the role of teacher education in preparing teachers for critical multicultural citizenship

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

The Journal of Social Studies Research

The Journal of Social Studies Research ] (]]]]) ]]]–]]]

http://d0885-98

☆ AntColumbcontext

An eaThe aut

n Tel.:E-m

Pleasmult

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jssr

The role of teacher education in preparing teachers for criticalmulticultural citizenship$

Antonio J. Castro n

University of Missouri-Columbia, Department of Learning, Teaching and Curriculum, 303 Townsend Hall, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:
Accepted 14 February 2014
This article examines the influence of a teacher education program designed to promoteaspects of critical multicultural citizenship on the views of preservice teachers' concerning

Keywords:CitizenshipTeacher educationMulticultural educationDemocratic educationCivic practicesCivic education

x.doi.org/10.1016/j.jssr.2014.02.0065X/Copyright & 2014, The International Soc

onio J. Castro is an assistant professor at theia, MO 65211; [email protected]. His res and urban schools, as well as multiculturarlier version of this manuscript was presenthor wishes to thank Anthony Brown, Cinthiaþ1 573 882 1993.ail address: [email protected]

e cite this article as: Castro,icultural citizenship. The Journal of

a b s t r a c t

citizenship education for culturally diverse contexts. The findings are based on a casestudy of four minority preservice teachers who attended a large research university in theSouthwest and who expressed beliefs related to critical multicultural citizenship. Twoquestions guided this study: Where did participants acquire their views on citizenshipand citizenship education? What role did their teacher education program play infostering their views of citizenship education? Findings from this study illuminatednuances in the interaction between participants' prior beliefs about teaching for citizen-ship education and those ideas expressed in the teacher education program. Whileparticipants clung soundly to prior experiences, they often borrowed terminology andtools that were explicitly conveyed in the teacher education program to both express theirideas and to frame their classroom practices. Implications for teacher educators arediscussed.Copyright & 2014, The International Society for the Social Studies. Published by Elsevier,

Inc.

Introduction

Because public schools in America have long been associated with preparing youth for citizenship (Hahn, 2008), teacherscarry the burden of being the bearers of democracy for the next generation of citizens. According to Evans (2008), “schoolsprovide fertile grounds for investigating civic learning, where the diverse dimensions of democratic citizenship can beexplored, nurtured, and experienced” (p. 519). However, in the twenty-first century rapid demographic shifts in the UnitedStates (Villegas, 2008), as well as increased immigration (Zong, Wilson, & Quashiga, 2008), continue to alter the wayswe define and view citizenship education. These changes affect the stances individuals take with regard to citizenship.While some argue vehemently against anything but a nationalistic view of citizenship (Schlessinger, 1992), many scholars

iety for the Social Studies. Published by Elsevier, Inc.

University of Missouri-Columbia, Department of Learning, Teaching, and Curriculum, 211F Townsend,search interests include the recruitment, preparation, and retention of teachers for culturally diversel citizenship and democratic education.ed at the 2010 College and University Faculty Assembly of the National Council for the Social Studies.Salinas, Candace Kuby, Rebecca Aguayo and members of his writing group for support on this paper.

A. J. The role of teacher education in preparing teachers for criticalSocial Studies Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jssr.2014.02.006i

www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/0885985X

www.elsevier.com/locate/jssr

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jssr.2014.02.006



mailto:[email protected]





A.J. Castro / The Journal of Social Studies Research ] (]]]]) ]]]–]]]2

acknowledge the importance of adopting multicultural identities in citizenship education and learning to transverse variouscultural landscapes (Banks, 2008; Merryfield & Wilson, 2005; Ukpokodu, 1999).

