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The Role of Previous Educational Learning Experienceson Current Academic Performance and SecondLanguage Proficiency of Intermediate School LimitedEnglish Proficient StudentsIrene C. Cota aa California State University , NorthridgePublished online: 10 May 2013.

To cite this article: Irene C. Cota (1997) The Role of Previous Educational Learning Experiences on CurrentAcademic Performance and Second Language Proficiency of Intermediate School Limited English Proficient Students,Bilingual Research Journal: The Journal of the National Association for Bilingual Education, 21:2-3, 147-162, DOI:10.1080/15235882.1997.10668658

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THE ROLE OF PREVIOUS EDUCATIONAL LEARNING EXPERIENCES ON CURRENT ACADEMIC P E R F O R M A N C E AND

SECOND LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY OF INTERMEDIATE SCHOOL LIMITED ENGLISH PROFICIENT STUDENTS

Irene C. Cota California State Universi ty, Nor thr idge

ABSTRACT

The role of students' previous educational learning experiences on current academic performance and second language proficiency was studied with intermediate school limited English proficient (LEP) students who were receiving their second year or more of specially-designed academic instruction in English (SDADE). The findings suggest the following: (a) the students recognize the importance of learning English as a second language; (b) the students perceive their parents as recognizing the value of learning English as a second language; (c) the students use of English out of the classroom is determined by the English language proficiency of their parents, siblings, and friends; (d) the students perceive their parents as not having specific plans for them after high school graduation; (e) the students' siblings are the main persons to help them with homework assignments and quiz and examination preparation; (f) the majority of the students do not participate in extracurricular school activities nor in out-of-school organized activities; (g) frequent absences influenced school grades and standardized test scores; and (h) the number of years of English language instruction influenced standardized reading test results. Based on the research of LEP students, who are receiving their second year or more of SDAIE instruction, specific suggestions are made regarding how to provide students with educational experiences that will promote academic success and continued English language development.

A language census is conducted every spring in order to maintain an accurate accounting o f the number o f limited English proficient (LEP) students enrolled in California public schools. The results o f the Spring, 1994 annual language census identified 112,525 LEP students enrolled in Grades 7-8 who speak Spanish as their primary language (California Department of Education, 1994). Stephen Krashen (1994), a linguist who has researched how people learn a second language, defines bilingual education as "[si tuations in which students are able to study subject matter in their first language (LI) while their weaker language skills catch up" (p. 48). Historically, California State policy on bilingual education has focused on grades K-6 (Lucas, 1993; Minicucci & Olsen, 1992). However, as the Spring, 1994 annual language census indicates, there are many (LEP) students also enrolled in intermediate schools.

The Role of Previous Educational Learning Experience 147

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A California study investigated the range of programs and services available to intermediate and high school LEP students (Minicucci & Olsen, 1992). The researchers concluded that there are major gaps in meeting both the academic and related needs of intermediate and high school LEP students. They suggest that further research is needed in order to develop effective teaching strategies and programs to educate the growing population of LEP students enrolled at the intermediate and high school levels.

Several researchers suggest changing research questions away from whether one program works better than another, to how bilingual education programs can be improved to respond better to the diverse communities they serve (Cziko, 1992; Hakuta, 1986; Lindholm & Fairchild, 1990; Padilla, 1990; Willig, 1985). Cziko (1992) suggests moving away from the notion of what is probable in all bilingual programs to what is possible and that researchers look at what can be done under the best of circumstances. Instead of looking at bilingual education as compensating for the deficiencies of LEP students, the focus ofbilingual education should be to capitalize on the life experiences and languages that all students bring into the classroom as a way of engaging and supporting them in learning.

Moran and Hakuta (1995) suggest that research in bilingual education should attempt to involve not only practitioners and policy makers, but also parents and students. The active involvement of intermediate school LEP students in bilingual education research can provide educators with insights about the students' previous educational experiences. These insights can provide educators with information about how to better meet the educational and related needs of intermediate school LEP students.

John Dewey (1963) stressed the importance of taking into account the learning experiences that children bring into the classroom. Dewey also pointed out that the child is the beginning point, the center, and the end of the educational process. Furthermore, he argued that the whole child must be studied and taken care of in the educational process. Freeman and Freeman (1992) also point out the importance of focusing on the whole student. They stress that lessons should begin with what the student knows and that classroom activities should build on student interests.

Similarly, their examination of Piaget's theory of intellectual development led to the conclusion by Ginsburg and Opper (1969) that educators need to make use of the learning experiences that students bring into the classroom in order to tailor educational experiences to meet students' needs: "The educator needs to interact with the child in a flexible way in order to gain insight into the latter's current level of functioning" (p. 221).

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY This study examines the role of students' previous educational learning

experiences on their current academic performance and second language proficiency. The main focus of this study was to further the understanding of

148 Bilingual Research Journal, 21:2 & 3 Spring & Summer 1997

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previous educational learning experiences that LEP students bring into the intermediate schools and to provide educators with effective instructional practices for LEP students. The principal research purposes of this study were to (1) examine the educational learning experiences of intermediate school LEP students who were enrolled in high English transition classes where they were receiving specially-designed academic instruction in English (SDAIE) and mainstream academic English instruction, (2) examine indicators that could affect academic success and the development of English language skills in intermediate school LEP students who were receiving their second year or more of SDAIE and mainstream academic English instruction, and (3) suggest effective instruction for LEP students at the intermediate school level.

