in Nepal. During my stay there I learned that by seeing that the place is

acknowledged, the local municipality is asking an entrance fee for visiting it. In Kathmandu valley and

surroundings of it to ask money for visiting a part of a city is a common practice. Accordingly, the fact

that there is no entrance fee for visiting Bandipur was a relief. It is not because of the amount you

save, but rather because the fees are changing my expectations and in paid destinations I am

expecting an added value to the destination.

Not only travellers but also local people are reflecting over diverse facilities that are making their

living easier in the site. Various services such as education possibilities, the hospital, goat and silk

farms as well as food and accommodation, are making the life in Bandipur more convenient. In the

country where I am coming from, a place may receive a status of town after it is inhabited by five

thousand people and has basic facilities for its residents and guests. Consequently, it may be said

that in some perspectives I also perceive Bandipur as a town located in a rural environment.

In spite of its remoteness, the local supply of accommodation and food possibilities are evaluated

with mixed feelings. While some service providers are trying their best to satisfy the needs of

travellers, in some places (both accommodation and restaurants) there is a feeling that the business

is run not because people have knowledge and interest, but rather due to positive experiences from

the side of co-villagers. Not only by me, but also by other travellers it was experienced that some

providers in Bandipur tend to overcharge their customer for services of rather low quality (in terms

of speed, cleanness, variety) in comparison with others similar service providers in the village.

As a part of my research I was visiting different restaurants for almost every meal. In this way I was

trying to get an idea what is the service quality in Bandipur. Personally I am positioning myself as an

individual traveller who is mainly consuming budget or middle class services while being on the

move. At the end of the fieldwork I could conclude that the service quality in Bandipur varies a lot.

Subsequently, in numerous cases I had a feeling that local entrepreneurs do not understand

travellers and their needs. Therefore a necessity for training and additional knowledge was

recognised. Nevertheless, in my opinion the service provided in Bandipur is adequate for various

budget groups and interests.

In my opinion, every one of us has different backgrounds and therefore also diverse ways how we

perceive reality. Some people explain the start of tourism in Bandipur with the first two guesthouses

founded at around 20 years ago. Some other people rather relate it to the building of the road while


47

some others believe that Bandipur became a recognised tourism destination after the activities of

BECTP. I think all the opinions contain some truth in them. However, I see that the current tourism

development in Bandipur is highly affected by the activities run by BECTP. And somehow after the

project has been accomplished for more than five years already, it has been noticed that no recent

activities related to infrastructure development, training or information provision can be found.

Bandipur is included as a destination in the Lonely Planet and other guide-books that are providing a

lot of insight information over the destination. During the field visit it was observed that the village is

still relying on the amenities developed during BECTP. Based on the informational materials

available, during this project, the infrastructure, signing and informative materials (booklets) were

developed so that the visitor could find their way without an actual need of a guide. Since the street

signs are getting less readable or they are getting broken, a need for tourism infrastructure

improvements is recognised.

Through the encounters with the local people I have an impression that for the majority of

Bandipurians it is evident that tourists are visiting Bandipur to enjoy the traffic-free central streets

and the mountain view (which mainly cannot be spotted). But is it really so? While some actors have

mentioned that they are looking for possibilities to increase the average visitor stay in the

destination, I have noticed that there are no additional activities organised that would stimulate

backpackers to extend their stay. Most of backpackers in Nepal are long-haul and long-term

travellers who are mainly a flexible market group if their interest is attracted.

However, the attractiveness of Bandipur has been questioned by various actors. In spite that the

village has its traffic-free Bazaar, the numbers of modern buildings outside the main streets of the

centre area are a disturbing factor. By noticing the great change in the landscape of the village I am

wondering how long the visitors are going to find Bandipur attractive if the growth will continue in

the present way? On the other hand, it would be ridiculous to ask people not to orientate on their

own needs and stop building in order to fulfil the interests of tourists instead.

Aside from the visual image, also behaviour of inhabitants in Bandipur is affecting the attractiveness

of the destination. Tourists are often reflecting on issues such as: paying extra for public transport,

being pushed to take a guide (in Siddha cave) while other (Nepali) tourists do not have to do it, being

asked for money, long waiting time in restaurant, people being pushed to take a room etc. These

examples underline the importance of small experiences that are contributing to the creation of the

destination image.

With reference to the popularly-cited Butler’s Destination Life Cycle model, there is a worry

concerning the future of Bandipur. Based on the researcher’s observations, Bandipur is reaching the

stage of stagnation and it is not clear yet what will follow – rejuvenation or decline. Although I have a

personal attachment to Bandipur, I have my doubts that the current way of development will bring

rejuvenation. I would rather like to assume that in terms of tourism, with the condition that political

situation of Nepal will remain stable the destination will get stuck in several years of stagnation. This

assumption is based on the accessibility of Bandipur and its proximity to one of the must see tourism

destinations of the country – Pokhara.

Based on the knowledge gathered through travelling and academic activities, it has been learned that


48

many destinations in the world after being taken off of the tourism map are experiencing a deep

recession. Although there is no actual ground for coming to this conclusion, no part of the world has

a guaranteed flow of tourism, especially not within developing and post conflict country. Therefore, I

recognize a need not only to orientate on current issues, but also manage the destination in a way

that it is viable also without a presence of tourism in it. Although I am a passionate traveller, I believe

that the interests of the local people living in the destination should always have a priority over the

interests of tourists.

Living in the Field

It does not really matter where we are coming from and what are our beliefs, the human mind is

shaped to search for improvement. The reality and theory sometimes become contradictory,

because it is so easy to get confused in different terms. It was obvious during the fieldwork in

Bandipur that the local people are interested in growth. It does not matter if the impacts of tourists

or the effects of TV are related to the new ways, there is a feeling that majority of people in Bandipur

are ready for development. What about the interests of the minority? How about the people who are

seeing tourists as intruders into their lives? It is fashionable to state that every voice matters, but it is

difficult to believe if it is really so. I do not have enough knowledge to state that the society of

Bandipur is becoming fragmented but there are evidence indicating the lack of common tourism

awareness among the villagers. Based on the knowledge gathered through theoretic studies, tourism

development of a destination may be endangered if there is no support of the local people.

Another threat for the destination is the lack of coordination. I have a feeling that everyone in

Bandipur is doing what feels the best for themselves. But would not it be better if some common

goal would be set to strive for? While writing this I am completely aware that my idea could be

rather written for a Western audience, since the working style in Bandipur (and Nepal in general)

significantly differs. Nepal is a post-conflict country where actual unrests (or Banda, as locals call

them) are still taking place; therefore I have a feeling that people in Bandipur are focused on their

immediate future rather than sustainable long-term plans. Based on the way how the respondents

express their opinions, I have a feeling that people are carrying a fear within themselves. I mean,

people in Bandipur are afraid of possible changes in Nepal’s political stability and its possible effects

on their community. Moreover, if I understand the Maoist impacts on Bandipur appropriately, I can

imagine that for the locals, the main focus is related to their current lives rather than some abstract

tourism attractiveness of the village.

Nevertheless, from my personal point of view, in addition to its tourism product, Bandipur is

attractive due to the fact that no entrance fee for visiting the site from international travellers is

required. It is possible that this situation is also due to the lack of management. Yet, the experience

that many smaller and bigger Nepali destinations are requiring entrance fee, brings a welcoming

feeling while discovering Bandipur as a destination where travellers are being treated/ seen

differently. Overall, based on my backpacker experiences while exploring the country, I have a feeling

that majority of Nepali people are seeing white travellers as rich people who never have to work.

Anyhow, through my stay in Bandipur I managed to try out around twenty different restaurants and

two guesthouses. I experienced that the service quality differs from place to place, while pricing was


49

mainly set similar. While looking back to my fieldwork period I remember that in many places a

similar menu by its looks and content was provides with equal pricing system although the difference

in service quality was huge. In addition, I had a feeling that the main principle of these businesses

was to have a pricing strategy similar to their competitors in the neighbourhood, whereas the quality

of the services was of secondary importance. Moreover, with this example I do not mean only the

situations when tourists are overpriced. Especially while visiting very local restaurants, I could notice

that the service was often much better than experienced in some tourist-oriented place and people

more motivated to communicate with you, although their English skills and my Nepali skills were not

sufficient enough. By this I mean, even if I am suggesting that some additional tourism training for

service providers in Bandipur is needed, there were many cases recognised that service providers are

trying to learn about the needs of tourists.

Although Bandipurians are trying to improve their tourism supply in many ways, I find the issue

related to heritage preservation of the village as a difficult one. After several respondents informed

me that during BECTP two guesthouses received a soft loan to repair their enterprises and

afterwards did not give this money further to other accommodation providers for preservation of the

village, I could notice that my attitude to the place was changing. According to the project conditions,

after the loan receiving guesthouses would earn some money through tourism, they were expected

to give this money to other guesthouses for building preservation so that more of the old houses of

the central streets may be preserved. I see this as a very negative practice and based on the amount

of respondents who did reflect on this issue, I have a feeling that the villagers are feeling sorry for the

way this money was managed and are still carrying a weak hope that maybe one day the money will

be given further for the village development. In general, I am reflecting on the suburbs of the village

as an ugly part due to the modern buildings and changing visual image. At the same time I am feeling

compassionate to those people who are still carrying a hope that there will be a chance for

conservation also for other buildings of the main streets of Bandipur.