Banks (2001) called on teacher educators to prepare teachers to meet the challenges of multicultural citizenship. Hespecifically asked teacher educators to help future teachers to “critically analyze and rethink their notions of race, culture,and ethnicity and to view themselves as cultural and racial beings” (p. 11) and “to reconstruct race, culture, and ethnicity inways that are inclusive and that reveal the ways in which these concepts are related to the social, economic, and politicalstructures in U.S. society” (pp. 11–12). Despite efforts among teacher education scholars to address the multicultural realitiesin the classroom, research studies consistently find that preservice teachers hold naïve and simplistic views about culturaldiversity (Author, no date; Bartolome, 1994; Middleton, 2002; Montecinos & Rios, 1999; Mueller & O'Connor, 2007) andlikewise demonstrate shallow understandings of and limited experiences with citizenship and democracy, especially withregard to cultural plurality (Avery & Walker, 1993; Gallavan, 2008; Kickbusch, 1987; Martin, 2008; Mathews & Dilworth,2008; Rubin & Justice, 2005; Sunal, Kelley, & Sunal, 2009). Understanding how to better prepare teachers for multiculturalcitizenship represents an ever-pressing need for teacher education.

Indeed, Lowenstein (2009) declared “there is a need to research how learning experiences are interpreted and givenmeaning by teacher education program participants” (p. 164). This attention to how preservice teachers interact with,experience, and internalize new insights about cultural diversity has been addressed in only a few research studies (Author,no date). Taken as a whole, these studies suggest a variety of experiences that beginning teachers have which help themachieve deeper critical awareness of multicultural concerns. These include prior experiences interacting with culturallydiverse others, especially through multicultural friends (Adams, Bondy, & Kuhel, 2005; Dee & Henkin, 2002; Smith, 2000);community service and/or activism (Adams et al., 2005; Garmon, 2004; McCall, 1995); family attitudes towards race andsocial justice (Dee & Henkin, 2002; McCall, 1995; Smith, 2000; Smith, Moallem, & Sherrill, 1997); personal experiences ofoppression and discrimination (Author, no date; McCall, 1995; Smith et al., 1997); and opportunities for critical reflection ofself and society (Garmon, 2004; Smith, 2000). Furthermore, the research literature indicates that preservice teachers whohave acquired this openness to multicultural issues tend to seek out greater interactions with culturally diverse others andengage in reflective activities that increase their critical awareness of issues of injustices (Castro, 2010a).

While these studies offer insights about the possible precursors for the acceptance of diversity, they fail to trace the waysin which these prior experiences inform how preservice teachers acquire new knowledge, dispositions, and skills related toteaching for diversity. In addition, these studies may lead to an assumption that preservice teachers who are open todiversity and multicultural citizenship already enter teacher education that way. Doubts about the transformative nature ofteacher education certainly arise as a result of such an assumption.

To address these doubts, this paper reports on the findings of a case study of how four preservice teachers came to adoptthe tenets of critical multicultural citizenship and their experiences within a social studies teacher education programdesigned to promote values of social justice, multicultural education, and critical citizenship. This study extends the work ofsocial studies educators (Castro, 2010a, 2013; Castro et el, 2012; Conklin, Hawley, Powell, & Ritter, 2010; Lewis, 2001;Mathews & Dilworth, 2008; Robinson, 2007; Sevier, 2005) who attempt to increase our understanding of how best toprepare teachers for diverse communities, by tracing the influence of prior beliefs and experiences on participants' responseto their teacher education program. This study addresses two research questions: Where did participants acquire their viewson citizenship and citizenship education? What role did their teacher education program play in fostering their views ofcitizenship education?

Critical multicultural citizenship and contexts of the teacher education program

At the time of this study, I worked alongside Dr. Eva Maria Gomez,1 who strove to instill the ideals and teaching practicesassociated with critical multicultural citizenship in the social studies teacher education program. Here, I briefly define thetenets of critical multicultural citizenship and discuss how the participants' social studies teacher education programfostered these tenets.

Critical multicultural citizenship

Critical multicultural citizenship (CMC) draws from the work of scholars who connect citizenship education with theaims of multicultural education (Banks, 2004; Banks & Nguyen, 2008; Dilworth, 2004; Marri, 2003, 2005, 2008; Mathews &Dilworth, 2008; Parker, 1996, 2003). The goal of multicultural citizenship education, according to Dilworth (2004), “is notjust the students' awareness of, and participation in, the political aspects of democracy, but also the students' ability tocreate and live in an ethnically diverse and just community” (pp. 56–57). CMC finds its roots in critical multiculturalism thatcombines multicultural education with critical theory and criticizes superficial approaches to multicultural education thateither fail to challenge the Eurocentric basis for school curriculum or have become “domesticated” or de-politicized(McCarthy, 1993; McLaren, 1995; Nieto, 1995). Its aim is to “transform those classroom structures and practices thatperpetuate undemocratic life” (Darder, Baltodano, & Torres, 2003, p. 11). Therefore, like other forms of critical citizenship