A major goal of this research is to extend the current body of literature on meeting the academic and related needs of intermediate and high school LEP students. The information obtained from this research extends the body of knowledge specific to intermediate school LEP students that received Spanish language arts instruction in the elementary school primary grades and have not been successful at meeting reclassification requirements that would enable them to be reclassified from LEP to fluent English proficient (FEP) status. The information obtained via the students' interview responses and review of their cumulative school records reveals insights that may facilitate understanding what LEP students encounter in their quest to learn academic concepts and acquire second language skills. It is the intent of this research to focus on how to improve the instruction of intermediate school LEP students, rather than to focus on whether or not bilingual education programs are effective.

METHOD

SAMPLE With parental consent a total of 103 unrelated intermediate school LEP

students who were enrolled in high English transition classes where they were receiving their second year or more of SDAIE and mainstream academic English instruction participated in this study. Enrollment in the high English transition classes was based on the number of years that the students had been enrolled in English transition classes and on their most recent national percentile scores received in reading and math on the California Test of Basic Skills (CTBS). The instruction provided in the high English transition classes was presented through a scaffolding process called specially-designed academic instruction in English (SDAIE) and through mainstream academic English instruction. The use of SDAIE allows the students access to academic areas of the curriculum by utilizing a variety of student-centered activities. The student-centered activities help to ensure that the information provided is comprehensible to the students. However, if the teachers were not trained to deliver SDAIE instruction, they provided the students with only mainstream academic English instruction.


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Sixty-nine of the students were seventh graders and thirty-five were eighth graders. As to national origin, 102 were from Mexico and 1 (one) from Central America. Forty-eight of the students were males and fifty-five were females. They ranged in age from 12 to 15 years with a mean age of 13 years. Table 1 shows that 75.7% of the students were born in the U.S. Table 1 also shows that 95.1% of the students report Mexico to be the place of birth of their fathers and 94.2% report Mexico to be the place of birth of their mothers. The present study was conducted during the second semester of the academic year.

Table 1. Percentages of Students' Place of Birth and Reports of Their Parents ' Place of Birth

U S A Mexico Central America

Does not Know Total

Students 75.7% 23.3% 1.0% 0.0% 100.0%

Fathers as reported by

Students 2.0% 95 .1% 1.0% 2.0% 100.1%

Mothers as reported by

Students 3.9% 97.2% 1.0% 1.0% 100.1%

INTERVIEW INSTRUMENT An interview instrument was developed to obtain information about the

students' current and previous educational learning experiences. The interview instrument contained items that revealed information about the following: (a) the students' opinions about learning English as a second language; (b) the students' use of English when speaking to parents, siblings, and friends; (c) the students ' plans for after high school graduation; (d) the students' participation in extracurricular school activities and organized out-of-school activities; and (e) who helps them with homework assignments and quiz and exam preparation. The interview instrument also contained items that obtained information about the students' views concerning their parents' use of English, plans for them after high school graduation, attitude toward learning English as a second language, place of birth, graduation status, and college attendance.

REVIEW OF CUMULATIVE SCHOOL RECORD Cumulative school records were reviewed to collect information about the

following: (a) the type of instructional services received in kindergarten through seventh grade or kindergarten through eighth grade; (b) current grades,


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standardized test scores, school attendance and assessment of language proficiency; and (c) the number of elementary schools attended.

PROCEDURE The students were interviewed individually by the author, who speaks

both Spanish and English. The students were given the opportunity to answer questions in either English or Spanish. However, in all cases they chose to respond in English. Review of the cumulative school records was done by the author and a certificated Spanish-English bilingual teacher. The Student Oral Language Observation Matrix (SOLOM) scores were assigned to each student by their language arts teacher. All language arts teachers had been previously trained on how to observe each student and how to assign a score for each on the SOLOM form.

RESULTS Ninety-four point two percent (94.2%) of the students answered that

learning English as a second language is necessary and important. Eighty-three percent (83%) reported that their fathers felt that learning to speak English as a second language is necessary, with 5.3% reporting no opinion and 10.6% did not know. Only 1.1% reported that they perceived their fathers as feeling that it is not necessary to learn to speak English as a second language. Eighty-two point two percent (82.2%) reported that their mothers felt that learning to speak English as a second language is necessary and important. Only 1.0% said it is not necessary. The students do realize the value and necessity to learn to speak English as a second language. They also perceive their parents as valuing the ability and necessity to speak English as a second language.

Fifty-nine point six percent (59.6%) of the students reported their fathers as never speaking English, 36.2% as sometimes speaking English, and only 4.3% reported his or her father as always speaking English. Seventy-one point three percent (71.3%) of the mothers were reported as never speaking English, 24.8% sometimes, and 4.0% always. In most cases the students perceive their parents as not using the English language to communicate.