Based on the respondent’s reflections (especially those of tourists), the guests are noticing that due

to the visual change of the village, it is becoming unattractive at least for some of the travellers. By

experiencing that the tour from Kathmandu to Pokhara and vice versa may take up to eight hours if a

fast tourism transport is used, I do believe that Bandipur will remain included in the tourism map due

to its location and proximity to the Prithi Highway. Moreover, the village has a positive image among

the Nepali people living in the Kathmandu Valley. Bandipur is often suggested as an adorable

destination by local travel agencies and it is included in several travel guide books which are used by

individual travellers… In my opinion, the image of Bandipur as a tourism destination is positive and as

long as it is developed by respecting travellers’ needs, it will continue receiving new visitors.

Nevertheless, there is no viable destination without support of the local people; therefore the

interests of the locals should be fulfilled before the tourist demands.


50

4.3. Socio-cultural impacts (SCI)

Accidental encounters with local people helped me to understand Bandipurians way of living.

Through communication with the respondents it could be noticed that people in Bandipur are aware

of their castes and often are sharing some kind of pride in their status. In comparison, it was

observed while doing research in Kathmandu Valley, that people from lower castes there would be

trying to hide their roots or they would be telling a different story about themselves. In Bandipur

people seemed to be more open while reflecting on their own social groups. Reflected by the female

porters in Bandipur,

“We remember that 10-20 years ago there was a very strict caste system. It often happened

that when we were going to the well for collecting water, we were not allowed to, because

we cannot go close to the people from higher caste. Nowadays we are allowed to go into

hotels and have a tea in restaurants. We are only not allowed to enter the homes of the

Brahmins’ (highest caste), but in other ways we are free… People are becoming more

educated in comparison to the past. So they are more flexible on castes” (Kamala, Aite, Suku

and Kamala, TNR)

The research material shows that not only persons from lower castes, but also people from higher

class are noticing the change into caste system of Bandipur. Thus, also the general opinion from the

side of respondents showed the opinion that the caste system is getting weaker in Bandipur in

comparison to past. According to a local student representing Brahmins,

“The caste system is slowly losing its importance in several parts of Nepal; but in Bandipur

and surrounding villages it matters what is your surname. For example, I am a Brahmin and

for me it is not important, but for my grandfather caste is very important. And it happens that

some people are not allowed to enter the house.” (Krishna, TNR).

However, local people agree that there is a significant change while reflecting on the caste system in

Bandipur. Some of them explain this change with education and the influence from the outside. For

example, Mr. Bharat Kumar Kayastha (TNR) reflects that in Europe and USA, the only distinction

between people is female and male. Moreover, there are respondents who believe that not only

caste system is changing, but the village is receiving a bigger mix of ethnical groups. Stated by Mr.

Bikram Piya (TNR), if historically Newari ethnical group dominated in Bandipur, then nowadays there

is a big mix of ethnical groups living in the village (Brahmins, Chetri, Newar, Magar, Gumrin, Sarki,

Sunar, Kami etc.) and Newari ethnical group is in minority. Besides, the respondents are reflecting

that in spite of the differences between various ethnical groups living in Bandipur, there is a vast

difference among people who are living in Bandipur and tourists. Explained by Mr. Manihumar

Pradhan (TNR).

“Local people are seeing tourists kissing in the street and they do not like this disrespect.

There is a big cultural difference and it affects our culture because local people are copying

tourists. Also local people (especially younger generation) are doing this. The young

generation is copying the foreign culture and I am afraid that there is no way how traditional


51

culture can be preserved.”

Although it is difficult to estimate the exact impact of tourism in demonstration effect of Bandipur,

local people are noticing that the behaviour of their community members is changing. In general

opinion of the respondents, they are seeing demonstration effect as a negative change. Thus, it is

complicated to estimate in which scale the change is brought by tourism and what are the effects of

other factors, like TV and internet. Supported by Sisters Evanzuela and Mirium (TNR),

“We think that because of the electricity people have TV. And instead of playing outside,

people are watching TV and they are less naïve, nowadays. TV is changing children

behaviour.”

On the one hand, local people understand that tourist culture differs from the Nepali one. Based on

respondent views, the presence of tourists in Bandipur is not only causing changes in terms of

demonstration effect, but also some behavioural change in the host society has been noticed by the

interviewees. As two negative aspects begging and cheating are mentioned. Explained by a traveller

in Bandippur,

“Also tourists should be educated. Begging as a problem is increasing and if tourists did not

stimulate it, it would not happen.” (Jeffry, T).

To prevent the possibility of interest conflicts, some of the quotes in the text further are published

anonymously and respondents’ relation to the village is given instead. As one of the most reflected

issues related to cheating is the situation where two guesthouses after receiving a soft loan for

architectural preservation of their buildings did not pass it further to the next guesthouses. Another

aspect often reflected by the respondents is the increase in food and living costs:

“Due to the development food and living costs have increased in comparison to the

surrounding villages (e.g. Dumre). Partly it is explained by the transportation costs. However,

if increase should be with 1 Rs, in many cases the actual rise is with 5rs instead” (TR)

Unreasonable change in pricing system in Bandipur is reflected by both, local inhabitants and

tourists. Thus, while locals are noticing an increase in prices for products, tourists are reflecting on

the pricing differences for travellers in comparison with Nepali people as well. This difference in

pricing has been reflected starting from public transport till prices in regular shops of Bandipur.

Nevertheless, while reflecting on the services in Bandipur some local people also feel overcharged

while using the facilities of the local porters:

“Also the Dalits – or the caste who are porters- they are overcharging for their services. For

example, if a jeep for bringing the stuff 8 km up charges 25 Rs per bag, then the porters for

carrying it from the bus-stop to the house are charging 30 Rs per bag” (TNR)

In spite of some factors that are affecting the life in Bandipur, the respondents perceive the village as

a safe destination where the level of crime is very low. Based on the opinion of the local people, the

crime is not a problem in the village. Moreover, from the perspective of respondents, the life quality

in Bandipur is improving. And the growth can be observed not only for entrepreneurs, but for all


52

social groups. This situation is stimulated through tourism development, since tourism value chain is

providing benefits to various related stakeholders. Explained by Mrs. Luna Pradhan (TR),

“Even non-educated people who are working as porters, farmers, builders etc., have regular

job possibilities nowadays.”

People in Bandipur appreciate the change. According to Mr. Patthar Pradhan (TR) nowadays many

people in Bandipur are directly or indirectly related to tourism – some provide accommodation,

some vegetables and some meat. Local people emphasize that in comparison with the past, the

situation in the village has significantly improved. Supported by Bhandari Familly (TNR),

“Before people were farming and if they did not, they had difficulties to survive. Nowadays

there are more working possibilities – so it is easier for everyone.”

On the one hand, local people are seeing tourism development as an opportunity for further

development of the village. But on the other hand, there are respondents who see tourism as a

threat to future growth. Some respondents are getting worried while seeing the scope in which the

development of the village is being based on tourism development. While some people are

emphasizing the potential of green/ organic farming, some other respondents reflect on the

necessity to find the ways to stimulate local youth not to leave the village. Specified by Sisters

Evanzuela and Mirium, (TNR),

“More jobs for example in education should be created, otherwise educated young people will

leave Bandipur and it will return into a retirement village where some people are employed in

tourism – restaurants and lodges.”

While some respondents are reflecting on the future change, there are respondents who

acknowledge that the village has been changed already. Many interviewees are reflecting on

conservation and restoration efforts with sadness. On the one hand they reflect on the past (BECTP)

where two guesthouses received a soft loan for their development with an idea that they would pass

it further to other accommodation providers after earning it back, but these guesthouses did not.

And on the other hand, respondents are expressing their doubt over the upcoming numbers of new

buildings which are built without respecting the old tradition. Reflected by a grandfather of a local

family,

“There was forest everywhere in the surroundings and the area of Bandipur in the past. There

were little houses and mainly they were in a distance from each other. But nowadays the

forest is gone and tourist houses are being built.” (Bhandari Family, TNR).

Definitely, the lifestyle for people in Bandipur is changing and so does the environment. According to

some opinions, the rising numbers of buildings is representing also increase in incoming tourism that

in general is assumed as a positive phenomenon in villagers’ view. Furthermore, together with

tourists also the numbers of Nepali people starting their lives in Bandipur are increasing; therefore

respondents are seeing increase of new accommodations as a common consequence. Nonetheless,

complementary to maintaining the site according to the tradition, respondents (mainly tourists) are

suggesting managing the destination in a way that it does not become overcrowded with tourism


53

facilities,

“If you look from the hill, the Bazar still looks beautiful but the suburbs do not” (Mrs. Jharna

and Mr. Manoj, TNR)

Opposite to the tourists, the Bandipurians do not reflect on tourism facilities as a problem, but are

rather expressing their worry concerning the resources that have to be shared between the villagers

and their guests. The main concern of the people there is the accessibility of water. Reflected by Mr.

Bikram Piya (TNR),

“There is a water crisis in Bandipur and the lack of drinking water is an increasing problem.

Two water projects were run within last 50 years in the area. But nowadays the number of

houses is increasing and people are looking for possibilities to get more access to water

sources. There is no alternative to water.”

During the semi-structured interviews almost all respondents reflected to water as an increasing

worry for the local people. From one side, respondents are expressing their gratitude that in most of

the houses water tap has been built, but on the other hand, it often happens that there is no water

supply in it and people still are forced to carry water. Furthermore, the opinion of most respondents

embraces a believe that the water problem has been decreased compared with the situation in past.