1 All names in this manuscript are pseudonyms.

Please cite this article as: Castro, A. J. The role of teacher education in preparing teachers for criticalmulticultural citizenship. The Journal of Social Studies Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jssr.2014.02.006i




A.J. Castro / The Journal of Social Studies Research ] (]]]]) ]]]–]]] 3

(transformative citizenship, social-justice oriented citizenship, cultural citizenship, critical global citizenship), CMC strivestowards social justice.

Critical multicultural citizenship embodies three major ideas: challenging gaps between the rhetoric of democracy andthe reality of democracy; promoting critical reflection and consciousness; and encouraging collective action, or activism, as away to transform institutional barriers to democracy. Teachers who teach for critical multicultural citizenship educationexemplify these tenets in their classroom practices. First, teachers teach skills for social change, such as the ability to makeinformed decisions by evaluating evidence from multiple perspectives (Banks, 1997; Ochoa-Becker, 2007; Parker & Hess,2001). Second, teachers critique and expand on official school knowledge by emphasizing the central place of marginalizedgroup members' perspectives in instruction (Boyle-Baise, 1996, 2003; Marri, 2005). Third, teachers help students grapplewith current situations and events, highlighting ways in which democracy is served or not served, and promoting criticaland reflective thought (Kincheloe, 1999, 2001). Finally, teachers call attention to institutional inequity and ask students tocritically analyze institutional injustice. As a result, both teachers and students act as partners in the quest to critique andchallenge political and community structures that perpetuate inequity (Dilworth, 2004).

Curriculum of teacher education program

The secondary social studies program in the college of education consisted of two consecutive semesters of courseworkand related field service experiences, which consciously integrated and promoted the themes, skills, and dispositionsnecessary for teaching for CMC. At the time of this study, participants took the two courses, Secondary Social StudiesMethods and Advanced Social Studies Methods, with the same faculty member (Dr. Gomez) leading the instruction toprovide greater program continuity. In accord with the research on teacher education program design (Darling-Hammond &Bransford, 2005; Howey, 1996), the social studies program centered on six major foci for preparing teachers, which includedpedagogy and curriculum, constructivist design, classroom management, technology usage, culturally responsive teaching,and reflective practice. In addition to these larger goals, the social studies teacher education program also challengedpreservice teachers to consider aspects of CMC throughout the instructional program in at least three important ways.

First, in the Secondary Social Studies Methods taught in the Fall of 2007, participants engaged with issues related tohistorical thinking, the “official” curriculum, and constructing counter-narratives of social studies content. Participantscompleted two major projects (Loewen Projects) based on the reading of Lies My Teacher Told Me, by Loewen (1995), inwhich they read one of the chapters in Loewen's text that illustrated how U.S. history textbooks often distort, misrepresent,or ignore the history or perspectives of marginalized groups of people while at the same time presenting a “heroic” image ofAmerica and Americans. After reading their chapter with a partner, participants analyzed three currently adopted textbooksto determine if Loewen's analysis still applied to today's textbooks.

After their initial investigation, students in partner teams then sought to identify an additional gap, distortion ormisrepresentation in current textbooks. These students researched a specific area of history by locating primary sourcedocuments that included photographs, letters, diaries, and editorial cartoons. The students created a website that illustratedtheir project topic, provided access to these resources, and suggested activities or document-based questions for teachers.Through these activities, students critically questioned the textbooks, especially with regard to the silenced history ofmarginalized groups and distortions of the historical narrative that present America in a progressive and positive light.These projects reinforced the idea that curriculum and texts are not neutral (Apple, 1992), but are instead seeped in thebiases and ideologies of the authors (Zinn, 2003). These major projects assisted students in (1) identifying where therhetoric found in textbooks did not match the reality of democracy; and (2) in being critically reflective and conscious ofcurriculum that disregards the perspectives of marginalized peoples.