Eighty-six point two percent (86.2%) of the students indicated that they use only Spanish when speaking to their fathers, 5.3% use English and 8.5% use both Spanish and English when speaking to their fathers. Very similar percentages (81.2%, 2.0%, 16.8%) were reported for mothers. The majority of the students (61.0%) indicated that they use both Spanish and English when speaking to siblings. Fifty-four point four percent (54.4%) reported using both languages when speaking to friends, 44.7% reported using only English, and only 1.0% reported using only Spanish. The data show that the students predominantly use Spanish to communicate with their parents. However, in most cases, they use both Spanish and English when communicating with siblings and with friends.


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Almost half (47.5%) of the students reported further education as their plan for after high school graduation, 35% were undecided, with only 12.6% reporting they expected to seek employment. Fewer fathers (20.2%) than mothers (30.8%) were reported as planning further education for their children, and more fathers (21.3%) than mothers (20.8%) were reported as expecting the students to seek employment after high school graduation. Further education beyond high school graduation, in most cases, is not stressed or communicated to the students by their parents.

Forty-seven percent (47%) of the students reported that their fathers had not graduated from high school, 5.0% as graduated in the U.S., 13.9% in country of origin, and 33.7% did not know whether or not their fathers graduated from high school. Sixty-four point one percent (64.1 %) indicated that their mothers had not graduated from high school, 12.6% in country of origin, and 19.4% did not know whether or not their mothers graduated from high school. Seventy-three point three percent (73.3%) reported that their fathers did not attend college, 6.0% reported their fathers did attend college, and 20.8% indicated they did not know whether or not their fathers attended college. Seventy-one point eight percent (71.8%) said that their mothers did not attend college, 11.0% said that their mothers did attend college, and 17.5% did not know whether or not their mothers attended college. The students ' responses indicate that in most cases their parents are not high school graduates and did not attend college.

Eighty-two point five percent (82.5%) of the students said that they do not participate in extracurricular school activities, while 17.5% said they do participate in extracurricular school activities. Seventy-seven point seven percent (77.7%) indicated that they do not participate in out-of-school organized activities and 22.3% indicated they do participate in out-of-school organized activities. The data indicate that in most cases the students are not participating in either school or out-of-school extracurricular activities.

Table 2 shows that the students indicated siblings, (43.1%), as the primary persons to help them with homework assignments and that 19.6% indicated that nobody helps them with homework assignments. Furthermore, Table 2 shows that their siblings (30.7%) are also the persons that help them to prepare for school quizzes and exams, while 33.7% reported that nobody helps them to prepare for school quizzes and exams. Siblings in most instances are the persons who help the students with homework assignments and school quiz and exam preparation. However, in most cases nobody helps them to prepare for school quizzes and exams. Only 7.8% said that they speak excellent English, 75.7% said they speak English satisfactorily, and 16.5% said they speak limited English. In general the students indicated that their oral English skills are satisfactory.


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Table 2. Percentages of Persons Who Help Students With Homework Assignments and Preparation for School Quizzes and Exams

Person(s) Homework Quizzes and Exams

Father 8.8% 6.9%

Mother 10.8% 9.9%

Both Parents 2.9% 3.0%

Siblings 43.1% 30.7%

Other Relatives 10.8% 10.9%

More Than One Person 3.9% 5.0%

Nobody 19.6% 33.7%

Table 3 shows that 30 .1% of the students reported that nobody has encouraged them to attend college. Table 3 also shows that none of the students reported that teachers have encouraged them to attend college. In most cases the students are not being encouraged to attend college.

Table 3. Percentages of Persons Who Have Encouraged the Students to Attend College

Person(s ) Percent

Father 7 . 8 %

Mother 1 2 . 6 %

Both Parents 8 .7%

Sib l ings 1 7 . 5 %

More Than One Person 8 .7%

Other Relatives or Friends 1 4 . 6 %

Teachers 0 . 0 %

N o b o d y 3 0 . 1 %

Review of cumulative school records revealed the students attended either kindergarten through seventh grade or kindergarten through eighth grade. The types of educational services that the students have received are indicated


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in Table 4. None had ever been enrolled in a gifted education program, 39.8% had received migrant education services, and 15.5% were given automatic transition from Spanish reading instruction to English reading instruction, because they had received four or more years of Spanish reading instruction in the district. Thirty-four percent (34%) were given automatic advancement from sixth to seventh grade, because the students' LEP status was considered as a possible explanation as to why they had not been able to pass the district's required promotion requirements. The students ' migrant status and the reasons given to explain why they were given automatic transition and advancement in the primary grades may help to give insight into why the students have not been successful at meeting redesignation requirements.