Explained by Bhandari Family (TNR),

“Because of the water problem sometime there is no water in our tap. At those moments we

often have to walk half an hour to gather it and carry it home. It also happens that other

people sometimes are coming to our tap to take water… And then it is also no problem.”

In addition, the local entrepreneurs and guesthouse owners are emphasizing their efforts on

decreasing the water problem in the village. While one owner of a guesthouse acknowledges that he

is collecting and recycling rain water in his guest-house, some other bigger hotels are bringing water

from the outside. However, respondents acknowledge that the water issue is becoming harder and

no solution is seen to solve this problem in future. Electricity and regular power-cuts is another

concern where no solution has been seen by the respondents, since also this problem is countrywide.

Overall, the respondents are acknowledging that the village is getting developed, only as a price of

development they also have to cope with the increasing amount of garbage. In general, waste,

garbage and noise pollution have been stated by several respondents as the sectors where the most

attention should be paid to. Nevertheless, there are people in the village in whose opinion the village

itself is cleaner in comparison to the past. Suggested by Mr. Patthar Pradhan (TR),

“With the rapid increase of inhabitants, pollution in some places can be observed. Also air

pollution is noticeable. Before the air was neutral, but nowadays - you can smell some

plastic.”

Another sector where improvement has been noted by the respondents is sanitation and actual

existence of toilets for households in the village. Based on the respondent opinion, the improvement

in sanitation possibilities has improved the life of Bandipurians. Nevertheless, only some respondents


54

were reflecting on this issue during the interviews. According to Sisters Evanzuela and Mirium (TNR),

“Nowadays almost everyone has a toilet. Like 5-6 years ago, village people made an

organisation that would cover half costs for building private toilets for local households.

Before many families were without one.”

In general, respondents acknowledge that there is a convenience in their life with the current

development in Bandipur. Nowadays there is variety of goods, electricity, phone, transport etc.

Based on the responses, there was a limited choice that was mainly based on the seasonal products

so that even getting an egg was exclusive in past. According to the respondents, product accessibility

has increased not only because of the transportation possibilities, but also due to the fact that the

local people are producing more goods nowadays. Supported by Mr. Patthar Pradhan (TR),

“Together with tourism development more variety came into the market. People could also

buy water, chocolate, meat etc. This development is important, because nowadays there is

also a goat farm and a chicken farm in the surrounding which was not there before.”

In addition to the accessibility of goods, also local dance may be arranged if such a demand arises in

Bandipur. Dancing has been mentioned as a tourist entertainment in the village and this activity is

perceived by the local people as preservation of culture rather than commodification. Explained by

Mr. Bikram Piya (TNR),

“Development of tourism has helped preservation of culture. For example, when hotels

request to perform a traditional dance, the dancers receive 10.000 Rs. Consequently dance is

becoming a source of income.”

Explained by Bhandari Family (TNR), Bandipurians through experiences gathered from the presence

of tourists are also learning about their own culture. In their opinion, people are getting aware of

their own culture as well as they have a chance to learn from/about other cultures. For example, the

local tailor has acknowledged that due to the presence of tourism the traditional purses are being

made and sold to domestic and international travellers. According to Mr. Birja Lal Pariyar (TNR),

these purses almost disappeared but are getting noticed again. Moreover, there are voices which

confirm that the development in Bandipur is stimulating communication and social interaction also

among local inhabitants of Bandipur:

“The development brought awareness in the village. At the beginning people did not use to

go out of their houses and did not communicate with each other; but nowadays they are

taking active participation in community life” (Mr. Bharat Kumar Kayastha, TNR).

During the first couple of days in Bandipur I was quite confused through communication with locals

due to their openness while reflecting on caste system. At that time I still had an image that Bandipur

is mainly inhabited by Newari ethnical group. During my internship experiences in Bhaktapur (a city

mainly inhabited by Newari people) I learned that mainly people there are not open when the issues

related to their social group are touched. Moreover, in Bhaktapur I was told that in a city people are

less orientated on their castes than in countryside’s where the caste still maters very much. After

reaching Bandipur I was impressed. Although I was located in a rural destination, people there were


55

more open to their social status than in the city. However, this situation could be explained with

Bandipur being a village where in general people know each other and therefore there is no use to

give a false identity.

From one side it is known that people in Nepal (especially women) on many cases, and often in

everyday life, would be wearing their traditional clothing. But on the other hand, it has been

observed that on several occasions, traditional dress has been replaced with western or modern

fashion. It is difficult to estimate in which level presence of tourists is involved in this tendency and

could it be related to demonstration effect. But since it has been observed all over the country, there

is a reason to believe that tourists are not the main cause for this change in Bandipur. Through

observing many students proceeding to their schools in non-Nepali fashion clothes, there is a feeling

that this trend is affecting peoples’ dressing style more effectively. Since school children have to

wear their uniforms six days a week, it is quite likely that people who are used to school uniforms

would also use similar every-day clothes.

Concerning the behavioural change, it is also very difficult to say where the influences are coming

from. Especially the young generation in Bandipur and Nepal are very attracted to Internet, sites like

Youtube and Facebook. Therefore it would be incorrect to blame only tourism development for the

behavioural change of younger generations. By experiencing the actual change from Soviet Latvia to

Democratic Latvia, I have to say that young people are adapting fast to the change. Only the aspects

which they are following and cultivating in their own behaviour are always dependent also on their

families and society they are living in. For example, some respondents were reflecting over tourists

sharing their intimate moments in public places. It was noticed that although locals do not appreciate

this behaviour, they also for some reason do not object it. It is possible that it is a cultural thing not

to reflect on inappropriate behaviour. Just, if nobody is setting it as a bad example, then it is quite

possible that some people are starting to cultivate it also in their own behaviour. Therefore, it can be

said that the local society and everyone’s family is playing an important role due to people’s

perception of and willingness to copy the behaviour of strangers. The same could be said also about

begging in Bandipur.

Although the respondents are acknowledging behavioural change in Bandipur, there was a feeling

that the change is occurring faster than Bandipurians realize. In the case of Bandipur there was a

feeling that often children would ask for something just for fun. I think that the main aspect that

stimulates begging in Bandipur are the positive stories of people benefiting from tourists. It has been

heard that some people are making friends with travellers and their school or living costs are paid by

these travellers. Or that somebody would give a nice watch to a kid just because this kid looks lovely

in the picture. There are several motives that stimulate this activity; however, I do not believe it

happens without an influence of adult’s world.

On these moments I tend to remember one encounter while visiting an old part of a non-touristic city

in Nepal. During sightseeing and taking some pictures of architecture and pottery, some local kids

started to approach me with a question to take a picture. I had no intention to do that, but finally I

agreed and by thinking that I am making a favour to kids by letting them to see themselves on a

screen I had their pictures in my camera. Apparently, their intention was not the pictures, but the


56

sweets what they are supposed to receive after posing to the tourist. The kids were small and there

were some adults constantly giving instructions how they should ask for their chocolates. In general

it was very sad to see how big the footprint has been left in the destination already.

In case of Bandipur it seems that the main begging targets for children in Bandipur are organised

groups. An encounter of kid running after tourists or even hanging on them, is the reality how several

children are doing their business in Bandipur. Thus, for some reason the begging activities are mainly

taking part in the suburbs of the village (e.g. surroundings of the picnic spot) and in very rare

situations in the touristic streets. From the one side it could be said that kids and tourists should be

educated not to do this. But on another hand, it has been observed that when Nepali visitors are

coming to Bandipur (especially on Saturday) they are offering money or sweets to children.

Therefore, it can be described as a very normal situation if children are also trying their luck with

international travellers.

If begging in Bandipur is rather related to children’s habits, then cheating is mainly done by adults. In

general, I do not experience little increase in prices for tourists as something bad. However, the open

cheating encounters I perceive as a very negative sign. I was experiencing the site from two

perspectives – as a tourist during my first visit in Bandipur (September, 2011) and as a researcher

during my second one (March/April, 2012). Overall, I do not see cheating as a problem in Bandipur,

however some places were recognised where tourists are offered one price, but at the moment of

payment a higher price is asked. If you are a traveller in developing countries, it is a regular practice

to pay more than locals have to. However, the way how it is done is what matters. Even if I as a

tourist know that I am paying double the price for the service I will not mind it, if it is done in a good

manner. But, if somebody will push me into using some service and afterwards I will have to pay

more than previously agreed, it will be considered as cheating. Hence, I have to conclude that actual

cheating problem has been recognised on a low scale in Bandipur, yet.

In comparison, I have been doing a research in a remote Nong Khiaw village in Laos. I can derive a lot

of similarities between Bandipur and this other village due to various aspects: their location,

increasing movement of new residents, steady tourism flow etc. During the time of the research the

destination was on the tourism map for a short while, but tourism management institutions had to

acknowledge that the development is getting out of control, because a new tendency of theft was

starting to appear. Thus, based on the experiences of other destinations, it has been learned that

often people who are used to little income do not really know what to do with their money received

from tourism activities. I have spotted several examples within numerous destinations where many

people instead of hoped empowerment, are struggling with alcohol and drug problems caused by

irresponsible personal financial management. Although this is not a general tendency, it often leads

to increase in crime.