Second, the teacher education program taught skills necessary for implementing the practice of critical multiculturalcitizenship. These skills incorporated not only culturally responsive classroom instruction (Gay, 2002; Ladson-Billings, 1995),but also strategies for curriculum differentiation (Tomlinson, 2004) and for meeting the needs of diverse learners, such asEnglish language learners (Szpara & Ahmad, 2007). Furthermore, in the social studies instruction, key components ofdiscussion and deliberation were addressed, and students responded to works written by Walter Parker and Diane Hess(Hess & Avery, 2008; Parker, 2003; Parker & Hess, 2001). Then, the instructor taught about teaching for controversial issuesand for disrupting the “official curriculum” (Stanley & Longwell, 2004) and/or “master narrative” (Alridge, 2006), whichwas defined as representing an idealized version of the American and Western past that silences the contributions ofmarginalized groups (Author, no date). Finally, students discussed a series of articles meant to challenge their thinking aboutconstructing classroom communities (Ladson-Billings, 1995; McCadden, 1998; Monroe, 2006; Ross & Bondy, 1993; Weiner,2003). These skills relate directly to the four teaching practices consistent with teaching for CMC. First, students learnedhow to utilize multiple perspectives in their teaching, especially with regard to marginalized voices. Second, these skills givestudents the ability to critique and expand upon the “official school knowledge” found in most social studies texts andcurriculum. Third, the use of discussion strategies (deliberation, seminar) and skills in presenting controversial issuesallowed students the ability to identify current situations where democracy has not been realized. Fourth, these skills alsoallow opportunities for students to identify ways in which institutions reinforced injustices in society. Skills in culturallyresponsive teaching and curriculum differentiation provided valuable tools for teachers to teach in diverse settings.

The program facilitated aspects of CMC by exposing students to specific models of citizenship education that mirroredaspects of CMC through guest speakers and events. For example, a colleague in bilingual education spoke about teaching






multicultural citizenship for immigrant youth who were also English language learners and provoked important questionsabout how citizenship might be framed differently by immigrant youth. In addition, guests from the Annette Straus Institute,an organization dedicated to democratic education, provided video examples of how teachers facilitated high schoolstudents to be involved in civic action projects that sought to address social justice issues. Finally, students were encouragedto participate in a workshop sponsored by the National Holocaust Museum to discuss how to incorporate issues related tothe human rights abuses and Holocaust in the classroom. In addition to the assigned readings on citizenship and democraticeducation (e.g., Banks, 1990, 2004; Parker, 2003), these guest speakers and events helped to give students more concreteunderstanding about the practice of teaching for critical multicultural citizenship.

These program assignments, lessons, activities and guest presentations were thoughtfully constructed by Dr. Gomez withthe specific intention of promoting the tenets of critical multicultural citizenship education. However, as is the case for allteacher education programs, teacher education students bring their own beliefs, values, and assumptions into theireducation training. This case study investigated the influence of the teacher education program on participants' views ofcitizenship education as revealed by the participants themselves.

Methodology

This multiple case study (Stake, 2005) explored how four preservice teachers enrolled in a social studies teachereducation program responded to curricular and instructional components designed to promote tenets of critical multi-cultural citizenship. Data collection involved a mixture of observation, interviews, reflective journals, and work samplesfrom the participants. Data pieces sought to uncover participants' views about citizenship, what influences informed theirviews on citizenship, and what role they ascribed to their teacher education experiences in informing thoughts oncitizenship education. For the purposes of this paper, I only analyzed data that dealt strictly with participants' responses totheir teacher education program and, therefore, I did not utilize observational data of their teaching practices. (For adescription of participants' teaching practices, see Castro, 2010b).

Participants

This study focused on four student teachers all from diverse cultural backgrounds: Audrey (African American), Jose andJoaquin (Latinos), and Isabella (bi-racial, African American and White) (see Table 1). Audrey and Isabella had attendeddiverse public high schools located on the outskirts of a large city. Jose and Joaquin both grew up in a region populatedprimarily by Latinos in South Texas. While Joaquin came from a higher socio-economic background than Jose, bothinteracted with a variety of others across class boundaries. All of these participants exhibited beliefs consistent with theideals of critical multicultural citizenship and implemented these beliefs in their teaching (see Castro, 2010b); however, thiswas not a criterion for inclusion into the study. As minority teachers, these participants reported having many of the lifeexperiences suggested by researchers that would lead to a greater appreciation for diversity (Castro, 2010a; Salinas & Castro,2010). In addition, consistent with the research literature on minority teachers, all participants expressed an interest inteaching for social justice (Su, 1997; Villegas & Davis, 2008).