Table 4. Percentages of Educational Services Received by the Students

Sévices Received Percent

Migrant 39.8%

Gifted Program 0.0%

Special Education 11.7%

Automatic Transition 15.5%

Automatic Advancement 34.0%

Retained 15.5%

Table 5 presents the means of the students ' previous and current educational information. As shown in Table 5 the LEP students are attending schools in the U.S., a mean of 7.9 years, which shows they are committed to learning academic and language skills that will enable them to function in our democratic society. The number of elementary schools attended by the students ranged between 1 and 9. The students' migrant status (Table 4) may help to explain why the students have attended more than one elementary school (mean 3.8 schools). The students all have received Spanish language arts instruction (mean 5.1 years) and have all received English language arts instruction (mean 3.4 years). Based on a 4-point grading scale (A= 4, B= 3, C= 2, D= 1, F= 0) both the seventh and eighth grade students have a mean grade point average equivalent to a "C" average (mean grade point average for seventh graders is 2.3 and mean grade point average for eighth graders is 2.7). The SOLOM scores assigned to the students by their language arts teachers indicate that the students have learned oral English language skills (mean SOLOM score is 23.3 out of a possible 25). Table 5 also shows that their CTBS reading and math national percentile scores were below the 36th percentile, thus not


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meeting the required 36th percentile score that would enable them to be considered for redesignation from LEP to FEP status.

Table 5.Means and Standard Deviations of Students ' Previous and Current Educational Information

Educational Information Standard Deviation

Previous

Number of Years Enrolled in U.S. Schools 7.9 1.2

Number of Elementary Schools Attended 3.8 1.5

Number of Years of Spanish Language Arts Instruction 5.1 1.1

Number of years of English Language Arts Instruction 3.4 1.1

Current

7th Graders Grade Point Average* 2.3 0.9


Number of Abscences for the Academic Year 11.4 12.6

SOLOM Score Means 23.3 1.9

CTBS Reading National Percentile Score 16.0 12.5

CTBS Math National Percentile Score 29.7 18.6

*Grade point average was based on a 4-point grading scale (A =4, Β = 3, C =2, D = 1 , F = 0 ) .

Several variables were found to correlate the students ' academic achievement and development of English language skills. The more frequent a student was absent, the lower his or her grade point average. There was a negative relationship ( r = - .41, F l , 101 = 7.81, ρ < . 05) between the number of absences and the student's grade point average. There was also a weaker negative relationship (r = - .24 F1 ,95 = 5.70, ρ <.05), between the number of absences and a student's CTBS math national percentile score. The more frequent a student was a b s e ^ the lower his or her CTBS math national percentile score. The number of absences may help to explain why the students are not able to meet redesignation requirements. If the students are absent frequently,


meeting the required 36th percentile score that would enable them to beconsidered for redesignation from LEP to FEP status.

Table 5.Means and Standard Deviations ofStudents' Previous and CurrentEducational Infonmation

Educational InfurmationStandardDeviation

Previous

Nmnber ofYears Enrolled in U.S.7.9 1.2

Schools

NunDer ofE1errentary Schools3.8 1.5

Attended

Nmnber ofYears of Spanish5.1 1.1

Language Arts Instruction

Nmnber ofyears ofEngtish Language3.4 1.1

Arts Instruction

Current



Nmnber ofAbscences mr the11.4 12.6

Academic Year

SOLOM Score Means 23.3 1.9

ems Reading National Percentile16.0 12.5

Score

ems Math National Percentile29.7 18.6

Score

*Grade point average was based on a 4-point grading scale (A =4, B = 3, C =2,D= 1,F=O).

Several variables were found to correlate the students' academicachievement and development ofEnglish language skills. The more frequent astudent was absent, the lower his or her grade point average. There was anegative relationship (r= - .41, Fl, 101 = 7.81, P < .05) between the number ofabsences and the student's grade point average. There was also a weakernegative relationship (r = - .24 F 1, 95 = 5.70, P <.05), between the number ofabsences and a student's CTBS math national percentile score. The morefrequent a studentwas absent, the lower his or her CTBS math national percentilescore. The number of absences may help to explain why the students are notable to meet redesignation requirements. Ifthe students are absent frequently,


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then they are not able to acquire information needed to achieve in school and to meet redesignation requirements.

There was a significant positive relationship (r = .40, F l , 97 = 18.93,p<.01) between the number of years of English instruction a student received and his or her CTBS reading national percentile score. The more years of English instruction a LEP student received, the more likely the student was to perform well on the CTBS reading test.

There was a positive relationship (r = .34 F1,97 = 12.70, ρ < .05) between t he student's grade point average and his or her CTBS reading national percentile score. Another significant positive relationship (r = .42 F1,97 = 20.47, ρ <.05) was between the student's grade point average and his or her CTBS math national percentile score. The higher the grade point average, the higher the CTBS reading and math national percentile scores.

DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS OF THE RESEARCH This study examined the role of student's previous educational learning

experiences on current academic performance and second language proficiency of intermediate school LEP students who were enrolled in high English transition classes where they were receiving their second year or more of SDADE and mainstream academic English instruction. Intermediate school LEP students, who received Spanish language arts instruction during their primary elementary school years and have not been reclassified from LEP status to FEP status, do recognize the necessity to learn English as a second language and also perceive their parents as recognizing the importance of learning English as a second language. However, the students reported their fathers as either only sometimes speaking English or as never speaking English. The students reported their mothers as usually never speaking English. Thus, it is reasonable that the students use only Spanish when speaking to their fathers and mothers. Furthermore, the English language proficiency of their siblings and friends determines their use of English, when speaking to siblings and friends.