In general, Bandipurians through provision of job possibilities also to deprived social groups have

made a great step in stimulating social equality among its citizens. Although there are respondents

who state that Bandipurians are becoming more money-oriented, it has to be acknowledged that

without money in Bandipur parents can’t even send their child to school due to the school fees.

Thus, it has been recognized, although there are job possibilities in the village, these are mainly low-


57

paid jobs.

As a contradictory occupation, porters were recognized. Although the situation of porters and their

working conditions in Nepal have received wide attention of Western media, in situation of Bandipur,

they can be mentioned as a group who are receiving a lot of benefits due to the fact that the central

streets of the village are traffic-free and only some castes may be working as porters. It is not certain,

but it has been witnessed that some respondents are describing the pricing asked for porter’s

services as very high in comparison to their work. However, since only one respondent reflected on

this issue, it should not be taken as an overall opinion.

There is a concern that more and more people in Bandipur are seeing themselves providing tourism

related services. This anxiety may be frightening, since there are people who by seeing success

stories of their neighbours are also willing to shift their traditional sources of income to tourism

related occupancies. From one side there is nothing bad about it. But on the other hand, there is a

worry that by orientating on tourism sector, Bandipurians could forget about their own

development. This assumption is based on the fact that there is no realistic possibility that

international tourism flow in future could vividly increase in Bandipur to satisfy the needs of the

rising businesses. This is supported by the fact that the vast majority of international travellers are

arriving in Nepal through Tribhuvan International Airport in Kathmandu and the capacity of the

airport is already maximized.

By visiting such touristic places as Thamel in Kathmandu, Pokhara or Nagarkot, it was observed how

tourism development in Nepal is restructuring the local way of living. Although tourism development

in Bandipur has not yet reached the level of mentioned destinations, there is an anxiety that through

opening more and more tourism orientated services (including souvenir shops) also the destination

could lose its uniqueness in comparison to the rest of Nepal. From my viewpoint Bandipur is a very

nice destination which has future potential if the development is managed well.

From the first moment I entered the main streets of Bandipur, I knew this place took a part of me. So

uncommon in Nepal, most of the balconies were decorated with pots of natural flowers which added

up to the atmosphere. I was thrilled how nicely these plants contributed to creating a sense of

ancientness for the architecture of Bandipur in its main streets. This feeling was changed after

several stakeholders were reflecting on the situation that a loan was given to Bandipurians to

preserve and restore the city centre, but it was taken by two individuals and not given further for the

development of the place. Every time this information was given by some of the respondents, I could

notice that my attitude to Bandipur is changing. I am still seeing it as a beautiful place, but

additionally there was also some feeling of pettiness for the people who are still hoping to have a

chance to improve their properties.

When thinking of the overall sense of place in Bandipur I remember the first research days when I

was walking around the place with my camera to make a nice shot from a distance. Even after

climbing a hill I could notice that there is no way how to take a nice picture of the central streets,

because there are very many new looking buildings that would spoil the view. At that moment I

realised that the place is actually experiencing a great change and I did not really like what I was

seeing. The ancient look can be noticed while you are within the central streets of Bandipur, but


58

while looking from a distance the beauty is being disturbed by modernity.

Another modern approach in Bandipur is to offer a traditional dance as tourism entertainment.

According to the interview material, the respondents relate the use of traditional dance for tourism

entertainment as a form of cultural preservation. Personally I rather relate it to commodification.

However, Bandipur is inhabited by various ethnical groups and there is a possibility that by

performing for tourists the actual tradition is being preserved.

For Example, throughout internship period in Bhaktapur Tourism Development Committee (Nepal), I

had a possibility to experience and participate in organization of two big cultural (dance) events –

one public and another private one. During both of these events which took place in the main square

of the city, I observed that even if both of these events were orientated on some particular audience,

it was most enjoyed by the local people who were queuing around the stage. This encounter made

me realise that even if the dance is actually aimed on entertaining international visitors, it also

attracts the attention of the locals. And there is a chance that through these dances more people are

attracted to learn how to dance and pass this cultural tradition further.

While some parts of the World is experiencing water as a common resource, for Bandipurians and

Nepal as a country it is highly socio-cultural issue. In order to satisfy their own needs people have to

communicate and collaborate with each other. In general, I think Nepal is not a country where

people collaborate willingly. However water is a sector where community strength was observed. It

does not matter from which caste people in Bandipur are, they all are sharing the same problem and

consequently they are also looking for a common goal. It is similar also with the waste management

issues in the village. I had a feeling that people do not really know how to cope with increasing

garbage problem in Bandipur. Through actual participation in a weekly waste collecting campaign, it

was experienced that after collection of the waste from the streets, it was further dumped in some

other place for burning. In my opinion by replacing visual pollution with smell pollution the problem

is not solved, but it makes the main streets more attractive to the visitor eye.

Overall, I am a bit sceptic about respondents being too positive about tourism development in

Bandipur. Of course I am seeing the positive learning possibilities and chances for unique

experiences. However I do not see a very bright future of Bandipur if it will be developed in the way

as it is at the moment. In the current moment, the locals are stating that tourists are necessary for

them. However, it would be more viable if the people would discover a way how to demonstrate

travellers that Bandipur is a place that adds up to tourist experiences. I believe that by saving the

local culture and presenting tourists the local traditional lifestyle, the villagers could not only

preserve their own culture, but also share it with the rest of the world. There are many options for

developing new products in the village by relating them with the sense of place and narratives. Or

just by involving tourists in everyday duties, like farming, cooking or religious rituals. By assessing

similar projects all around the world, the demand arises as soon as supply is in the market.

Furthermore, these activities can be perfectly used to increase socio-cultural awareness also among

the locals. Besides, tourist involvement in everyday activities could also raise an interest among

locals to keep their traditions alive.

While it was sometimes observed that people do not know how to behave in front of the tourists or


59

their behaviour seemed unnatural, it was explored that majority of inhabitants in Bandipur are happy

with tourism development and relate it to more positive aspects. In general, people in Bandipur are

sharing the idea that tourists are coming to the village because of its traffic free Bazaar and relaxing

atmosphere. Through communication with travellers it was noticed that there is more than that. One

reason of course is Bandipur’s convenient location between Kathmandu and Pokhara. But otherwise,

visitors are expecting a village life up there and a possibility to take a glance of an actual life in a

country side. Since mainstream tourists in Napal are mainly covering only three must see

destinations (Kathmandu Valley, Chitwan National Park and Pokhara) not a high percentage of all

travellers manage to get off of the beaten track, and Bandipur is their chance.

However, it was noticed that people in Bandipur are trying to learn from the visitors coming from

different cultures. It was presented also through conduction of the interviews. The people who were

organized for an interview mostly took a chance to ask also the questions related to my experiences

and opinions over the destination. Through different encounters with travellers, Bandipurians are

learning also about themselves. Thus, as a very important aspect related to increasing socio-cultural

awareness of the respondents in Bandipur, is the fact that not only international visitors are finding

the destination attractive, but more importantly steady flow of domestic travellers are visiting

Bandipur and people who left in the past are returning.

Living in the Field

I have to admit that first days of my stay in Bandipur (end of March and start of April, 2012) were

strange. The research in Bandipur for me was a part of almost eight month stay in Asia. During this

whole period (from September 2011till mid-April 2012) I was staying or travelling together with my

fiancé. But not this time… During my thesis fieldwork in order to gather in-depth contact with local

people I decided to be there alone. It was a great change for me, since I got used to having someone

around by then. I believe this fact was affecting my experiences not only as a person, but also as a

researcher. Moreover, I could notice that more people were approaching me when I was alone which

was beneficial for my research needs.

Looking back to my research period in Bandipur I realize I learned a lot. In some ways this fieldwork

changed my perception of tourism development in Nepal as well as I started to look at the Nepali

people differently. I mean, I was still just a visitor in the country, but I had a feeling that I could start

to understand why the things in Nepal happen the way they do. Even though I did not reach

profound understanding, I learned that there is a big gap between the way I think and act and people

in Nepal do. This is an important conclusion in terms of this study, because there is a big chance that

the meanings comprised in the paragraphs of this thesis may be interpreted differently, based on

readers personal background knowledge over the destination and its customs. I have to admit, while

reflecting on the issues concerning the caste system in Bandipur and Nepal I was trying not to hurt

anyone’s feelings. At the same time I could notice that, even after five months spending in the

country I am not able to understand the different meanings and hierarchies how Nepali society

works. Or maybe I am making this issue too complicated in my mind, since I am not familiar with the


60

Nepali way of working.

Not only customs, but also dress-code was often raising questions in my mind. I was told that people

in Nepal are very conservative in their dressing habits. In order to respect them, even in the warmest

days I was wearing long trousers. Nevertheless, soon I could observe that this custom is changing not

only in the behaviour of tourists, but also for the locals all over the country, including Banbipur.

Moreover, some respondents were stating that Bandipurians are copying the behaviour of tourists.

The question is which tourists, international or domestic ones? Since Bandipur is visited by a steady

flow of domestic travellers, it could be often viewed how Nepali couple is exploring the village hand

in hand. In general, any physical public contact between people of different genders in Nepal is

considered to be inappropriate. Therefore, I started to wonder – who are the ones to blame? Are

they international travellers who do not respect the customs, domestic travellers who are giving

themselves some freedom while out of their own environment, or is it the mix of all in combination

with the Internet and TV? I believe no exact distinction can be made. Hence the fact that the local

people do not react to this disturbance while it is observed in the streets was surprising in any way.

