the road to war ► the european nations by 1914 had created an unusually precarious international...

The Road to WarThe Road to War

►The European The European nations by 1914 had nations by 1914 had created an created an unusually unusually precarious precarious international system international system the careened into the careened into war very quickly on war very quickly on a the basis of what a the basis of what was a minor series was a minor series of provocationsof provocations


►Triple Entente – Britain, France Triple Entente – Britain, France and Russia, Triple Alliance – and Russia, Triple Alliance – Germany, Austro-Hungarian Germany, Austro-Hungarian Empire, Italy, but the chief rivalry Empire, Italy, but the chief rivalry was between Germany and Great was between Germany and Great Britain and was the most Britain and was the most important reason underlying the important reason underlying the source of tensions that led to WWIsource of tensions that led to WWI


►June 28,1914, Archduke Franz June 28,1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to throne of the Ferdinand, heir to throne of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, assassinated in Sarajevo Hungary assassinated in Sarajevo Hungary by a Serbian nationalistby a Serbian nationalist


►Germany and the Austro-Germany and the Austro-Hungarian Empire launched an Hungarian Empire launched an assault on Serbia, Serbians called assault on Serbia, Serbians called on Russia for help, the Russians on Russia for help, the Russians mobilized their army, Germany mobilized their army, Germany responded by declaring war on responded by declaring war on both Russia and France and both Russia and France and invading Belgiuminvading Belgium..


►Great Britain declared war on Great Britain declared war on Germany in order to stop the Germany in order to stop the advance of its rival, Italy advance of its rival, Italy remained neutral at first, then remained neutral at first, then entered war on the side of Great entered war on the side of Great Britain and France, the Ottoman Britain and France, the Ottoman Empire (Turkey) and other small Empire (Turkey) and other small nations joined the fighting later in nations joined the fighting later in 1914 or 19151914 or 1915


►Wilson's called on US citizens to Wilson's called on US citizens to remain impartial, however remain impartial, however German Americans and Irish German Americans and Irish Americans sympathized with Americans sympathized with Germany, but many more Germany, but many more Americans sympathized with the Americans sympathized with the BritishBritish


►Wilson admired the British Wilson admired the British traditions, its culture, its political traditions, its culture, its political system, and attributed moral system, and attributed moral qualities to the Allies (Britain, qualities to the Allies (Britain, France, Italy and Russia) that France, Italy and Russia) that most Americans denied to the most Americans denied to the Central Powers (Germany, Austro-Central Powers (Germany, Austro-Hungarian Empire, Ottoman Hungarian Empire, Ottoman Empire)Empire)


►Lurid reports of German atrocities Lurid reports of German atrocities in Belgium and France, skillfully in Belgium and France, skillfully exaggerated by British exaggerated by British propagandists, strengthened the propagandists, strengthened the hostility of many Americans hostility of many Americans toward Germanytoward Germany


►The British imposed a naval The British imposed a naval blockade on Germany to prevent blockade on Germany to prevent munitions and supplies from munitions and supplies from reaching the enemy, as a neutral reaching the enemy, as a neutral the US had the right to trade with the US had the right to trade with Germany, a truly neutral US Germany, a truly neutral US response would have been to stop response would have been to stop trade with both countriestrade with both countries


►The US response was to ignore the The US response was to ignore the blockade of Germany and continue blockade of Germany and continue to trade with Britain for economic to trade with Britain for economic reasons, the war orders from reasons, the war orders from Britain and France after 1914 Britain and France after 1914 created one of our greatest created one of our greatest economic booms, the US gradually economic booms, the US gradually transformed itself from a neutral transformed itself from a neutral power into the arsenal of the Alliespower into the arsenal of the Allies


►Early in 1915 Germany began to Early in 1915 Germany began to use submarines to try to stem the use submarines to try to stem the flow of supplies to Britain, flow of supplies to Britain, Germany announced that enemy Germany announced that enemy vessels would be sunk on sightvessels would be sunk on sight


► On May 7, 1915 a German submarine On May 7, 1915 a German submarine sunk the British passenger ship sunk the British passenger ship LusitaniaLusitania without warning, 1,198 on without warning, 1,198 on board died and 128 were Americans, board died and 128 were Americans, the ship was also carrying munitions, the ship was also carrying munitions, most Americans considered it “an act most Americans considered it “an act of piracy”of piracy”


►Wilson demanded that Germany Wilson demanded that Germany promise not repeat such outrages promise not repeat such outrages and that the Central Powers affirm and that the Central Powers affirm their commitment to neutral their commitment to neutral rights, tensions between the US rights, tensions between the US and Germany continued to grow and Germany continued to grow throughout 1915throughout 1915


►Early in 1916 the Allies announced Early in 1916 the Allies announced that they were now arming that they were now arming merchant ships to sink merchant ships to sink submarines, Germany responded submarines, Germany responded by announcing that it would fire by announcing that it would fire on such vessels without warningon such vessels without warning


► SussexSussex – Germans attacked the unarmed – Germans attacked the unarmed French steamer, Wilson demanded the French steamer, Wilson demanded the Germany abandon it's "unlawful" tactics, Germany abandon it's "unlawful" tactics, Germany did not have sufficient naval Germany did not have sufficient naval power to enforce an effective blockade power to enforce an effective blockade against Britain, the Germans decided against Britain, the Germans decided that the marginal advantages of that the marginal advantages of unrestricted submarine warfare did not unrestricted submarine warfare did not yet justify the possibility of drawing yet justify the possibility of drawing America into the warAmerica into the war


►Wilson faced a difficult re-election Wilson faced a difficult re-election battle in 1916 and had to contend battle in 1916 and had to contend with domestic politics first, with domestic politics first, Roosevelt insisted that nation Roosevelt insisted that nation defend its "honor" and economic defend its "honor" and economic interests, William Jennings Bryan interests, William Jennings Bryan and Senator La Follette denounced and Senator La Follette denounced any action that seemed to increase any action that seemed to increase the chance of warthe chance of war


►In the fall of 1915 Wilson agreed In the fall of 1915 Wilson agreed to a large and rapid increase in to a large and rapid increase in the nation's armed forces, Wilson the nation's armed forces, Wilson had to work hard to get the had to work hard to get the measure passed through measure passed through Congress, but by midsummer Congress, but by midsummer 1916 armament for a possible war 1916 armament for a possible war was under waywas under way


►Election of 1916 – Democrats created Election of 1916 – Democrats created the slogan "he kept us out of war" for the slogan "he kept us out of war" for Wilson, the Republican candidate was Wilson, the Republican candidate was the progressive NY governor Charles the progressive NY governor Charles Evans Hughes who was supported by Evans Hughes who was supported by Roosevelt, most people felt that Roosevelt, most people felt that Hughes would be more likely to get Hughes would be more likely to get the US into the European war, Wilson the US into the European war, Wilson said that the nation was “too proud to said that the nation was “too proud to fight”fight”