The present results have important implications for both elementary and intermediate schoolteachers working with LEP students. Along with adequate Spanish language arts instruction, daily consistent English as a second language instruction also needs to be implemented in bilingual education classrooms because in most cases the LEP students' home environment does not provide them with opportunities to develop their English language skills. In most cases the students' parents use the Spanish language to communicate. Therefore, the students are not able to get help at home from their parents in developing or "fine-tuning" their English language skills. The utilization of ESL can provide students with opportunit ies to develop their basic interpersonal communicative skills (BICS) (Cummins, 1994). Specially designed academic instruction in English (SDAIE) also needs to be implemented beginning in the elementary school primary grades in order to allow the students to develop their cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP) (Cummins,


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1994). SDAIE can be used with beginning ESL students in subject areas of the curriculum that can be presented in a concrete manner, such as art, physical education, music, math, science, geography, and map skills (Crawford, 1994). The use of adequate primary language arts instruction along with consistent ESL and SDAIE instruction in elementary school bilingual education classrooms can help LEP students to acquire primary language literacy skills, as well as English language skills that will enable them to successfully transition from Spanish language arts instruction to English language arts instruction. The use of consistent ESL and SDAIE instruction in elementary school bilingual education classrooms can also enable students, who began to acquire Spanish language literacy skills in the primary grades, to be reclassified from LEP to FEP status by the time they begin their intermediate school years or by the time they are ready to begin their secondary school years.

Intermediate school teachers working with LEP students, who are receiving their second year or more of SDAIE instruction and mainstream academic English instruction, need to provide opportunities for the students to continue to develop and to "fine-tune" their English language skills. As the findings indicate, the students do realize the importance and necessity of learning ESL. However, in most cases they are not given the opportunity to use their English language skills when communicating with their parents. Intermediate school LEP students can be provided with interactive learning opportunities to help them to continue to develop their English language skills if teachers use the modes of experience, observation, and language when planning lessons and activities. For example, the mode of experience allows students to become actively engaged in what they are learning; observation enables them to participate in their learning by observing meaningful, real-life materials, and language provides an opportunity to talk about what they are learning. Activities such as writing, interviewing, role-playing, writing simulated letters and newspapers, journal writing, and manipulating objects can allow students to learn through experience (Tompkins & Hoskisson, 1995). Having students make clusters, diagrams, story maps; view videotapes and films; as well as watching demonstrations can enable students to learn through observation (Tompkins & Hoskisson, 1995). Researchers (Kagan & McGroarty, 1994; and Slavin, 1995) have suggested that cooperative group learning gives students an opportunity to learn language and content by working together and interacting with one another. The use of cooperative learning activities such as bramstorrning, debating, discussing, choral reading, taking notes, talking, and writing, can provide students with opportunities to learn through language (Tompkins & Hoskisson, 1995).

Almost half of the students did have plans for further education after high school graduation. However, in most cases they perceive their parents as not having any plans for them after high school graduation. The students reported their parents as not having graduated from high school or as not having attended college. The fact that the students reported that in most cases their parents did


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not graduate from high school and did not attend college gives some insight as to why the LEP students' parents are not able to help them with homework assignments and with school quiz and exam preparation. These findings help to explain why further education beyond high school graduation has not been emphasized to the students by their parents. Because in most cases the parents of these students have no experience in higher education, intermediate schoolteachers and counselors need to present LEP students with opportunities to become aware of higher education options and requirements. The students can benefit from becoming aware of the courses that can help prepare them for college entrance examinations, such as the Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT). They also can benefit from becoming aware of the types of classes that can help give them the required knowledge and skills needed to perform well on college entrance examinations and to succeed in college. It is important that the students be encouraged to take college preparatory classes. Such classes will provide the academic preparation that will give them the choices to attend institutions of higher learning.

It is also important to provide the students with opportunities to become informed about the prerequisites needed for particular career choices. Guest speakers from different ethnic groups can provide the students with information about careers and the preparation required to attain specific career goals. Field trips to different community workers' offices and businesses could help expose the students to future career choices and could help to focus the students' future plans. Workshops covering college admission requirements, how to prepare for college and information about careers and career choice preparation can be useful to inform both the intermediate school LEP students and their parents.

In this study the majority of the students did not participate in extracurricular school activities. Such activities provide opportunities to develop a variety of social and leadership skills, as well as the purposeful use of their English skills in social contexts. Also, the majority of the students did not participate in out of school organized activities. The History-Social Science Framework for California Public Schools Kindergarten Through Grade Twelve (1988) the curriculum guidelines that identify instructional practices that provide a comprehensive K-12 history-social science program for students throughout the state of California, emphasizes that teachers should encourage all students to participate in school and community service programs and activities. As is pointed out in With History-Social Science For All Access For Every Student (1992), a monograph that provides examples of strategies and resources for teaching all students the core history and geography curricula outlined in the History-Social Science Framework for California Public Schools, Kindergarten Through Grade Twelve (1988), "[a] sense of caring can be fostered when students are provided with opportunities to plan and participate in programs and activities of service in their schools and communities" (1988, p. 55). Researchers (Hallinan & Teixeira, 1987; Patchen, 1992) have found that