In addition, I also think that begging is pretty much stimulated by the attitude of the society.

Personally I rarely satisfy request of a beggar. However, while being in Bandipur I could hear several

cases where an encounter with a foreigner has brought a positive change for a family. This makes me

to believe that based on positive stories when someone has been lucky to receive some benefits

from tourists, this activity is further promoted. I also personally experienced how local children are

asking for a pen, my watch, money or some other belongings. These encounters were rather

occasional leaving it up to me to choose.

Unlike the case described in the previous paragraph, we (me and my fiancé) were not left with a

choice by the guesthouse owner while visiting Bandipur for the first time. During the stay we were

provided with rather low service and before we left we were charged unexpectedly high price. It was

not a problem to pay the amount asked, but I could notice that because of this incident for some

moment I lost trust in the Nepali people while continuing my trip. This encounter definitely affected

my travel experiences as well as the image of Bandipur. Consequently, when I arrived in Bandipur for

my field research, I had rather low expectations. However, I am glad to admit that my reflected

experience was an exceptional case and my preliminary image of the village was vividly improved. So

to say, during the fieldwork period I was feeling safe in the place.

However, after noticing all the upcoming new services in Bandipur, I wonder if their needs may be

satisfied with the current visitor flow. From my perspective the tourism supply in Bandipur is

sufficient already and every next service provider is increasing the competition. I am not sure if this

assumption may be related to high class accommodation providers and restaurants, just the numbers

of guesthouses orientating on individual travellers or backpackers (middle and budget travellers)

seemed to be outrageous. There is a feeling that almost every household who has an extra space is

willing to attract visitors or other additional income. While I am also a person who prefers homestay

and interaction with the locals over a regular guesthouse room, I am seeing a danger in this

disordered development. Consequently, I hope that Bandipur manages to save its identity and does

not become a souvenir and tourism service Bazaar.


61

Instead, I am hoping that people in Bandipur will start to add an additional value to their village and

stronger sense of place will be created. As far as I have learned, Bandipur has a rich history that may

be used as a storyline to link the travellers with the destination. Although this kind of practice has not

been experienced in Nepal till now, the information boards with actual facts presented in a form of а

story would definitely increase the experiences of the destination. I happened to meet some

travellers who were visiting Bandipur in the past. By hearing that I am doing this particular research

in the village they started to question me. I told them some little facts about the presence of Notre

Dame School, Bandipur Eco-cultural Tourism Project, trading times between India and Tibet etc. After

a brief discussion over our experiences they had to conclude that they would love to return to the

village one day and try to look at it from a different perspective.

Based on my personal impressions and the experiences provided by travellers, tourism development

is lacking the added value that Bandipur has a potential to provide. It is possible that my idea is a bit

naïve for the moment, but I believe that there is a chance to link the two sides (tourists and locals)

without further harm to the social environment. I can see a bright future for Bandipur, but I also see

a lot of initiative that is required from locals in order to reach it.


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5. Discussion

During my research I learned that the outcomes of this research may have a high local value since

opinions of people representing different social groups have been gathered and combined for the

first time. This study is conducted with the main aim to gain understanding of the activities that have

stimulated development in Bandipur and to explore how Bandipurians socially construct and

interpret tourism development and related sociocultural tourism impacts. In order to do that,

interpretivism paradigm is applied as a theoretical basis of this study. In this chapter I am covering

the outcomes of this research from two perspectives. In the first section I am discussing the

development in Bandipur as a tourism destination. And in the second one, I am relating the

outcomes of this study with other existing case studies by linking them with the chosen theoretical

framework.

Development of Bandipur as a Tourism Destination

This thesis is aimed at understanding the development in Bandipur through combining knowledge of

subjective human experiences in the destination (Jordan & Gibson, 2004). It is important to

understand that the outcomes of this research are rather non-generalizable. Yet, for those who

believe that generalization is unavoidable, required and possible (Williams, 2000), I propose to relate

their generalizations to rural destinations of Nepal and not country as such. Moreover, the findings

illustrate that tourism development in Bandipur in a form as it is nowadays is mainly caused by the

activities of Bandipur Eco-cultural Tourism Project (BECTP). It means that most probably tourism

development related issues in Bandipur significantly differ in comparison to other Nepali and world’s

rural destinations where no projects have been run.

Additionally, Bandipur is an outstanding destination, which is still highly benefiting from the activities

of BECTP even if this project has been finished five years ago (on 2007 (Joshi, 2012)). During the visit

in the destination, it can be noticed that local people are carrying some kind of pride about the place

they are living at. On the one hand Bandipurians have their rich history and dreams of future

improvements. But on the other hand, the village has gained its name as a tourism destination

among both domestic and international travellers. So to say, tourism sector in Bandipur has

increasing importance and more and more families are benefiting from tourism activities there.

Stated by Van der Duim (2011), only around twenty percentages of all projects run in tourism

destinations are feasible to continue after the project activities have been accomplished. Bandipur

definitely seems to be among the positive scenario destinations. But is it?

Bandipur Eco-cultural Tourism Project in Bandipur was developed with the main aim to reach

sustainable development through practice of ecotourism and cultural tourism activities (Joshi, 2012).

Just while visiting the site itself, there is a feeling that the development is not orientated on any

common goals, but rather has its focus on short term economic empowerment. Stated by The

International Ecotourism Society (1990) ecotourism includes responsible travel to natural areas that

conserves the environment and improves the well-being of local people. According to the research

outcomes, the local people are seeing benefits created by tourism sector; however, in general the


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conservation activities are lacking due to the absence of centralised management activities and

missing leadership. Subsequently, I have a great doubt if the destination is managed towards

sustainability. Therefore, I am also not seeing the bright future stated by the respondents of the

destination, yet.

By assessing tourism development in Bandipur, I can see that the activities (although effective) of

one project are not enough for a long term development of a destination. In this perspective I agree

with the idea of Claver et al (2006) who are stating that in order to fulfil the needs of increasingly

demanding tourists and to ensure competitive position of the destination sufficient tourism supply

and quality services should be provided. In other words, the future development of the destination

depends on both supply and demand (Cooper and Jackson, 1989), while the actual demand is highly

affected by the product provided. Moreover, while making attempts to improve the local tourism

product, it is vital to assess and demonstrate the local awareness of tourism, which is an essential

element in the empowerment process of local people (Saarinen, 2010).

After visiting Bandipur and Nepal in general, I have a feeling that people there do not see different

market groups among travellers, but rather are assessing all white travellers as wealthy people from

whom the locals may benefit. Supported through study conducted by Hepburn (2002), people in

Nepal do not categorise tourists into target groups, but rather generalize them as a separate group/

ethnic/ caste of white, developed people in South Asia. In my opinion by perceiving all tourists as

equal, destinations are making a great mistake; since various target groups tend to bring different

footprint on destinations and their socio-cultural environments.

Change in the lives of the local population is among the main impacts brought through tourism

development (Kariel and Kariel, 1982). Although it is difficult to assess the scope in which tourism

contributes to the socio-cultural change in a destination, in case of Bandipur the local people

acknowledge that their lives have been changed significantly. Yet, by relating this assumption to the

model of socio-cultural impacts presented in Figure 2.3 of this thesis, mainly people in Bandipur

refuse to notice the negative aspects of tourism and would rather reflect on the positive change in

their environment instead. There is an impression that in case if community attitudes towards

tourism development would be taken as the main criteria of destination’s sustainability (Zhang et al,

2006), then Bandipur would be rated as a highly viable destination. Hitherto, through discovering the

motives why the local respondents are highly supporting tourism development in Bandipur, the

emphasis should be focussed on the historical backgrounds of the site that are more deeply

discussed in the next section.

The Research Outcomes in Relation to Other Studies

Since there has been no previous research in Bandipur done, this case study represents an

unexplored niche. Yet, by analysing Bandipur as a tourism destination in a developing country, there

is sufficient amount of literature making it possible to compare the findings with relevant case

studies. Consequently, in this section I am reflecting on three bigger themes in relation to the case


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study, namely: mobilities, modernization through development and socio-cultural impacts.

In terms of this study it was concluded that migration, tourism and accessibility are three main

sectors contributing to the development of Bandipur as a tourism destination. Explained by Findley

(1987), it is expected that peoples’ decisions on adopting some form of migration is affected by

accessibility of their living place. And indeed, there are evidences supporting the idea that a lack of

good quality road in Bandipur motivated local people to emigrate from their home village in the past

on the one hand; and a construction of a new road at the end of 90’s is stimulating immigration flow

nowadays for both new arrivals who are planning to start their lives in Bandipur as well as travellers.

Supported by Williams and Hall (2002), there is a minor difference in conceptualization between

tourism and migration, therefore both of these aspects are perceived as interlinked activities. Based

on research results it is concluded that through developing tourism in Bandipur, the village has

become more attractive also for the Nepali people that can be explained with a fact that the number

of the local inhabitants in the village has increased more than three times during the last decade

(Bikram, 2012). Accordingly, a presence of a good quality road is socially constructed as the main

force for migration in the village.