►Wilson won Wilson won reelection by reelection by fewer than fewer than 600,000 popular 600,000 popular votes and only 23 votes and only 23 electoral college electoral college votes, one of the votes, one of the smallest margins smallest margins for an incumbent for an incumbent in American in American historyhistory


► Wilson's rationale for going to war was Wilson's rationale for going to war was that the US was committed to using the that the US was committed to using the war as a vehicle for constructing a new war as a vehicle for constructing a new world order, a post war order in which world order, a post war order in which the US would maintain peace through a the US would maintain peace through a permanent league of nations, a peace permanent league of nations, a peace that would ensure self-determination for that would ensure self-determination for all nations, a “peace without victory”, all nations, a “peace without victory”, these were progressive goals that were these were progressive goals that were worth fighting for if there was sufficient worth fighting for if there was sufficient provocation.provocation.


►New German Policy – launch a series New German Policy – launch a series of major assaults on the enemy's lines of major assaults on the enemy's lines in France, begin unrestricted in France, begin unrestricted submarine warfare to cut Britain off submarine warfare to cut Britain off from vital supplies, then on February from vital supplies, then on February 25 1917 the British gave Wilson a 25 1917 the British gave Wilson a telegram they had intercepted from telegram they had intercepted from the German foreign minister (Arthur the German foreign minister (Arthur Zimmerman) to the government of Zimmerman) to the government of MexicoMexico


► The Zimmerman Telegram proposed that The Zimmerman Telegram proposed that in the event of a war between Germany in the event of a war between Germany and the United States, the Mexicans and the United States, the Mexicans should join with Germany against the should join with Germany against the Americans, in return they would regain Americans, in return they would regain their “lost provinces” of Texas and the their “lost provinces” of Texas and the rest of the American Southwest when the rest of the American Southwest when the war was over, the Zimmerman Telegram war was over, the Zimmerman Telegram was widely publicized in the US and was widely publicized in the US and Britain, inflamed public opinion and Britain, inflamed public opinion and helped build popular sentiment for warhelped build popular sentiment for war


►In March of 1917 revolution In March of 1917 revolution spread throughout Russia spread throughout Russia toppling the czarist regime and toppling the czarist regime and replacing it with a new, republican replacing it with a new, republican government, now the US would government, now the US would not have to ally itself with a not have to ally itself with a despotic monarchy, the war for a despotic monarchy, the war for a progressive world order could progressive world order could proceed untaintedproceed untainted


►On April 2, 1917, two weeks after On April 2, 1917, two weeks after German submarines had German submarines had torpedoed three American ships, torpedoed three American ships, Wilson appeared before a joint Wilson appeared before a joint session of Congress and asked for session of Congress and asked for a declaration of war: a declaration of war:


► “ “It is a fearful thing to lead this great peaceful It is a fearful thing to lead this great peaceful people into war, into the most terrible and people into war, into the most terrible and disastrous of all wars, civilization itself seeming disastrous of all wars, civilization itself seeming to be in the balance. But the right is more to be in the balance. But the right is more precious than the peace, and we shall fight for precious than the peace, and we shall fight for the things which we have always carried nearest the things which we have always carried nearest to our hearts – for democracy, for the right of to our hearts – for democracy, for the right of those who submit to authority to have a voice in those who submit to authority to have a voice in their own Governments, for the rights and their own Governments, for the rights and liberties of small nations, for a universal liberties of small nations, for a universal dominion of right by such a concert of free dominion of right by such a concert of free peoples as shall bring peace and safety to all peoples as shall bring peace and safety to all nations and make the world itself at last free”nations and make the world itself at last free”


►Opposition to war remained, for 4 Opposition to war remained, for 4 days pacifists rallied in Congress days pacifists rallied in Congress against the war, in the end 50 against the war, in the end 50 representatives and 6 senators representatives and 6 senators voted against itvoted against it

"War without Stint""War without Stint"

Wilson called on the nation to wage war Wilson called on the nation to wage war "without stint or limit”, America’s most "without stint or limit”, America’s most immediate effect on the war was felt at sea, 1 immediate effect on the war was felt at sea, 1 of every 4 ships setting sail from British ports of every 4 ships setting sail from British ports never returned, United States began to alter never returned, United States began to alter the balance of power in the Atlantic, a fleet of the balance of power in the Atlantic, a fleet of destroyers aided the British navy in its assault destroyers aided the British navy in its assault on the U-boats, other ships escorted merchant on the U-boats, other ships escorted merchant vessels across the Atlantic, US ships helped vessels across the Atlantic, US ships helped sow antisubmarine mines in the North Seasow antisubmarine mines in the North Sea


900,000 tons of Allied ships sunk 900,000 tons of Allied ships sunk during April 1917, by December 1917 during April 1917, by December 1917 350,000 tons were sunk, by October 350,000 tons were sunk, by October 1918 112,000 tons were sunk, no 1918 112,000 tons were sunk, no American troop ship was lost at sea American troop ship was lost at sea during WWI, many Americans thought during WWI, many Americans thought that providing naval assistance alone that providing naval assistance alone would be enough to win the warwould be enough to win the war


By 1918 Russia had withdrawn from the By 1918 Russia had withdrawn from the war altogether, after the Bolshevik war altogether, after the Bolshevik Revolution, Lenin negotiated a hasty Revolution, Lenin negotiated a hasty and costly peace treaty with the Central and costly peace treaty with the Central Powers freeing up additional German Powers freeing up additional German troops to fight on the Western Front, troops to fight on the Western Front, this precipitated a major commitment this precipitated a major commitment of American ground forces in order to of American ground forces in order to shore up the tottering Alliesshore up the tottering Allies


United States did not United States did not have enough men in the have enough men in the standing army, 120,000 standing army, 120,000 soldiers in the regular soldiers in the regular army and 80,000 in the army and 80,000 in the National Guard, very few National Guard, very few men (including officers) men (including officers) had any combat had any combat experience, some urged experience, some urged voluntary recruitmentvoluntary recruitment..

““War without Stint”War without Stint”

Roosevelt offered to raise a regiment Roosevelt offered to raise a regiment and fight in Europe, Wilson decided and fight in Europe, Wilson decided that only a draft could provide the that only a draft could provide the needed men, won passage of the needed men, won passage of the Selective Service Act (May 1917) which Selective Service Act (May 1917) which brought nearly 3 million men into the brought nearly 3 million men into the army, 2 million joined various branches army, 2 million joined various branches voluntarily (A.E.F.)voluntarily (A.E.F.)