not graduate from high school and did not attend college gives some insight asto why the LEP students' parents are not able to help them with homeworkassignments and with school quiz and exam preparation. These findings helpto explain why further education beyond high school graduation has not beenemphasized to the students by their parents. Because in most cases the parentsof these students have no experience in higher education, intermediateschoolteachers and counselors need to present LEP students with opportunitiesto become aware ofhigher education options and requirements. The studentscan benefit from becoming aware ofthe courses that can help prepare them forcollege entrance examinations, such as the Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT).They also can benefit from becoming aware of the types of classes that canhelp give them the required knowledge and skills needed to perform well oncollege entrance examinations and to succeed in college. It is important thatthe students be encouraged to take college preparatory classes. Such classeswill provide the academic preparation that will give them the choices to attendinstitutions ofhigher learning.

It is also important to provide the students with opportunities to becomeinformed about the prerequisites needed for particular career choices. Guestspeakers from different ethnic groups can provide the students with informationabout careers and the preparation required to attain specific career goals. Fieldtrips to different community workers' offices and businesses could help exposethe students to future career choices and could help to focus the students'future plans. Workshops covering college admission requirements, how toprepare for college and infonnation about careers and career choice preparationcan be useful to inform both the intermediate school LEP students and theirparents.

In this study the majority ofthe students did not participate in extracunicularschool activities. Such activities provide opportunities to develop a variety ofsocial and leadership skills, as well as the purposeful use oftheir English skillsin social contexts. Also, the majority of the students did not participate in outof school organized activities. The History-Social Science Framework forCalifornia Public Schools Kindergarten Through Grade Twelve (1988) thecurriculum guidelines that identify instructional practices that provide acomprehensive K-12 history-social science program for students throughoutthe state ofCalifornia, emphasizes that teachers should encourage all studentsto participate in school and community service programs and activities. As ispointed out in With History-Social Science For All Access For Every Student(1992), a monograph that provides examples of strategies and resources forteaching all students the core history and geography curricula outlined in theHistory-Social Science Framework for California Public Schools,Kindergarten Through Grade Twelve (1988), "[a] sense ofcaring can be fosteredwhen students are provided with opportunities to plan and participate inprograms and activities ofservice in their schools and communities" (1988, p.55). Researchers (Hallinan & Teixeira, 1987; Patchen, 1992) have found that


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students who participated in extracurricular activities were also more likely to have friends from outside their own racial group and to have more positive racial attitudes than students who do not participate in extracurricular activities.

Every effort should be made to inspire the students to participate in extracurricular school activities. Students need to become aware that participating in school activities can help them practice their English language skills and can give them opportunities to interact with a variety of students from different ethnic groups. Perhaps the adult leaders in charge of specific clubs and activities could personally invite students to join a particular club or activity. A survey could also be used to find out what types of clubs and activities are of interest to the students. At the beginning of the school year, a presentation could be made, to both students, and their parents about the clubs and activities available and addressing the advantages of participating in them. Club meetings could be held during lunchtime to accommodate the students' after school responsibilities and transportation schedules. Inspiring the students to participate in extracurricular school activities can help foster, in the students, a sense of wanting to participate in government, community affairs, and sports activities, not only as intermediate and high school students, but also as adults.

As the interviews indicate, the students' siblings are the primary persons to help them with homework assignments and exam preparation, because, in most cases, their parents do not speak English and are not high school graduates. It is extremely beneficial to the students to learn accurate note-taking techniques. Personal notes can be useful to review for a quiz or an exam or to use their notes to have a sibling help them to review for a quiz or an exam. As is also pointed out in With History-Social Science for All Access for Every Student (1992), "[s]tudents can meet to review their notes with each other. Bilingual students can be encouraged to meet, review, share, and discuss understandings in their primary languages when helpful. Students benefit from developing their note-taking skills and from discussing, in small groups, what they understood from the information presented to the class" (p. 48).

Au (1993) suggests that it may be helpful for teachers to invite other family members such as older sisters, brothers, aunts, uncles, and others to meetings and conferences, "[o]lder sisters and brothers are sometimes in a better position to help children with homework than parents, because they may be more familiar with school procedures, have a greater knowledge of English, and be on more flexible schedules" (p. 154).

In this study the number of absences was found to influence the students' academic achievement. The more frequent a student was absent, the lower his or her grade point average. The number of absences also influenced CTBS math national percentile scores. The more frequent a student was absent, the lower the student's CTBS math percentile score. The importance of regular school attendance needs to be stressed to both students and parents. Special recognition can be given to students who have regular school attendance.


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Parent workshops can help to make parents aware about the impact that numerous absences can have on their children's academic success, second language acquisition, and future career goals.