By assessing the scope of inhabitant increase and related change in the destination, I was expecting

negative associations due to the current development from the side of Bandipurians. In spite of

several tourism case studies where new population mobility is related to the loss of traditional sense

of community (Singhanetra-Renard, 1999), the respondents are seeing the current development as

highly positive and, moreover, they also reflect on their possible future as very bright. From the first

look, this situation doesn’t make sense, but through deeper investigation it was explored that

respondents are expressing a kind of fear of their past, which they themselves tend to describe as

“the dark ages”. Accordingly, by supporting current migration flows, people in Bandipur are ensuring

that the village will not become a ghost town again.

Moreover, not only the numbers of inhabitants in the village are experiencing a rapid change, but

also the community comportment. Accordingly, Bandipurians did not tend to communicate with each

other much in the past, while nowadays development has stimulated interaction among people in

the village. Overall, there is a feeling that Bandipurians are enjoying their development; only the

inconsistency in people’s thoughts while reflecting on the village is raising a question if Bandipur is

still a village or is it transforming into a town?

While respondents are underlining the need to save their traditional culture, the effects of

“modernization” are most evident. Perhaps, modernization in Bandipur is reflected in its architecture

the most. While central streets of the village are preserved in the traditional manner, the outskirts

are transformed by increasing numbers of modern, concrete buildings. Through relating this to

destination attractiveness I agree with the notion of Formica and Uysal (2006) where they state that

development activities are reflected into attractiveness of a destination. This means that with every

improvement a destination may become more/less attractive.

I do not imply that modern approach is eradicating the local tradition, but I do agree that the feeling

of belonging to the destination is important for the development of a more rooted sense of place

(Hay, 1998) for both travellers and the local people. While no respondents were acknowledging that


65

the village is losing its attractiveness in their eyes, there are various travellers according to whom the

visible changes in the destination are negatively affecting their experiences even when they are

visiting the site for the first time. This is a dangerous assumption, since there are several studies

supporting the idea that tourist destinations are largely dependent on the image it creates on its

visitors (Goodricht, 1978). Therefore, through improving existing services and facilities, there is a

chance to attract more travellers by providing better experiences. Nevertheless, while some local

entrepreneurs are explaining the existing change in Bandipur with the associated costs of

development, the interests of Bandipurians should be placed above those of the tourists.

By respecting the resident needs while developing tourism, there is a possibility to decrease the

negative impacts and increase positive ones. Nonetheless, it is a difficult task, since impacts in

Bandipur are differently perceived by diverse groups of stakeholders. Although it is not the aim of

this study, comparatively the opinions of diverse respondents (related to tourism sector, non-related

to tourism sector and tourists) significantly vary. In other words, there is some pattern that unites

the views within each of these groups. But on the other hand, the general opinions of the respondent

groups on similar issues tend to differ. While this assumption could be explained with my role (as a

researcher) that I have chosen to take during this study it was not my intention to compare opinions

of different respondents based on their relationship to the tourism sector.

Overall, all respondents have acknowledged that importance of caste system in Bandipur is declining

and they are noticing a change in the behaviour of local people. When questioned into further detail,

the respondents (although arriving to the similar conclusion) are providing diverse reasoning’s that

had caused this change. The difference in opinions may be explained by various realities through

which respondents interpret and construct their opinions (Jordan and Gibson, 2004). Though, it was

a bit confusing while conducting this research in Bandipur, since mostly respondents were reflecting

over the positive aspects of socio-cultural change. Opposite to these experiences, tourism literature

is mainly orientating on specifying and discovering negative impacts (Pizam, 1978) what made this

research a little contradictory for me. Even after the research has been accomplished I still have not

found the actual reason why the local respondents where reflecting mainly on positive aspects of the

development. Do they really share believe that tourism does not affect them negatively and

therefore rejects any undesirable consequences? Or did they try to make a better impression over

their home village? Further conclusions and recommendations are provided within the next chapter.


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6. Conclusion and Recommendations

By taking Bandipur as a case study, this research provides insight information over the aspects that

have stimulated tourism development in the village and the ways how local people socially construct

this development. Consequently, this section has been orientated to give an answer to the problem

statement through answering the research questions of this case study. In combination with theory

and empirical findings included in the result division, this section will assist in gaining understanding

over the activities that have stimulated development in Bandipur and explore how Bandipurians

socially construct and interpret tourism development and related socio-cultural tourism impacts.

Furthermore, this is followed up with recommendation and implication section, which is created

based on knowledge gathered through this research. These suggestions are mainly orientated on

creating Bandipur as a more viable and sustainable destination for both, its hosts and guests. By

following the derived recommendations, the stakeholders and policy makers in Bandipur can have an

insight over several options for prolonging the lifecycle of Bandipur and improve its attractiveness.

Moreover, proposals for future research in Bandipur as a tourism destination will be provided within

the concluding section.

6.1. Main conclusions

In order to gain understanding of the activities that have stimulated development in Bandipur and to

explore how Bandipurians socially construct and interpret tourism development and related socio-

cultural tourism impacts, two research questions and two research sub-questions based on literature

study were formed. In order to answer the first research question, I am relating the fragmented

opinions or realities of individual respondents with the main aim to provide knowledge of how the

respondents socially construct and interpret tourism development in Bandipur. Further, based on

respondent views, sociocultural tourism impacts in Bandipur are identified. Moreover, to fulfil the

aim of this study, these impacts are further distinguished and analysed as positive and negative

socio-cultural impacts in Bandipur.

How do Bandipurians socially construct and interpret tourism development in Bandipur?

The main motivation of this research is to give a voice to different stakeholders of Bandipur in order

to gather overall opinion over the aspects affecting tourism development in the village. The fact that

currently rapidly developing village was abandoned in the past attracted my attention through

raising a lot of questions over its historical happenings leading from deep regression in the past to

steady growth in the recent years. In spite of its rich history, Bandipur is a village about which not

much written information (especially in the English language) is available. Therefore, as an added

value to this study, this research orientates not only on current tourism development in the site, but

also covers the past occasions that have contributed to respondent’s current perceptions. In order to

do that interpretivisim approach is applied as the theoretical framework of this study. As the target

group various stakeholders were selected with an intention to collect opinions from people with

different background. Moreover, since it was evident that tourism development of Bandipur has a

strong relation with historical development of the village, the research intention is orientated on all

times – past, present and future.


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Already after conduction of my first interviews I realised that although majority of the information

gathered was similar, in some aspects various respondent were providing the same facts from

different perspectives. By paying more attention to this, I understood that respondents indeed are

mainly basing their opinions on their personal backgrounds and relation to the particular question.

This could be evident also by asking respondents to reflect over the issues that stimulated rebirth of

the village. Various stakeholders were explaining this issue with dissimilar argument. For example,

respondents who are related to education would relate it with the foundation of Notre Dame School,

guesthouse owners would most probably link it with the development of the first two hotels in

Bandipur at around twenty years ago; and main audience would relate development with tourism

activities and Bandipur Eco-cultural Tourism Project (BECTP). It was clear that the respondents in

Bandipur are reflecting on different aspects through their own realities; therefore, the research

outcomes are analysed through the lens of social- constructionism.

People in Bandipur interpret tourism development as an opposite situation to their difficult past. By

noticing steady flows of migrants in the village, most of the villagers are socially relating it with the

opportunity for brighter future. In this perspective, the presence of tourism is interpreted as the

occasion to improve the social environment in the village. From one side this statement seems

feasible, just the future development of the destination is not known, yet. While reflecting on

tourism development there is a feeling that people in Bandipur are seeing it from the current

perspective and are not trying to look a step ahead. For example, it is visual that the numbers of

tourism facilities in Bandipur is steadily increasing while international tourist flows in the country

tend to remain consistent. This shows that more and more people in Bandipur are relating tourism

development in the village as their direct or indirect occupancy, by not knowing if there will be

demand for that.

The respondents are relating the change that is occurring within the village with construction of the

road and accessibility of the village. From one side, the village would not have been chosen as BECTP

area if the road was not there. And on the other hand, people could not migrate to and from the

village as easily as it occurs nowadays. Consequently, the presence of the road has high social

significance in Bandipur. In other words, the road is the first precondition for mobilities to be

possible in Bandipur and the road is also among the main causes why tourism and development is

possible there. Therefore, there is an assumption that through the presence of the road, the village is

experiencing a touch of modernity in various sectors.

Construction sector is often criticised in this thesis. However, it would be inappropriate not to

underline another cause of modernity in Bandipur. Opposite to the increasing numbers of modern

buildings, the intentions of making Bandipur central streets a vehicle free area is assessed positively

by all the stakeholders of the village, especially travellers and porters. While this invention positively

reflects on travellers experiences, it is also used to provide an income to the deprived groups of the

local people on daily basis. From this perspective the activities related to tourism development in the

village or Bandipur Eco-cultural Tourism Project in particular are representing a unique approach in

terms of long term job creation through the sustainability efforts.

While most of the respondents are interpreting tourism as a positive sector due to its direct and

indirect benefits, there are common development related issues that Bandipurians see as threats to

their future development. The accessibility of water seems to be an aspect that unites opinions of all

respondents. From this perspective the respondents are seeing tourism development as a threat to

their water accessibility. Many of Bandipurians associate accessibility of water as a social process,

since it is not always accessible even if people have a tap in their house. Subsequently, through

increasing numbers of the residents and stable flow of travellers, Bandipurians are concerned about


68

the future of the village in terms of water accessibility.