For the first time in American history a For the first time in American history a large number of soldiers and sailors large number of soldiers and sailors fought overseas for an extended time, fought overseas for an extended time, for the first time women were permitted for the first time women were permitted to enlist in the military, served crucial to enlist in the military, served crucial auxiliary roles in hospitals and offices. auxiliary roles in hospitals and offices.


Nearly 400,000 African American Nearly 400,000 African American soldiers served in segregated, all-black soldiers served in segregated, all-black units, under white commanders, most units, under white commanders, most assigned to non-combat duties, served assigned to non-combat duties, served only in the army and navy because the only in the army and navy because the marines would not accept them, August marines would not accept them, August 1917 race riot in Houston – 17 whites 1917 race riot in Houston – 17 whites killed, 13 blacks lynched, 40 blacks killed, 13 blacks lynched, 40 blacks sentenced to life terms in military jailssentenced to life terms in military jails


The American Psychological The American Psychological Association studied the national army, Association studied the national army, gave thousands of soldiers IQ tests, gave thousands of soldiers IQ tests, really measuring education, half the really measuring education, half the whites and vast majority of African whites and vast majority of African Americans scored at the level of Americans scored at the level of “morons”, working-class and racially “morons”, working-class and racially mixed groups of soldiers without much mixed groups of soldiers without much access to education access to education


Under the command of General Pershing, Under the command of General Pershing, the AEF joined the existing allied forces in the AEF joined the existing allied forces in the spring of 1918, 8 months later the war the spring of 1918, 8 months later the war was over, the soldiers spent most of their was over, the soldiers spent most of their times in the trenches, the two sides relied times in the trenches, the two sides relied on heavy shelling of each other's on heavy shelling of each other's trenchestrenches..


TThe trenches were he trenches were terrible, muddy, terrible, muddy, wet, cold, wet, cold, swarming with lice swarming with lice and rats, place of and rats, place of extraordinary extraordinary physical stress physical stress and discomfortand discomfort


Chateau Thierry (June 1918) – Chateau Thierry (June 1918) – American forces assisted the French in American forces assisted the French in repelling a bitter German offensive that repelling a bitter German offensive that brought German forces to within 50 brought German forces to within 50 miles of Paris, six weeks later 1,000,000 miles of Paris, six weeks later 1,000,000 American troops were in France and American troops were in France and turned away another German assault at turned away another German assault at RhiemsRhiems


Meuse-Argonne Offensive (September Meuse-Argonne Offensive (September 1918) – American fighting forces 1918) – American fighting forces advanced against the Germans in the advanced against the Germans in the Argonne Forest, by the end of October Argonne Forest, by the end of October they had helped push the Germans they had helped push the Germans back toward their own border and cut back toward their own border and cut the enemy's major supply lines to the the enemy's major supply lines to the frontfront..


the American forces used more the American forces used more ammunition during this 7 week ammunition during this 7 week offensive than they had used in the offensive than they had used in the entire four years of the Civil War, faced entire four years of the Civil War, faced with an invasion of their own country, with an invasion of their own country, German military leaders began to seek German military leaders began to seek an armistice which was signed an armistice which was signed 11/11/191811/11/1918


New Weapons – trenches, tanks, flame-New Weapons – trenches, tanks, flame-throwers, poisonous mustard gasthrowers, poisonous mustard gas

““War without StintWar without Stint

Logistical difficulties of supplying so many supplies Logistical difficulties of supplying so many supplies became a major factor in planning tactics and became a major factor in planning tactics and strategy, faster machine guns required more strategy, faster machine guns required more ammunition, motorized vehicles required fuels, ammunition, motorized vehicles required fuels, spare parts, mechanics to repair them.spare parts, mechanics to repair them.


Planes played an important role as Planes played an important role as relatively simple, bombers, fighters and relatively simple, bombers, fighters and reconnaissance aircraftreconnaissance aircraft

Most modern part of the military was the Most modern part of the military was the Navy, the British Navy, the British DreadnoughtDreadnought used new used new technology such as turbine propulsion, technology such as turbine propulsion, hydraulic gun controls, electric light and hydraulic gun controls, electric light and power, wireless telegraphy, advanced power, wireless telegraphy, advanced navigational aidsnavigational aids


Appalling level of casualties, 1 million Appalling level of casualties, 1 million dead - British Empire; 1.7 million - dead - British Empire; 1.7 million - France; Germany - 2 million; former France; Germany - 2 million; former Austro-Hungarian Empire - 1.5 million; Austro-Hungarian Empire - 1.5 million; Italy - 460,000; Russia - 1.7 million; Italy - 460,000; Russia - 1.7 million; United States – 112,000 (influenza)United States – 112,000 (influenza)

The War and American The War and American SocietySociety

► US government US government appropriated $32 billion appropriated $32 billion for expenses directly for expenses directly related to the conflict, related to the conflict, raised money in two raised money in two ways – solicited loans ways – solicited loans from the American from the American people by selling people by selling "Liberty Bonds" ($23 "Liberty Bonds" ($23 billion)billion)..


►NNew taxes on “excess profits” of ew taxes on “excess profits” of corporations and a steeply corporations and a steeply graduated income tax that rose as graduated income tax that rose as high as 70% in some brackets high as 70% in some brackets ($10 billion), the entire federal ($10 billion), the entire federal budget before 1915 had rarely budget before 1915 had rarely exceeded $1 billionexceeded $1 billion


►Council of National Defense Council of National Defense established by Wilson, composed of established by Wilson, composed of members of his Cabinet and a members of his Cabinet and a Civilian Advisory Commission, which Civilian Advisory Commission, which set up local defense councils in every set up local defense councils in every state and locality, economic state and locality, economic mobilization was to rest on a large-mobilization was to rest on a large-scale dispersal of power to local scale dispersal of power to local communities, proved completely communities, proved completely unworkableunworkable


►Followers of Veblen (social Followers of Veblen (social engineering) and Taylor (scientific engineering) and Taylor (scientific management) proposed dividing management) proposed dividing up the economy by organizing a up the economy by organizing a series of planning bodies, each to series of planning bodies, each to supervise a specific sector of the supervise a specific sector of the economy, one for transportation, economy, one for transportation, another for agriculture, another another for agriculture, another for manufacturingfor manufacturing


►War Boards were created, one to War Boards were created, one to oversee the railroads (William oversee the railroads (William McAdoo), one to supervise fuel McAdoo), one to supervise fuel supplies (mostly coal), handle supplies (mostly coal), handle food (Herbert Hoover), these War food (Herbert Hoover), these War Boards generally succeeded in Boards generally succeeded in meeting essential war needs meeting essential war needs without paralyzing the domestic without paralyzing the domestic economyeconomy