While all participants in this study were minorities, initial recruitment for the study involved all participants in theteacher education program. One White preservice teacher joined the study, but withdrew due to time constraints.Furthermore, this manuscript represents findings that emerged later from reanalyzing the data with respect to concernsabout which influences participants attributed to forming their views on citizenship education and what impact theirteacher education program might have had on those views. The researcher had no knowledge that participants would adoptthe values of CMC prior to conducting the study.

Table 1Participants.

Name ofparticipant

Ethnic/racialbackground

Major influences on citizenship and citizenship education

Audrey African American Cultural biography—being African American in an predominantly middle-class, suburban White high school;acknowledging race as a central part of her identityTaking a college course on the Globalization of Africa that addressed the colonial and post-colonial issues

Isabella Bi-racial (AfricanAmerican andWhite)

Cultural biography—being bi-racial, seeing self as a metaphor for “melting pot”High school history teacher who made history relevant

Jose Latino Cultural biography—being a migrant worker in South Texas and in Wisconsin, experiencing racial discriminationfrom White peers in schoolTaking a college course on History of the West and History of Native Americans, what description the oppression ofIndians in the U.S.Reading Pedagogy of the Oppressed by Paulo Freire

Joaquin Latino Cultural biography—being Latino and growing in a border town with a majority Latino populationHigh school history teacher who introduced him to Howard Zinn's People's History of the United StatesAttending a Human Rights class in Buenos Aires, where he witnessed extreme poverty






At the time of the study, I served as the university supervisor for these students. In my role, I was not responsible forgrading major assignments and, therefore, I avoided any power dynamics that might occur between a student and aprofessor. In addition, as a minority researcher, I felt I was able to create strong personal connections with the participantsand engage in frank discussions about issues related to CMC.

Data collection and analysis

This case study began early in the Spring of 2008, at the start of the second semester courses and continued into thesummer after participants completed their certification program and graduated from the university. At the beginning of thestudy, participants consented to give the researcher access to work samples from the first semester course (Fall, 2007). Dataanalyzed for this study included interviews, journal responses, and assignments completed as part of participants'experiences in social studies coursework. (Again, analysis of participants' teaching and observational data is discussedelsewhere (Castro, 2010b).)

First, three semi-structured interviews occurred throughout the second semester of coursework (see Appendix A). Thefirst interview captured the participants' views on social studies teaching and the major themes that formed part of thesocial studies education program. Participants were also asked to differentiate their own views from those promoted in theirteacher education program. The second interview occurred in the weeks just after the semester and asked participants toexpound on their views of teaching social studies content, citizenship education, and curriculum decision-making. In finalinterview, participants reflected back on their entire social studies education program.

Other data collected for the study included participant journals and work samples. Throughout the semester, participantselectronically submitted journals in which they responded to a series of questions about social studies content, citizenship,and teaching in diverse classrooms. Work samples included the participants' submissions for the Loewen Projects,2 weeklylesson plans submitted during the student teaching semester, and a final reflective paper where participants reviewed theirprofessional growth and development and recounted the influences that have helped them change in their thinking andpractice as teachers.

I employed a variety of analytical techniques to make sense of the data. I first created a set of initial codes, whichincluded views on democracy and citizenship, social studies teaching, prior experiences, and past influences, from which tocode each data piece. Then, I employed a constant-comparative data analysis method to the within-case analysis (Boeiji,2002; Pidgeon & Henwood, 2004). For example, when coding the data, I coded each of the data components (interviews,journals, work samples) separately and identified emergent categories. Then, I compared these categories across the datatypes to create deeper and more nuanced findings.

After completing the within-case analyses, I then created a matrix system (Miles & Huberman, 1994) to organize anddisplay the data for each of the participants. Inside this matrix, a list of themes emerging from each case along withreferences to supporting data were organized for each participant to allow for both cross-case categorization, as well forattending to the unique contexts of each case (Miles & Huberman, 1994). As a result, the analyses sought to build well-supported cross-case themes, while also capturing nuances in the data specific to each case.