Although it is not a common respondent opinion, there are people in Bandipur who are wondering if

tourism development will be/ is replacing the local way of living. While some respondents are

acknowledging that they are feeling relieved that they can afford to give up their fields, some other

interviewees are looking into future with a doubt if Bandipur with its current production will be

proficient enough to survive without products from the outside in case if such a need would occur. In

either of ways, the village is experiencing a great change that is partly caused by tourism

development. Although tourism is affecting the local life in Bandipur from various perspectives, it is

unusual to acknowledge that people in Bandipur are socially constructing tourism sector and its

development as a way to better future.

What are the socio-cultural tourism impacts in Bandipur and how are they socially

constructed?

During the fieldwork preparation stage, due to my knowledge about the activities of BECTP, I had an

image of Bandipur as a destination where tourism development is highly organised and local people

are aiming on sustaining their social and physical environments. I have to conclude that my

preliminary image was mistaken. First of all, I had to acknowledge that the life standards in Nepal

significantly differ and people there (mainly) are worried about satisfying their basic needs, such as

having accessibility to water. And secondly, Bandipur is located in a post-conflict country where

people are often struggling for their existence, therefore the expectation of having organised

governance and a concrete plan for further development is rather a western ideology and not a

priority within a destination itself.

While approaching the respondents in Bandipur I realised that after gathering theoretical knowledge

over socio-cultural impacts and implications of guest host interactions, my way of looking at things

during the fieldwork was different from the local people. At some moments I could notice that there

is some confusion between me and the interviewees, because mainly people in Bandipur are not

searching for deeper meanings, but rather distinguish everything what happens into good

developments and bad developments from their own stand-point. Moreover, interviewees’ opinion

related to one issue could be opposite depending on the respondent’s background. For example,

Bandipurians while reflecting on their customs and traditional lifestyle are frequently reflecting on

the farming practice. From one side there are people who are stating that farming as a sector should

be stimulated in order to ensure viability of the village in case if such a need would occur. And from

another side there are people who are/ have been actively involved in farming activities and are

expressing their happiness with the existing development where they have more time for their

children and families.

Respondents admit that the social structure in the destination is changing and people are having

more interaction with each other. Especially while reflecting on the caste system, Bandipurians are

specifying that it is becoming weaker and people from the lower social groups are getting more

rights. It has been explained by various examples, like a tailor who is receiving money for his services

instead of goods as it used to be in the past; as well as porters who are allowed to enter social places

like restaurants and hotels whereas before they were not welcomed etc . Although the role of

tourism concerning this aspect is not clear, there are opinions stating the presence of tourism as an

important factor contributing to this social change. While there are differences in the target groups

(age, budget etc.) visiting Bandipur, there are evidences that residents perceive all international

white travellers as a separate and uniform group of people who all have equal rights and social


69

status.

As a result, there are respondents who believe that the presence of tourism is affecting not only the

opinions of Bandipurians about the social groups, but it also is bringing behavioural change among

the local people. Though no actual distinction between the effects of tourism, TV or internet may be

created, most of the respondents are concerned that the tourists are affecting the behaviour of the

locals in terms of the behaviour change, demonstration effect and begging. Without intention to

protect travellers’ interests, I have to acknowledge that all these unintended social effects created by

travellers in Bandipur are also partly stimulated by the local residents. Although I have experienced

various occasions when international and domestic travellers are expressing their intimacy in public

places, are wearing inappropriate outfit or are offering local people some gifts on daily basis during

the fieldwork period, I do not recall a single encounter when any of the local people would try to stop

this behaviour by explaining their customs in order to protect their environment from inappropriate

behaviour. It has not been discovered why local people remain uninvolved during these encounters,

but I have a feeling that by not setting these cases as bad examples on the spot, the local society is

encouraging people to overtake these unwanted practices.

Besides, with the increasing number of the new residents in Bandipur, the social environment of the

village is changing and the site is receiving a bigger mix of residents there. Although tourism

development as one of the factors indirectly attracts immigration of new people in Bandipur, a

situation of increasing numbers of inhabitants is significantly changing the social situation in the

village. Bandipurians acknowledge that they used to know everyone in the village, but it is changing

nowadays. The social situation is complicated in Banidpur. There is a feeling that based on the

difficult times in the past, the respondents are perceiving new residents as a guarantee that Bandipur

will not become a ghost town again; but on the other hand the development has led to the situation

when the local people are starting to question if Bandipur is still a village or is it becoming a town.

What are the positive socio-cultural tourism impacts in Bandipur?

During the encounters with the respondents it was noticed that people in Bandipur are

overoptimistic about tourism development in the site. While asked to name specific aspects related

to the development, majority of Bandipurians reflected on different opportunities that tourism

development in the village brings to the local population or their households in particular.

Consequently, tourism development in Bandipur is reflected through the economic aspects rather

than the socio-cultural ones. Nevertheless, these two impacts are interrelated, since financial

stability in a family may increase social security of its members.

Based on the respondent opinions, the fact of having steady circulation of people in Bandipur

strongly contributes to the local socio-cultural environment. The dark period has left a great impact

on the locals so that the tourism development in Bandipur is seen as a contrast to the difficult times

in the past that can also explain Bandipurians’ optimism while reflecting on their possible future.

By going more into details, the local people are reflecting on the preservation of their culture

through involving traditional elements (like dance) in the tourism product. By seeing that travellers

are interested in the aspects related to the local living, the local socio-cultural awareness is

increasing as well. Especially it can be observed in preservation of the local houses. Although there

are no existing regulations, the local people are trying to keep at least the central Bazaar as an

authentic area which is tried to be conserved according to the Newari tradition. Thus, by creating the

central streets as a traffic-free area, the working possibilities for deprived social groups have been


70

increased. Additionally, directly and indirectly tourism development is providing social security to the

increasing number of families, including farmers, meat producers, transport providers etc. At the

same time by increasing product availability the local people are benefiting as well.

Surprisingly, according to the respondents, the situation regarding crime and abuse in Bandipur has

improved in comparison to the past. Bandipurians are more satisfied with their lives nowadays and

therefore they are more eager to communicate with each other by contributing to the positive

change in the local way of living. In addition, several respondents have acknowledged improvement

in the local health accessibility as an important social aspect insuring social security to the local

people. In general, people in Bandipur are acknowledging that after tourism is developed in

Bandipur, they are socially and culturally more aware also over their own traditions and customs.

What are the negative socio-cultural tourism impacts in Bandipur?

The fact that Bandipurians are overoptimistic concerning the tourism development in Bandipur may

be explained by the opinions of the majority of the respondents who acknowledged that tourism

development is not bringing negative impacts in Bandipur. However, by continuing the interviews it

turned out that there are negative socio-cultural impacts that could be caused by tourism, only the

people do not consider them so. For example, accessibility of water as a resource is a current

concern and Bandipurians are expressing their future worry concerning this resource. This may be

named as the main socio-cultural concern where all the respondents were reflecting upon. Thus, it

may be derived from the respondent responses that for many local families in Bandipur, water

collection is still a social event.

Another socially increasing problem is waste and waste management. Together with the

development the amount of the waste is increasing, leading to a problematic situation, since there is

no waste management in Bandipur. By trying to find some solutions, the local people are either

dumping their waste on the hill-side or burning it. In this way, although the central streets of the

village are regularly kept clean, visual and smell pollution is noticeable in the village. Since together

with tourism development more products are coming into the market, so far there are no solutions

recognised how this problem may be minimised.

Together with changing environmental concerns, the respondents are identifying a shift in the

lifestyle of Bandipur. There are people claiming that the population in Bandipur is becoming too

orientated on tourism sector, that they are leaving their traditional occupancies (e.g. farming) and

lifestyle. In other words, tourism business is perceived as an easy income source that explains the

rapidly increasing number of tourism service providers in Bandipur. Although respondents living in

Bandipur rarely reflected on this subject, tourists are explaining the existing change as harmful to the

destination and its social environment. If currently travellers are disturbed by the service quality in

some of the enterprises, then there is a chance that in the future unorganised development may lead

to unhealthy competitiveness between local entrepreneurs, since new accommodations are

appearing disproportionally to the tourism growth.

Additionally, the building process of the new modern buildings is affecting the landscape, changing

the local environment of Bandipur. Many local people are reflecting over the needs of travellers and

how much this visual change may affect travellers’ experiences in the destination. However, more

importantly, it should be discovered how the local people are feeling about this development and the

fact that the number of inhabitants in the destination is growing. In relation to the migration flows in

Bandipur, the local inhabitants are affected by the pressure created by constant presence of


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strangers in their living space. While several respondents are reflecting over consequences of

demonstration effect that has been cultivated in the behaviour of the local people, the actual level of

acculturation caused by tourism development in Bandipur may not be recognised due to various

approaches how this theme is dealt with from the side of the respondents.

6.2. Recommendations

Based on the study outcomes, several sectors for improvement were recognised. In general these

suggestions have been set with the main aim to improve socio-cultural environment in Bandipur

through improving tourist experiences in the destination. In this section recommendations for

improving social environment, attractiveness of Bandipur as tourism destination as well as

management issues are provided.

Social environment

In order to increase the tourism awareness and minimise possible conflict situations in the future,

the local capacity should be investigated and tourism awareness should be raised in Bandipur. With

the main aim to prevent irritation between hosts and guests, it is suggested to discover resident

attitudes to tourism development in different parts of the village and to look for solutions in areas

where people are not satisfied with the presence of travellers.