► War Industries Board was created in War Industries Board was created in 1917 to coordinate government 1917 to coordinate government purchases of military supplies, in March purchases of military supplies, in March 1918 Wilson placed it under the control 1918 Wilson placed it under the control of Bernard Baruch (Wall Street of Bernard Baruch (Wall Street financier), wielded greater powers than financier), wielded greater powers than any other government agency – decided any other government agency – decided which factories would convert to the which factories would convert to the production of which war materials and production of which war materials and set prices for goods they produced set prices for goods they produced


►When goods were scarce Baruch When goods were scarce Baruch decided to whom they should go, decided to whom they should go, when corporations were when corporations were competing for government competing for government contracts Baruch decided who got contracts Baruch decided who got the contract, resulted in the contract, resulted in centralized regulation of the centralized regulation of the economyeconomy


►In reality WIB plagued by In reality WIB plagued by mismanagement and inefficiency, mismanagement and inefficiency, Baruch viewed himself as the Baruch viewed himself as the partner of business, the “dollar-a-partner of business, the “dollar-a-year” men helped major year” men helped major industries earn enormous profits industries earn enormous profits from their efforts rather than from their efforts rather than working to restrict power and working to restrict power and limit corporate profits. limit corporate profits.


► Baruch ensured that manufacturers who Baruch ensured that manufacturers who coordinated their efforts in accord with coordinated their efforts in accord with his goals would be exempt from his goals would be exempt from antitrust laws, government was working antitrust laws, government was working to enhance the private sector through a to enhance the private sector through a mutually beneficial alliance, many mutually beneficial alliance, many government and corporate leaders were government and corporate leaders were convinced of the advantages of a close, convinced of the advantages of a close, cooperative relationship between the cooperative relationship between the public and private sectors public and private sectors


► The National War Labor Board (April The National War Labor Board (April 1918) pressured industry to grant 8 1918) pressured industry to grant 8 hour work day, maintenance of minimal hour work day, maintenance of minimal living standards, equal pay for women living standards, equal pay for women doing equal work, recognition of right doing equal work, recognition of right of unions to organize but insisted that of unions to organize but insisted that workers forgo strikes and employers workers forgo strikes and employers not engage in lockouts, membership in not engage in lockouts, membership in unions increased by 1.5 million workers unions increased by 1.5 million workers between 1917 and 1919between 1917 and 1919

Union Membership 1900-Union Membership 1900-19201920


►Western Federation of Miners Western Federation of Miners staged a series of strikes in the staged a series of strikes in the West to improve the horrible West to improve the horrible conditions in the underground conditions in the underground mines, the Ludlow Massacre – mines, the Ludlow Massacre – Colorado militia attacked the Colorado militia attacked the workers tent colony, killing 39 workers tent colony, killing 39 people who were on strikepeople who were on strike


► Remarkable period of economic growth, Remarkable period of economic growth, European demand for US products, European demand for US products, industrial production soared, manufacturing industrial production soared, manufacturing activity spread to regions that did not have activity spread to regions that did not have it already, shipbuilding industry grew on the it already, shipbuilding industry grew on the west coast, employment increased resulting west coast, employment increased resulting in new opportunities for women, blacks, in new opportunities for women, blacks, Mexican and Asian workers, net loss of Mexican and Asian workers, net loss of purchasing power as inflation ate into wage purchasing power as inflation ate into wage increases, farm prices rose, agricultural increases, farm prices rose, agricultural production increased dramaticallyproduction increased dramatically


►The Great Migration was the The Great Migration was the migration of hundreds of migration of hundreds of thousands of blacks from the rural thousands of blacks from the rural south into northern industrial south into northern industrial cities, the push factors were the cities, the push factors were the poverty, indebtedness, racism, poverty, indebtedness, racism, violence in the Southviolence in the South..


►TThe pull factors were the prospect he pull factors were the prospect of factory jobs in the urban north, of factory jobs in the urban north, more freedom and autonomy, which more freedom and autonomy, which resulted in dramatic growth in black resulted in dramatic growth in black communities in northern industrial communities in northern industrial cities (New York, Chicago, Cleveland cities (New York, Chicago, Cleveland and Detroit), older blacks feared and Detroit), older blacks feared newcomers would increase their newcomers would increase their vulnerability to white racismvulnerability to white racism

African-American Migration


►In East St. Louis, Illinois (July In East St. Louis, Illinois (July 1917), a white mob attacked a 1917), a white mob attacked a black neighborhood, burned down black neighborhood, burned down many houses and shot the many houses and shot the residents as they fled, as many as residents as they fled, as many as 40 African American died40 African American died


► Margaret Drier Robins, Margaret Drier Robins, an official of Women's an official of Women's Trade Union League, Trade Union League, said in 1918 "The war said in 1918 "The war has created new has created new values. Men and values. Men and women are conscious women are conscious that as citizens they that as citizens they must … share in the must … share in the management of management of industry and the industry and the administration of administration of government."government."


►A million or more women worked A million or more women worked in a wide range of jobs, which in in a wide range of jobs, which in peacetime would be considered peacetime would be considered male jobs: steel, munitions, male jobs: steel, munitions, trucking, public transportation, trucking, public transportation, but as soon as the war was over but as soon as the war was over almost all of the women working almost all of the women working in these jobs were fired or quitin these jobs were fired or quit

The Search for Social UnityThe Search for Social Unity

Peace Movement – German Americans, Peace Movement – German Americans, Irish immigrants, religious pacifists Irish immigrants, religious pacifists (Quakers, Mennonites), intellectuals, (Quakers, Mennonites), intellectuals, Socialist Party, Industrial Workers of Socialist Party, Industrial Workers of the World – considered war a the World – considered war a meaningless battle among capitalistic meaningless battle among capitalistic nations for commercial supremacynations for commercial supremacy


Carrie Chapman Catt helped created Carrie Chapman Catt helped created the Women's Peace Party, these women the Women's Peace Party, these women peace activists became sharply divided peace activists became sharply divided upon entering war, claimed to represent upon entering war, claimed to represent the "mother half of humanity", maternal the "mother half of humanity", maternal opposition to waropposition to war


The National American Woman The National American Woman Suffrage Association supported the war Suffrage Association supported the war and presented itself as a patriotic and presented itself as a patriotic organization dedicated to advancing organization dedicated to advancing the war effort, single largest women's the war effort, single largest women's organization, Carrie Chapman Catt organization, Carrie Chapman Catt became a member but Jane Addams became a member but Jane Addams and Charlotte Perkins Gilman stayed in and Charlotte Perkins Gilman stayed in the Peace Partythe Peace Party