The research data indicate that the intermediate school LEP students who acquired native language literacy skills in the primary grades have also learned English language skills, even though, in most cases, they are not able to develop their English language skills in their home environments and do not receive parental help with homework or with school quiz and exam preparation. Furthermore, their CTBS national percentile scores in reading and math were below the required 36th percentile needed to begin the reclassification process. Perhaps another method of determining whether or not the students are ready to be reclassified from LEP to FEP status needs to be utilized. Au (1993) points out that standardized tests are based on the use of multiple-choice items and single correct answers and that "[m]ost of the items in standardized tests evaluate students' knowledge of specific skills or facts, rather than their knowledge of the full processes of reading and writing" (p. 47). Ascher (1990) also points out that standardized tests ignore, "the higher-order skills that enable real learning and that our society presumably needs" (pp. 22-23). Portfolio assessment could be another method used to determine the students' readiness to be reclassified from LEP to FEP status. The collection of students' writings in portfolios can help to show the students' ability in a wide range of cognitive skills. As Tompkins and Hoskisson (1995) indicate, "[t]hey provide a way of learning about students and how they use language; they give evidence of both the products that students create and the processes they use" (p. 69).

To summarize, educators and administrators need to take into account the learning experiences that intermediate school students bring into the intermediate schools. Often bilingual education and the students involved in bilingual education programs are the ones that take the blame for students not achieving or for not learning English language skills. However, as Moran and Hakuta (1995) and Cziko (1992) suggest, it is time for researchers, adrninistrators, teachers, and policy makers to change questions away from whether one program works better than another, to how bilingual education programs can be improved in order to better respond to the diverse communities they serve. This research suggests that educators, working with intermediate school LEP students enrolled in high English transition classes and who are receiving SDAIE and mainstream academic English instruction, need to provide students with opportunities to "fine-tune" their English skills, assist them in developing good note-taking skills, provide them with college preparation and career choice information, motivate them into having good school attendance, and encourage them to become involved in extracurricular school activities. By taking into account the students' previous learning experiences, educators can look to what can be done under the best of circumstances to improve the education of LEP students.


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REFERENCES

Ascher, C. (1990). Testing students in urban schools: Current problems and new directions. Urban Diversity Series No. 100. New York: ERIC Clearinghouse on Urban Education, Teachers College, Columbia University.

Au, Κ. Η. (1993). Literacy instruction in multicultural settings. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.

California Department of Education. (1992). With history-social sciencefor all access for every student. Sacramento, CA: California Department of Education.

California Department ofEducation. (1994). R30 language census. Sacramento, CA: Statewide Educational Demographics Unit.

California State Department ofEducation. (1988). History-social sciencef ramework for California public schools kindergarten through grade twelve. CA: California Department ofEducation.

Crawford, Α. Ν. (1994). Communicative approaches to second language acquisition: From oral language development into the core curriculum and L2 literacy. In C. F. Leyba (Ed.), Schooling and language minority students: A theoreticalframework (pp. 99-104). Los Angeles, CA: Evaluation, Dissemination and Assessment Center, California State University, Los Angeles.

Cummins, J. (1994). Primary language instruction and the education oflanguage minority students. In C. F. Leyba (Ed.), Schooling and language minority students: A theoretical framework (pp. 10-14). Los Angeles, CA: Evaluation Dissemination and Assessment Center, California State University, Los Angeles.

Cziko, G. A. (1992). The evaluation ofbilingual education. Educational Researcher, 27,10-15

Dewey, J. (1963). Experience and education. New York: Collier Books. Freeman, Y. S., & Freeman, D. Ε. (1992). Whole languagefor second language

learners. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Ginsburg, Η., & Opper, S. (1969). Piaget s theory of intellectual development.

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Hakuta, Κ. (1986). Mirror oflanguage: The debate on bilingualism. NewYork:

Basic Books. Hallinan, M. T., &Teixeira, R. A. (1987). Students' interracial friendships:

Individual characteristics, structural effects, and racial differences. American Journal of Education, 95, 563-583.

Kagan, S., & McGroarty, M. (1994). Principles of cooperative learning for language and content gains. In D. D. Holt (Ed.), Cooperative learning a response to linguistic and cultural diversity (pp. 48-58). Washington, DC: Delta Systems, Inc. and ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics.


REFERENCFS

Ascher, C. (1990). Testing students in urban schools: Current problems andnew directions. Urban Diversity Series No. 100. New York: ERICClearinghouse on Urban Education, Teachers College, ColumbiaUniversity.

Au, K. H. (1993). Literacy instruction in multicultural settings. New York:Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.

CaliforniaDepartment ofEducation. (1992). With history-socialsciencefor allaccessfor every student. Sacramento, CA: California Department ofEducation.

CaliforniaDepartmentofEducation. (1994). R30language census. Sacramento,CA: Statewide Educational Demographics Unit.

California State Department ofEducation. (1988). History-social scienceframework for California public schools kindergarten through gradetwelve. CA: CaliforniaDepartment ofEducation.

Crawford, A. N. (1994). Communicative approaches to second languageacquisition: From oral language development into the core curriculumand L2 literacy. In C. F. Leyba (Ed.), Schooling and language minoritystudents: A theoreticalframework (pp. 99-104). Los Angeles, CA:Evaluation, Dissemination and Assessment Center, California StateUniversity, Los Angeles.