With the main aim to minimise begging and behavioural change of the residents, the attention on

possibilities to inform tourists over the local customs should be found. Widely practised around the

world, posters with information over do’s and don’ts while being in the destination should be

provided. It may be done either by placing informative stands at the entrance of the village and by

putting informative materials in restaurants and guesthouses.

Attractiveness

In order to spread tourism benefits, the local entrepreneurs and institutions should find possibilities

to increase the average visitor stay (e.g. of individual travellers) in Bandipur by creating/ improving

tourism attractions/ infrastructure in the village. Since Bandipur has a rich history, by installing signs

and information boards with the narratives of the village a stronger connection between a visitor and

the local community may be created. In this way, through developing a stronger sense of place the

visitor may be linked to the destination and therefore additional value to the visit may be added.

Bandipur has several hiking routes that may be marked and designed as tourist paths. By signing

these paths and providing boards with information over Bandipur, its development and people,

strong connection between guests and hosts may be created without actual contact needed. These

routes may be further used for both individual travellers and guided tours so that visitors have

information over possibilities to prolong their stay and to gather new experiences. Aside the route

orientated on discovering the village itself, there are several other options for a day tour recognised


72

within surroundings of the village. Sidha cave, Ramkot and goat and silk farms are already known

hiking routes, but by providing additional information and signing they may be turned into unique

experiences. In addition, there are some temples located in the surroundings of Bandipur. Although

some of them are difficult to be reached, they may be developed as an educational and cultural

destination through providing the meaning and a story about these temples. Nevertheless, for the

creation of new tourist products it is suggested to orientate them on all international and domestic

markets as well as individuals and organised groups.

Travellers are mainly people who are visiting places with an aim to gather new knowledge over other

people’s lives and their own customs in respect to that. Since Bandipur is a rural destination, it may

use the local life as a tourism product. I have recognised that such processes as rice collection,

participation in preparing local meal, Roxy (local vine) making are common activities for the

residents, but they also could be a great day activities for tourists. By giving tourists a possibility to

have active participation in the daily activities of the local people I am seeing benefits for both local

people and travellers. Thus, in this way the local tradition may be preserved. However, by creating

new products the social environment and the customs of Bandipur should be respected.

Management

Management or lack of it is an issue noticed and reflected in Bandipur by almost all respondents and

from different perspectives. By assessing general development in Bandipur, it is noticeable that there

is no common idea or goal how the destination should be managed. Several respondents specified

that there is no strong governmental institution in Bandipur; however, based on experiences of

different case studies, a destination may be managed also by creating an umbrella organisation that

is led by local stakeholders and therefore also represents their interests. Nonetheless, in order to

protect people of Bandipur, it is suggested to develop destination in a way that it is viable also in case

if tourism flow would decrease. In other words, in order to minimise possible negative impacts in the

future, tourism should be developed as a secondary sector, while main attention should be paid to

sectors like farming, education, production etc. Consequently, Bandipur should be managed in a way

that the needs of local people are given priority while keeping tourists in the second role.

Nonetheless, it was recognised during the field research that several service providers do not have

understanding of visitor needs and necessities. Therefore it is highly suggested to provide some

educational training possibilities for restaurant and guesthouse owners in terms of cleanliness,

service speed and communication.

Although there are increasing numbers of tourism destinations in Nepal who are relating incoming

tourism with entrance fees for visiting a city or a part of it, it is recommended for Bandipur not to use

this practice. In travel blogs travellers visiting Nepal are often negatively reflecting over the

increasing costs for basic services in the country which contributes to creating the image of Nepal as

an expensive destination. This applies especially to individual travellers who are travelling by

consulting travel guide books.


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6.3. Suggestions for Future Research

Bandipur has a rich history related to its development as well as tourism activities. In spite of the fact

that Bandipur Eco-cultural Tourism Project was run, this is the first actual study orientated on

tourism development in the village. During the research period a knowledge gap was recognised and

several questions that may be used as themes for future research arose.

First of all, it was recognised that tourism development in Bandipur is not managed accordingly and

there is an assumption that at least in some areas of the village the residents are expressing their

irritation due to presence of tourists. By noticing this fact, the concern over tourism capacity in

Bandipur arose. Although most of the respondents were stating high satisfaction with tourism

development in the village, it is obvious that there are residents who are not satisfied with presence

of tourists in the backyard of their houses. The support and local tourism awareness is crucial due to

the future tourism development within the site. Therefore additional attention should be paid to this

fact before conflict situations between hosts and guests or hosts and hosts arose.

Secondly, since Bandipur is a rural destination a potential to develop community-based tourism has

been recognised. Nonetheless, before that is done, it is highly suggestible to evaluate community-

based tourism development potential in the village as well as to assess the optimal level of visitor

participation.

In general I have noticed various sectors in tourism development of Bandipur where research is

needed. For example, at the moment there is no recognised tourism development plan within the

destination. This means that there is a great possibility that tourism development in Bandipur is not

balanced according to the existing demand. In this perspective tourism feasibility study is suggested.

By investigating the existing tourism supply and demand, the sectors where improvement is needed

may be recognised and action plan for further tourism development in Bandipur created.

Nonetheless, before improving tourism supply, it is important to gather visitor opinion by running

tourist perception and satisfaction survey in Bandipur. By applying this survey, weak points of the

existing service may be recognised and accordingly improved based on data analysis. Moreover,

through visitor survey, not only opinions over tourism destination may be gathered, but it can be also

used in order to gather visitor ideas and opinions over new improvements and activities that would

contribute in order to prolong visitor stay within the destination.

Bandipur is a destination that has experienced current tourism growth mainly based on activities led

by BECTP. There is a chance that respondents in Bandipur perceive socio-cultural issues differently

than people in some other destination where tourism project has not been done. Based on that, a

comparative case study may be conducted (e.g. in Gorkha, a similar tourism destination in Nepal) and

commonalities and differences between respondent answers documented.

And finally, since respondents in Bandipur are expressing expectations of bright future in Bandipur, it

may be useful to conduct a similar research to this thesis in the village after couple of years and to

compare the respondent opinions over socio-cultural tourism impacts in Bandipur from a new

perspective. Therefore, also this research may be created as a repeated and comparative study.


74

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80

Appendix

List of Interviews

Name and occupation Relation to Bandipur

Dates of

interview

Place of

interview

1 Jharna Joshi

Manager of BECTP

TNR – lives outside

Bandipur

25th

of

March

Bhaktapur

2 Jharna Joshi and

Manoj Rajopadhyay

Manager and assistant of

BECTP

TNR - Bandipur 27th

of

March 15th

of April

Patan

3 Krishna (name changed)

Chemistry student

TNR – lives in

surroundings of

Bandipur

29th

of

March

Bandipur

4 Kalpana Piya

Guesthouse and shop owner

TR - Bandipurian 31th

of

March

Bandipur

5 Nowel (name changed)

Guesthouse owner

TR - Bandipurian

(returned 6 years ago)

1st

of April Bandipur

6 Suwal (Name changed)

Bandipurian

TNR - Bandipurian 1st

of April Bandipur

7 Klaus (name changed)

Tourist from Germany

T - German tourists 1st

of April Bandipur

8 Patthar Pradhan

Owner of Bandipur

Guesthouse

TR - Bandipurian 2nd

of April Bandipur

9 Bikram Piya

Principle of Bandipur

Campus

TNR - Bandipurian 2nd

of April Bandipur

10 Bikash Shrestha

Owner of Bandipur Village

Resort

TR - lives outside

Bandipur

3rd

of April Bandipur

11 Luna Pradhan

Owner of Bandipur Souvenir

Shop

TR - Bandipurian 3rd

of April Bandipur

12 Ram Sharan Shrestha

Manager of Old Inn

TR - Bandipurian (lives

long in the village)

4th

of April Bandipur

13 Basudev (name changed)

Guesthouse administrator

TR – lives in

surroundings of

Bandipur

4th

of April Bandipur

14 Aite Maya Nepali

Kamala Koka

Kamala Nepali

Suku Nepali

Four female porters

TNR - Bandipurians 4th

of April Bandipur

15 Manikumar Pradhan

Social worker

TNR - Bandipurian 4th

of April Bandipur

16 Lisa (name changed)

French tourist – a guide

T - French Tourist 4th

of April Bandipur


81

17 Sister Evanzeela

Sister Mirium

Founders of Notre Dame

School

TNR - Bandipur (lives

long in the village)

5th

of April Bandipur

18 Suku Nepali

Female Farmer


of April Bandipur

19 Gehendra Kayastha

Local Driver


of April Bandipur

20 Tobias (name changed)

Traveller from Germany

T - Tourist from

Germany

5th

of April Bandipur

21 Bharat Kumar Kayastha

Shop owner


of April Bandipur

22 Birja Lal Pariyar

Tailor


of April Bandipur

23 Ernst (name changed)

Backpacker (stayed more

than a week)

T - Tourist from

Germany

6th

of April Bandipur

24 Bhandari Family

Family living in Bandipur

TNR - Bandipurians 2nd

of April

6th

of April

Bandipur

25 Jeffry (Name changed)

Volunteer at Old Inn

T - Tourist from united

Kingdom

7th

of April Bandipur

26 Hari and Ganesh (names

changed)

Domestic tourists

T – Domestic tourists 7th

of April Bandipur

27 Prashant (name changed)

Nepali Trekking guide

T – Domestic tourist 10th

of

April

Dumre

T – Tourist

TR – Tourism related

TNR – Tourism non-related

the road to recovery and rebirth - wur

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