Most Americans supported intervention Most Americans supported intervention once America became involved, women once America became involved, women joined the Red Cross, children raised joined the Red Cross, children raised money for war bonds, and churches money for war bonds, and churches included prayers for the president and included prayers for the president and the troops during services, the war the troops during services, the war caused a revivalism in religion, Billy caused a revivalism in religion, Billy Sunday was the leading revivalist of the Sunday was the leading revivalist of the timetime


Government leaders wanted to unite Government leaders wanted to unite public opinion behind the military public opinion behind the military effort, Committee on Public Information effort, Committee on Public Information was directed by George Creel, was directed by George Creel, supervised the distribution of supervised the distribution of innumerable tons of pro-war literatureinnumerable tons of pro-war literature


War posters plastered the walls of War posters plastered the walls of offices, shops, theaters, and schools, offices, shops, theaters, and schools, newspapers dutifully printed the newspapers dutifully printed the government accounts of the reasons government accounts of the reasons for the war and the prospects for quick for the war and the prospects for quick victory, reporters were encouraged to victory, reporters were encouraged to exercise “self-censorship” when exercise “self-censorship” when reporting news about the struggle. reporting news about the struggle.


Government-promoted posters and Government-promoted posters and films encouraged people to look at films encouraged people to look at Germans as something close to Germans as something close to savages, the CPI ran full-page savages, the CPI ran full-page advertisements urging citizens to notify advertisements urging citizens to notify the Justice Department when they the Justice Department when they encountered “the man who spreads the encountered “the man who spreads the pessimistic stories…cries for peace, or pessimistic stories…cries for peace, or belittles our efforts to win the war”belittles our efforts to win the war”


The Espionage Act of 1917 created stiff The Espionage Act of 1917 created stiff penalties for spying, sabotage or obstruction penalties for spying, sabotage or obstruction of the war efforts (crimes that were often of the war efforts (crimes that were often broadly defined), it empowered the Post broadly defined), it empowered the Post Office to ban "seditious" material from the Office to ban "seditious" material from the mails including statements that might mails including statements that might “impugn the motives of the government and “impugn the motives of the government and thus encourage insubordination”thus encourage insubordination”..


The Espionage Act also covered The Espionage Act also covered anything that suggested “that the anything that suggested “that the government is controlled by Wall Street government is controlled by Wall Street or munitions manufacturers, or any or munitions manufacturers, or any other special interests”, including all other special interests”, including all publications of the Socialist Partypublications of the Socialist Party


The Sabotage Act and The Sabotage Act and Sedition Act of 1918 Sedition Act of 1918 expanded the meaning of expanded the meaning of the Espionage Act to make the Espionage Act to make illegal any public illegal any public expression of opposition expression of opposition to the war, allowed officials to the war, allowed officials to prosecute anyone who to prosecute anyone who criticized the president or criticized the president or the governmentthe government..


““You shall not criticize anything or anybody You shall not criticize anything or anybody in the Government any longer or you shall go in the Government any longer or you shall go to jail.”, the most targeted groups of the to jail.”, the most targeted groups of the legislation were anti-capitalist groups the legislation were anti-capitalist groups the Socialist Party and the Industrial Workers of Socialist Party and the Industrial Workers of the Worldthe World


Eugene Debs was sentenced to 10 Eugene Debs was sentenced to 10 years in prison in 1918 but was later years in prison in 1918 but was later pardoned by President Harding in 1921, pardoned by President Harding in 1921, Big Bill Haywood fled to the Soviet Big Bill Haywood fled to the Soviet Union to avoid long imprisonment, in Union to avoid long imprisonment, in 1918 more then 1,500 people were 1918 more then 1,500 people were arrested for the crime of criticizing the arrested for the crime of criticizing the governmentgovernment


Vigilante mobs sprang up to Vigilante mobs sprang up to "discipline" those who dared challenge "discipline" those who dared challenge the war, in Cincinnati a dissident the war, in Cincinnati a dissident Protestant clergyman was pulled from Protestant clergyman was pulled from his bed one night by a mob, dragged to his bed one night by a mob, dragged to a nearby hillside, and whipped “in the a nearby hillside, and whipped “in the name of the women and children of name of the women and children of Belgium”Belgium”


The American Protective League enlisted the The American Protective League enlisted the services of 250, 000 people who served as services of 250, 000 people who served as "agents" – prying into the activities and "agents" – prying into the activities and thoughts of their neighbors, opening mail, thoughts of their neighbors, opening mail, taping telephones and in general attempting taping telephones and in general attempting to impose the unity of opinion (the National to impose the unity of opinion (the National Security League, the Boy Spies of America, Security League, the Boy Spies of America, the American Defense Society), the most the American Defense Society), the most frequent targets of oppression were frequent targets of oppression were immigrants.immigrants.


"100 percent Americanism" – “the "100 percent Americanism" – “the melting pot has not melted…there are melting pot has not melted…there are vast communities in the nation thinking vast communities in the nation thinking today not in terms of America, but in today not in terms of America, but in terms of Old World prejudices, terms of Old World prejudices, theories, and animosities…In the theories, and animosities…In the bottom of the melting pot there lie bottom of the melting pot there lie heaps of unfused metal”heaps of unfused metal”


A campaign to purge society of all things A campaign to purge society of all things German quickly gathered speed, German quickly gathered speed, sauerkraut was renamed "liberty sauerkraut was renamed "liberty cabbage", hamburger became “liberty cabbage", hamburger became “liberty sausage”, performance of German music sausage”, performance of German music banned, German books were removed banned, German books were removed from the shelves of libraries, courses in from the shelves of libraries, courses in language were removed, “there is language were removed, “there is something fundamentally wrong with the something fundamentally wrong with the Teutonic soul”Teutonic soul”

The Search for a New World The Search for a New World OrderOrder

►Wilson had led the country into Wilson had led the country into the war promising a more just and the war promising a more just and stable peace at its conclusion, stable peace at its conclusion, Wilsonianism was a philosophy of Wilsonianism was a philosophy of internationalist relationsinternationalist relations


►In 1918 Wilson presented to In 1918 Wilson presented to Congress the principles for which Congress the principles for which he claimed the nation was fighting he claimed the nation was fighting for: 8 specific recommendations for: 8 specific recommendations for adjusting postwar boundaries for adjusting postwar boundaries and for establishing new nations and for establishing new nations (right to self-determination)(right to self-determination)……


► 5 general principles to govern 5 general principles to govern international conduct in the future: international conduct in the future: freedom of the seas, open covenants freedom of the seas, open covenants instead of secret treaties, reduction in instead of secret treaties, reduction in armaments, free trade, impartial armaments, free trade, impartial mediation of colonial claims, a proposal mediation of colonial claims, a proposal for a League of Nations that would help for a League of Nations that would help implement these new principles and implement these new principles and territorial adjustments to resolve future territorial adjustments to resolve future controversies – taken together these controversies – taken together these were the Fourteen Points.were the Fourteen Points.