Cummins, J. (1994). Primary language instruction andthe educationoflanguageminority students. In C. F. Leyba (Ed.), Schooling and languageminority students: A theoreticalframework (pp. 10-14). Los Angeles,CA: Evaluation Dissemination and Assessment Center, CaliforniaState University, Los Angeles.

Cziko, G. A. (1992). The evaluation ofbilingual education. EducationalResearcher, 21, 10-15

Dewey, J. (1963). Experience and education. New York: Collier Books.Freeman, Y. S., & Freeman, D. E. (1992). Whole languagefor secondlanguage

learners. Portsmouth,NH: Heinemann.Ginsburg, H., & Opper, S. (1969). Piaget stheory ojintellectual development.

EnglewoodCliffs,NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.Hakuta, K. (1986). Mirror oflanguage: The debate on bilingualism. New York:

Basic Books.Hallinan, M. T., & Teixeira, R. A. (1987). Students' interracial friendships:

Individual characteristics, structural effects, and racial differences.American Journal ofEducation, 95, 563-583.

Kagan, S., & McGroarty, M. (1994). Principles ofcooperative learning forlanguage and content gains. In D. D. Holt (Ed.), Cooperative learninga response to linguistic and cultural diversity (pp. 48-58). Washington,DC: Delta Systems, Inc. and ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages andLinguistics.


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Krashen, S. D. (1994). Bilingual education and second language acquisition theory. In C. F. Leyba (Ed.), Schooling and language minority students: A theoreticalframework (pp. 47-73). Los Angeles, CA: Evaluation Dissemination and Assessment Center, California State University, Los Angeles.

Lindholm, K., & Fairchild, H. H. (1990). Bilingual proficiency evaluation of an elementary school bilingual immersion program. In A. M. Padilla, H. H. Fairchild, & C. M. Valadez (Eds.), Bilingual education issues and strategies (pp. 126-136). Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.

Lucas, T. (1993). Applying elements of effective secondary schooling for language minority students: A tool for reflection and stimulus to change. Washington, DC: National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education.

Minicucci, C , & Olsen, L. (1992). Programs for secondary limited English proficient students: A California study. Washington, DC: National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education.

Moran, C. E., & Hakuta, K. ( 1995). Bilingual education: Broadening research perspectives. In J. A. Banks & C. A. McGee (Eds.), Handbook of research on multicultural education (pp. 445-462). New York: Macmillan Publishing.

Padilla, A. M. (1990). Bilingual education: Issues and perspectives. In A. M. Padilla, H. H. Fairchild, & C. M. Valadez (Eds.), Bilingual education issues and strategies (pp. 11-26). Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.

Patchen, M. (1992). Black-white contact in schools: Its social and academic effects. West Lafayette, EN: Purdue University Press.

Slavin, R. E. (1995). Cooperative learning and intergroup relations. In J. A. Banks & C. A. McGee (Eds.), Handbook of research on multicultural education (pp. 628-634). New York: Macmillan Publishing.

Tompkins, G. E., & Hoskisson, K. ( 1995). Language arts content and teaching strategies. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Willig, A. C. (1985). A meta-analysis of selected studies on the effectiveness of bilingual education. Review of Educational Research, 55,269-317.


Krashen, S. D. (1994). Bilingual education and second language acquisitiontheory. In C. F. Leyba (Ed.), Schooling and language minoritystudents: A theoreticalframework (pp. 47-73). Los Angeles, CA:Evaluation Dissemination and Assessment Center, California StateUniversity, Los Angeles.

Lindholm, K., & Fairchild, H. H. (1990). Bilingualproficiency evaluationofanelementary school bilingual immersionprogram. In A. M. Padilla, H.H. Fairchild, & C. M. Valadez (Eds.), Bilingual education issues andstrategies (pp. 126-136). Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.

Lucas, T. (1993). Applying elements ofeffective secondary schoolingforlanguage minority students: A toolfor reflection and stimulus tochange. Washington, DC: National Clearinghouse for BilingualEducation.

Minicucci, C., & Olsen, L. (1992). Programsfor secondary limitedEnglishprojicient students: A California study. Washington, DC: NationalClearinghouse for Bilingual Education.

Moran, C. E., & Hakuta, K. (1995). Bilingual education: Broadening researchperspectives. In J. A. Banks & C. A. McGee (Eds.), Handbook ofresearch on multicultural education (pp. 445-462). New York:MacmillanPublishing.

Padilla, A. M. (1990). Bilingual education: Issues and perspectives. In A. M.Padilla, H. H. Fairchild, & C. M. Valadez (Eds.), Bilingual educationissues andstrategies (pp. 11-26). Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.

Patchen, M. (1992). Black-white contact in schools: Its social and academiceffects. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press.

Slavin, R. E. (1995). Cooperative learning and intergroup relations. In J. A.Banks & C. A. McGee (Eds.), Handbook ofresearch on multiculturaleducation (pp. 628-634). NewYork: MacmillanPublishing.

Tompkins, G. E., & Hoskisson, K. (1995). Language arts contentandteachingstrategies. EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Willig, A. C. (1985). A meta-analysis ofselected studies on the effectivenessof bilingual education. Review ofEducational Research, 55,269-317.


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