Trustworthiness techniques and limitations

I relied on data source triangulation (Stake, 1995), whereby all themes emerged across the various data sources collectedin the study. For example, when asserting that participants defined democracy as an on-going process, I identified severalstatements across the interviews, journals, and work samples that confirmed each participant communicated this view ofdemocracy. In addition, I also attempted to locate disconfirming statements across all the data pieces, as a way to bolster thestrength of each theme (Yin, 2003). Other strategies for establishing the trustworthiness of the data included first levelmember-checking (participants reviewed transcripts) and providing thick description from the data (given spacelimitations) so as to provide readers a context to determine transferability (Erlandson, Harris, Skipper, & Allen, 1993).

A couple of limitations affect the design of this study. First, data collection began in the second semester of a twosemester program sequence. Although I had access to the products participants produced in the first semester course andseveral reflective documents about participants' views of their entire program, I had no data about participants' responses tothe early part of their program as they originally happened. Second, I did not collect data about the influences of cooperatingteachers, the cooperating teachers' their views on social studies and citizenship education, or the educative impact of fieldexperiences on the particular views of citizenship held by participants. Despite these limitations, I feel that this study stilloffers valuable insights to the research community.

Future research in this area might address several issues not included in this study. For example, the role of fieldexperiences and the alignment between field experiences and teacher education must be explored. This work may alsoinvestigate how teachers negotiate differing school contexts as they implement these teaching strategies (Castro, 2010b).In addition, future studies ought to include preservice teachers from different university contexts and from dominant and

2 Although participants frequently cited the Loewen Projects as a significant influence on their views, the use of weekly lesson plans and reflectivepaper were used in the data, especially to establish triangulation of ideas.






marginalized cultures. Finally, researchers ought to consider not only students who adopt tenets proposed in a teachereducation program, but those who also resist these notions. Such findings can reveal how to structure teacher educationprograms and pedagogy to best allow for open consideration of ideas that challenge persistent ways of teaching.

Findings

Data from this study revealed that participants adopted tenets of critical multicultural citizenship. In particular, they sawdemocracy as a challenge, something not quite obtained, acknowledging both the promises and problems with democracyin America. Participants identified three major deterrents to democracy (racism, access to political power, and poverty),echoing Apple's (2004) belief that a just democracy must work towards the “advantage of the least advantaged” (p. 10).Consistent with these views, participants characterized the ideal citizen as someone who became aware of these deterrentsto democracy, similar to the notions of “critical enlightenment” (Kincheloe, 2001). Having been awakened to thesedeterrents, the citizen then pursues some form of social action to improve society, which harkens back to theemancipationist ideals of critical theory (McLaren, 1997) and Dilworth's (2004) call for civic activism as essential formulticultural citizenship. Thus, participants envisioned the ideal citizen as being both aware of these gaps and able to takesocial action so as to foster greater democracy and justice in society.

Where did participants acquire these ideas and practices? While as a social studies teacher educator I had hoped to seesome indication that teacher education practices influenced participants' adoption of the tenets of critical multiculturalcitizenship, these findings reveal much more nuanced exchanges between prior experiences and programmatic goals.Indeed, participants attributed many of their views on citizenship education to experiences they had prior to enrolling in theteacher education program. These experiences arose from their cultural biographies, prior educational experiences, andacademic coursework.

The role of prior experiences

First, as minority teachers, participants drew on their own cultural biographies to inform their views of citizenship andsocial studies education. Isabella, for example, often spoke of her multiracial background. Isabella asserted that teachersshould teach for the “melting pots” in their classroom; however, her use of the term “melting pot” did not indicateassimilation, but rather multi-ethnicity. She explained, “I'm a melting pot since I'm multiracial.” For her, teaching history andsocial studies “is a personal thing, so I know where I came from, how I became who I am.” Likewise, when asked where heacquired his views of citizenship and education, Joaquin responded, “Where did I get that [view on citizenship]? I'm fromBrownsville.” Joaquin identified his South Texas origins and his Latino past as major sources of his understanding ofdemocracy and citizenship education. Similarly, Jose referenced his experiences as a migrant worker growing up and hisencounters with racism. Audrey spoke of race and class as defining factors in her views, coming from an upper middle-classAfrican American home located in a predominantly White suburb.