►Flaws in the Fourteen Points – no Flaws in the Fourteen Points – no formula for deciding how to formula for deciding how to implement the "national self-implement the "national self-determination" he promised determination" he promised subjugated peoples, he said little subjugated peoples, he said little about economic rivalries and their about economic rivalries and their impact on international relationsimpact on international relations


►The Fourteen Points reflected Wilson’s The Fourteen Points reflected Wilson’s belief in the ideals of progressivism, belief in the ideals of progressivism, that the world was capable of just and that the world was capable of just and efficient government as were efficient government as were individual nations; that once the individual nations; that once the international community accepted international community accepted certain basic principles of conduct, certain basic principles of conduct, and once it constructed modern and once it constructed modern institutions to implement them, the institutions to implement them, the human race could live in peacehuman race could live in peace


► The Fourteen Points were also a last The Fourteen Points were also a last minute effort to persuade the Bolshevik minute effort to persuade the Bolshevik regime to keep Russia in the war, Wilson regime to keep Russia in the war, Wilson realized that Lenin was a competitor in realized that Lenin was a competitor in the effort to lead the postwar order, the effort to lead the postwar order, “Liberalism is the only thing that can save “Liberalism is the only thing that can save civilization from chaos – from a flood of civilization from chaos – from a flood of ultra-radicalism that will swamp the ultra-radicalism that will swamp the world…Liberalism must be more liberal world…Liberalism must be more liberal than ever before, it must even be radical, than ever before, it must even be radical, if civilization is to escape the typhoon.”if civilization is to escape the typhoon.”


► European leaders resented what they European leaders resented what they considered Wilson's tone of moral considered Wilson's tone of moral superiority, Wilson refusedsuperiority, Wilson refusedto make the to make the US their "ally"US their "ally" but kept his distance as an but kept his distance as an "associate""associate" of his European partners, they of his European partners, they had been offended that Wilson insisted on had been offended that Wilson insisted on keeping American military forces separate keeping American military forces separate from the Allied armies they were joining, from the Allied armies they were joining, most of all, Britain and France were in no most of all, Britain and France were in no mood for a benign and generous peace mood for a benign and generous peace after their losses in WWIafter their losses in WWI


►David Lloyd George the British David Lloyd George the British prime minister insisted for a time prime minister insisted for a time that the German Kaiser be that the German Kaiser be capturedcaptured and executed, and executed, Georges Clemenceau the Georges Clemenceau the president of France wanted to president of France wanted to gain something to compensate gain something to compensate them for the catastrophe they had them for the catastrophe they had sufferedsuffered


► Wilson appealed to the American Wilson appealed to the American voters to support his peace plans by voters to support his peace plans by sending Democrats to Congress in the sending Democrats to Congress in the November 1918 elections, a Republican November 1918 elections, a Republican victory would be “interpreted on the victory would be “interpreted on the other side of the water as a repudiation other side of the water as a repudiation of my leadership”, Republicans of my leadership”, Republicans captured both houses in 1918 which captured both houses in 1918 which damaged Wilson's ability claim popular damaged Wilson's ability claim popular support for his peace plans. support for his peace plans.


►Wilson refused to appoint any Wilson refused to appoint any important Republicans to important Republicans to negotiating team that would negotiating team that would represent the US at the peace represent the US at the peace conferenceconference


►The Peace Conference in Paris was The Peace Conference in Paris was dominated by the Big Four – David dominated by the Big Four – David Lloyd George (Britain), Georges Lloyd George (Britain), Georges Clemenceau (France), Vittorio Orlando Clemenceau (France), Vittorio Orlando (prime minister of Italy) and Woodrow (prime minister of Italy) and Woodrow Wilson (U.S.), Russia was not Wilson (U.S.), Russia was not represented (it was in the midst of a represented (it was in the midst of a civil war between white and red civil war between white and red Russians) and Wilson refused to Russians) and Wilson refused to recognize Lenin's new governmentrecognize Lenin's new government


► Wilson was unable to win approval of many Wilson was unable to win approval of many of the broad principles he had wanted, the of the broad principles he had wanted, the British refused to even discuss freedom of British refused to even discuss freedom of the seas, “open covenants openly arrived the seas, “open covenants openly arrived at” – the Paris negotiations were often at” – the Paris negotiations were often conducted in secret, support for “impartial conducted in secret, support for “impartial mediation” of colonial claims he was forced mediation” of colonial claims he was forced to accept the transfer of German colonies in to accept the transfer of German colonies in the Pacific to Japan, economic and strategic the Pacific to Japan, economic and strategic demands were constantly coming into demands were constantly coming into conflicts with the principles of cultural conflicts with the principles of cultural nationalismnationalism


► President opposed demanding President opposed demanding compensations from Central Powers, the compensations from Central Powers, the Allies wanted $56 billion to pay for Allies wanted $56 billion to pay for damages to civilians and for military damages to civilians and for military pensions, in the end Germany paid $9 pensions, in the end Germany paid $9 billion which was still more than its billion which was still more than its crippled economy could afford, the crippled economy could afford, the reparations combined with other reparations combined with other territorial and economic penalties territorial and economic penalties constituted an effort to keep Germany constituted an effort to keep Germany prostrate for the foreseeable futureprostrate for the foreseeable future


►Wilson did have some successes Wilson did have some successes in setting boundaries and dealing in setting boundaries and dealing with former colonies, his plan with former colonies, his plan placed former colonies in placed former colonies in “trusteeship” under the League of “trusteeship” under the League of Nations (mandate system), Nations (mandate system), designed the creation of designed the creation of Yugoslavia and CzechoslovakiaYugoslavia and Czechoslovakia


► Wilson’s most important success was Wilson’s most important success was the creation of a permanent the creation of a permanent international organization to oversee international organization to oversee world affairs and prevent future wars, world affairs and prevent future wars, on January 25, 1919 the Allies voted to on January 25, 1919 the Allies voted to accept the "covenant" of the League of accept the "covenant" of the League of Nations which was an assembly of Nations which was an assembly of nations that would meet regularly to nations that would meet regularly to debate the means of resolving disputes debate the means of resolving disputes and protecting peaceand protecting peace..


►AAuthority to implement League uthority to implement League decisions rested with 9-member decisions rested with 9-member Executive Council; the 5 Executive Council; the 5 permanent members of the permanent members of the council were US, Britain, France, council were US, Britain, France, Italy and JapanItaly and Japan


► Many Americans, accustomed to their Many Americans, accustomed to their nation’s isolation from Europe, questioned nation’s isolation from Europe, questioned the wisdom of this major new commitment the wisdom of this major new commitment to internationalism, Senators wanted to to internationalism, Senators wanted to limit America’s obligations to the League limit America’s obligations to the League by ensuring that the U.S. would not be by ensuring that the U.S. would not be obliged to accept a League mandate to obliged to accept a League mandate to oversee a territory and that the League oversee a territory and that the League would not challenge the Monroe Doctrine, would not challenge the Monroe Doctrine, Wilson agreed to these compromises but Wilson agreed to these compromises but refused to compromise furtherrefused to compromise further


►Wilson presented the Treaty of Wilson presented the Treaty of Versailles to the Senate on July Versailles to the Senate on July 10, 1919 asking “Dare we reject it 10, 1919 asking “Dare we reject it and break the heart of the and break the heart of the world?”world?”


►Wilson received opposition in Wilson received opposition in Congress and did not want to revise Congress and did not want to revise the Treaty of Versailles, the the Treaty of Versailles, the Irreconcilables were 14 senators Irreconcilables were 14 senators many were western isolationists who many were western isolationists who opposed the agreement on principle, opposed the agreement on principle, other opponents were concerned other opponents were concerned with creating a winning issue for the with creating a winning issue for the Republicans in the presidential Republicans in the presidential election of 1920election of 1920..


►MMost notably of these was Henry ost notably of these was Henry Cabot Lodge who was chairman of Cabot Lodge who was chairman of the Foreign Relations Committee, the Foreign Relations Committee, loathed the president with loathed the president with genuine passion, used every genuine passion, used every possible tactic to obstruct and possible tactic to obstruct and delay the treatydelay the treaty


►Public sentiment favored Public sentiment favored ratification, so Lodge stalled for ratification, so Lodge stalled for time, he eventually formed a time, he eventually formed a series of “reservations” which series of “reservations” which were amendments to the League were amendments to the League covenant limiting American covenant limiting American obligations to the organizationobligations to the organization..


►Wilson refused to make changes, Wilson refused to make changes, instead he embarked on a grueling instead he embarked on a grueling cross country speaking tour to cross country speaking tour to arouse public support for the treaty, arouse public support for the treaty, Wilson suffered a major stroke in Wilson suffered a major stroke in Pueblo, Colorado and could not Pueblo, Colorado and could not conduct public business, his wife and conduct public business, his wife and doctor shielded him from anything doctor shielded him from anything that might impede his recoverythat might impede his recovery


► The Senate Foreign Relations Committee The Senate Foreign Relations Committee sent the Treaty of Versailles to the full sent the Treaty of Versailles to the full Senate for ratification with almost 50 Senate for ratification with almost 50 amendments and reservations, Wilson amendments and reservations, Wilson refused to consider any of them and told refused to consider any of them and told Democrats to vote for the treaty only if Democrats to vote for the treaty only if no revisions had been made, any other no revisions had been made, any other version must be defeated, the Treaty of version must be defeated, the Treaty of Versailles was never ratified by the US Versailles was never ratified by the US SenateSenate


►Wilson thought the 1920 national Wilson thought the 1920 national election would serve as a “solemn election would serve as a “solemn referendum” on the League, referendum” on the League, however by then the public lost however by then the public lost interest in the peace process as interest in the peace process as more serious crises came about more serious crises came about

A Society in TurmoilA Society in Turmoil

The social environment after 1918 was The social environment after 1918 was no longer receptive to progressive no longer receptive to progressive reform, the economy experienced a reform, the economy experienced a sever postwar recession, middle-class sever postwar recession, middle-class America responded with fearful America responded with fearful conservative hostility, a period of conservative hostility, a period of repression and reaction followed WWI repression and reaction followed WWI not liberal reformnot liberal reform


Postwar prosperity created by demand Postwar prosperity created by demand for American products in European war for American products in European war ravaged nations, demand for scarce ravaged nations, demand for scarce consumer goods at home, also consumer goods at home, also accompanied by raging inflation (over accompanied by raging inflation (over 15% a year) through the loss of wartime 15% a year) through the loss of wartime price controlsprice controls


Between 1920 and 1921 the GNP Between 1920 and 1921 the GNP declined nearly 10%, 100,000 declined nearly 10%, 100,000 businesses went bankrupt, 453,000 businesses went bankrupt, 453,000 farmers lost their land, 5 million farmers lost their land, 5 million workers lost their jobs, leaders of workers lost their jobs, leaders of organized labor set out to consolidate organized labor set out to consolidate the advances they had madethe advances they had made


The raging inflation of 1919 - 1921 The raging inflation of 1919 - 1921 wiped out the modest wage gains that wiped out the modest wage gains that had been made during the war, had been made during the war, employers began to rescind benefits employers began to rescind benefits that were made during WWI under the that were made during WWI under the watchful eye of the government, 1919 watchful eye of the government, 1919 saw an unprecedented wave of strikes, saw an unprecedented wave of strikes, more than 3,600 in all and involving more than 3,600 in all and involving more than 4 million workersmore than 4 million workers


The Boston Police force went out on The Boston Police force went out on strike in September 1919, Boston strike in September 1919, Boston erupted in violence and looting, erupted in violence and looting, Governor Calvin Coolidge called in the Governor Calvin Coolidge called in the National Guard to restore order, “there National Guard to restore order, “there is no right to strike against the public is no right to strike against the public safety, by anybody, anywhere, any safety, by anybody, anywhere, any time”time”


In September 1919, the greatest strike In September 1919, the greatest strike in American history began when in American history began when 350,000 steelworkers in several Eastern 350,000 steelworkers in several Eastern and Midwestern cities walked off the and Midwestern cities walked off the job, demanding an 8-hour day and job, demanding an 8-hour day and recognition of their unionrecognition of their union..


EEmployers hired armed guards to mployers hired armed guards to disperse picket lines and escort disperse picket lines and escort strikebreakers into factories, steel strikebreakers into factories, steel executives managed to keep the executives managed to keep the factories running with non-union labor, factories running with non-union labor, and public opinion was hostile to the and public opinion was hostile to the strikers, the strike finally collapsed in strikers, the strike finally collapsed in January 1920, organized labor would January 1920, organized labor would not recover for a decade.not recover for a decade.


Black soldiers (almost 400,000 of them) Black soldiers (almost 400,000 of them) served as inspiration to thousands of served as inspiration to thousands of urban blacks, the glory of black heroism urban blacks, the glory of black heroism in the war would make it impossible for in the war would make it impossible for white society to ever again treat African white society to ever again treat African Americans as less than equal citizens, Americans as less than equal citizens, in reality, the fact that black soldiers had in reality, the fact that black soldiers had fought in WWI had almost no impact at fought in WWI had almost no impact at all on white attitudesall on white attitudes


WWI accentuated African American WWI accentuated African American bitterness, increased their determination to bitterness, increased their determination to fight for their rights, it raised economic fight for their rights, it raised economic expectations, in the South there was a expectations, in the South there was a dramatic increase in lynchings (70 in 1919 dramatic increase in lynchings (70 in 1919 alone), in the North black factory workers alone), in the North black factory workers faced widespread layoffs as returning white faced widespread layoffs as returning white veterans replaced them from their jobs, no veterans replaced them from their jobs, no significant new opportunities for significant new opportunities for advancement of black veteransadvancement of black veterans


Racial violence broke out during the Racial violence broke out during the summer of 1919 – Chicago Race Riots, summer of 1919 – Chicago Race Riots, different from earlier racial violence in different from earlier racial violence in that African Americans were fighting that African Americans were fighting back “Like men we’ll face the back “Like men we’ll face the murderous cowardly pack. Pressed to murderous cowardly pack. Pressed to the wall, dying, but fighting back” – the wall, dying, but fighting back” – Claude McKayClaude McKay


Marcus Garvey stressed anMarcus Garvey stressed an ideology of black ideology of black nationalism, encouraged blacks to take pride nationalism, encouraged blacks to take pride in their own achievements, reject assimilation, in their own achievements, reject assimilation, take pride in their own race and culture, take pride in their own race and culture, founded the United Negro Improvement founded the United Negro Improvement Association whichAssociation which launched a chain of black launched a chain of black owned grocery stores and pressed for the owned grocery stores and pressed for the creation of black business, Garvey was creation of black business, Garvey was indicted on charges of business fraud in 1923 indicted on charges of business fraud in 1923 and deported to Jamaica two years later.and deported to Jamaica two years later.


To much of the white middle-class the To much of the white middle-class the industrial warfare, the racial violence, industrial warfare, the racial violence, and other forms of dissent all appeared and other forms of dissent all appeared to be frightening omens of instability to be frightening omens of instability and radicalismand radicalism


Concerns about communist threat grew Concerns about communist threat grew in 1919 after the Soviet government in 1919 after the Soviet government announced the formation of the announced the formation of the Communist International (Comintern)Communist International (Comintern) purpose was to export revolution purpose was to export revolution around the world, the American around the world, the American Communist Party was also founded in Communist Party was also founded in 1919 1919


A series of bombings in the spring of 1919 A series of bombings in the spring of 1919 produced great national alarm, in April the produced great national alarm, in April the Post Office intercepted several dozen Post Office intercepted several dozen parcels addressed to leading parcels addressed to leading businessmen and politicians that were businessmen and politicians that were triggered to explode when opened, one triggered to explode when opened, one bomb went off in front of the Attorney bomb went off in front of the Attorney General’s home, another went off in front General’s home, another went off in front of JP Morgan’s bank in NY killing 30 of JP Morgan’s bank in NY killing 30 peoplepeople..


TThese bombings crystallized what was hese bombings crystallized what was already a growing determination among already a growing determination among middle class Americans to fight against middle class Americans to fight against radicalism, a determination steeled by radicalism, a determination steeled by the repressive atmosphere of the war the repressive atmosphere of the war years and reinforced by the idea of years and reinforced by the idea of “100 Percent Americanism”.“100 Percent Americanism”.


The Red Scare –The Red Scare – antiradical newspapers antiradical newspapers began to portray almost every form of began to portray almost every form of instability and protest as a sign of radical instability and protest as a sign of radical threat, “armed revolutionaries running threat, “armed revolutionaries running rampant through our cities” and the steel rampant through our cities” and the steel strike was “penetrated with the Bolshevik strike was “penetrated with the Bolshevik idea…steeped in the doctrines of the class idea…steeped in the doctrines of the class struggle and social overthrow”, nearly 30 struggle and social overthrow”, nearly 30 states enacted new peacetime sedition laws states enacted new peacetime sedition laws imposing harsh penalties on those who imposing harsh penalties on those who promoted revolution, over 300 sent to jailpromoted revolution, over 300 sent to jail


On New Year’s Day, 1920 Attorney General A. On New Year’s Day, 1920 Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer and his assistant, J. Edgar Mitchell Palmer and his assistant, J. Edgar Hoover, orchestrated a series of raids on Hoover, orchestrated a series of raids on alleged radical centers throughout the alleged radical centers throughout the country and arrested more than 6,000 people, country and arrested more than 6,000 people, the Palmer Raids were intended to uncover the Palmer Raids were intended to uncover huge caches of weapons and explosives, huge caches of weapons and explosives, they netted a total of 3 pistols and no they netted a total of 3 pistols and no dynamite, 500 people who were not American dynamite, 500 people who were not American citizens were summarily deported.citizens were summarily deported.


Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti wereNicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti were charged with the murder of a paymaster in charged with the murder of a paymaster in Braintree Mass., the evidence against them Braintree Mass., the evidence against them was questionable, but both were confessed was questionable, but both were confessed anarchists, they faced a widespread public anarchists, they faced a widespread public presumption of guilt, they were convicted by presumption of guilt, they were convicted by an openly bigoted judge, Webster Thayer, an openly bigoted judge, Webster Thayer, and sentenced to death, on August 23, 1927 and sentenced to death, on August 23, 1927 still proclaiming their innocence, Sacco and still proclaiming their innocence, Sacco and Vanzetti died in the electric chair.Vanzetti died in the electric chair.


On August 26, 1920 the 19th On August 26, 1920 the 19th Amendment, giving women the right to Amendment, giving women the right to vote, became part of the Constitution, vote, became part of the Constitution, but it marked an end to an era of but it marked an end to an era of reform, economic problems, feminist reform, economic problems, feminist demands, labor unrest, racial tensions demands, labor unrest, racial tensions and the intensity of the antiradicalism – and the intensity of the antiradicalism – produced general sense of produced general sense of disillusionmentdisillusionment..


Election of 1920 – The Democratic nominees Election of 1920 – The Democratic nominees were James Cox for President and Franklin were James Cox for President and Franklin D. Roosevelt for Vice President, they ran D. Roosevelt for Vice President, they ran trying to keep Wilson’s ideals alive, thetrying to keep Wilson’s ideals alive, the Republican presidential nominee was Warren Republican presidential nominee was Warren G. Harding who offered no ideals, only a G. Harding who offered no ideals, only a vague promise of a return to “normalcy”, vague promise of a return to “normalcy”, Harding won 61% of the vote and the Harding won 61% of the vote and the Republicans made major gains in Congress.Republicans made major gains in Congress.

the road to war ► the european nations by 1914 had created an unusually precarious international...

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