Other prior experiences, such as those in educational settings, influenced the way these participants viewed democraticand citizenship education, some of which participants sought out. Several participants recalled teachers who had influencedthem. In a journal response, Isabella recalled her 11th grade social studies teacher as a person who “was able to bring historyalive.” Joaquin described his high school social studies teacher, who had students read The Peoples’ History of the UnitedStates (Zinn, 2003) and learn about multiple perspectives in social studies. Finally, Audrey related how one of her historyprofessors taught her how to see history from a critical viewpoint. “He really taught us how to just look at things and look atwhat perspective, who's perspective it is coming from.” These encounters with instructors who modeled aspects of teachingfor CMC prior to their teacher education program reinforced much of the academic instruction participants later received inthe social studies education program.

Participants also reported academic coursework and other experiences at the college level that fostered their under-standing of democracy, citizenship, and social studies education. Jose described his experiences with taking history courses,such as History of the West and History of Native Americans, from a professor who taught about race and oppression. Jose alsolearned about critical pedagogy from a class that his girlfriend was taking, reading excerpts from Pedagogy of the Oppressed(Freire, 1999) and various articles assigned to his girlfriend's class, leading him to define himself as a “critical social studiesteacher.” Likewise, Audrey learned about the view of the subaltern from her Globalization of Africa class. In describing thiscourse and its professor in her journal, Audrey wrote, “Dr. Williams was really big on making sure that the ‘subaltern’ wasable to have a voice in history. I feel that as a history teacher I have a duty to make sure that the students are presented withmore than one perspective.” Finally, Joaquin described taking a human rights class in Buenos Aires, where he witnessedextreme poverty along the outskirts of the city. Participants sought out these experiences in their desire to learn more aboutissues of equity, diversity, and citizenship. These prior experiences played a powerful role in shaping the views and teachingpractices of participants with regards to critical multicultural citizenship.

The role of teacher education

Reflecting on the role of teacher education, Isabella asserted in her last journal, “My mind has not changed as to thepurpose of a social studies teacher.” However, she indicated that teacher education experiences helped her refine her sense






of teaching: “I really didn't have like a theory of what I thought about teaching social studies until I got into her [Gomez]class. She made me think about what my approach to social studies was, teaching philosophy, things like that.” As illustratedby Isabella's quote, participants often came into the teacher education program predisposed to a view of social studiesteaching, but looked to the concepts and strategies taught in their social studies teacher education program to redefinethese views and define how to implement these ideas in the classroom. Here I illuminate three ways in which participantsinteracted with their teacher education experiences.

The comparative-evaluative processFirst, participants utilized a comparative thinking process, actively making connections between prior experiences and

instructional approaches of the teacher education program. Jose reflected, “I kind of see where I came from, the classes I had,my experiences. Then I saw what Gomez had to tell me. You know, I see comparisons. It just developed from there.” Here,Jose demonstrates how participants actively made comparisons between their prior experiences with the kinds ofinstructional strategies taught in their teacher education program. Even Joaquin, who attributed his views of citizenshipeducation to his Latino heritage and experiences growing up along the border, admitted that a variety of influencesinformed his thinking and approach to teaching social studies,

Pleamul

A little bit [of how I acquired my views on citizenship education] was slowly part of the teacher education program,part of it was some of my human rights class in Buenos Aires. Parts of it was my high school classes. Part of it was fromI guess from my own digging into different books. Pieces from everything.

Joaquin's use of the word “slowly” suggests that he may have initially struggled with some of the concepts, such ashistorical thinking and constructivist approaches that were presented as tools for critical multicultural citizenship educationin the teacher education program. Even as he credited teacher education as one of the sources for his views on citizenshipeducation, his comments illustrated the evaluative nature of his interaction with the teacher education content.

Isabella's description of how she came to adopt Gomez's approach to teaching further illuminates the comparativetensions exhibited by participants in the teacher education program:

I get a lot of what I think from her, because I do agree with how she taught the class. At first, I was like why are wedoing this? You know, what is the point of things? But now, I see it. You know, the focus on the importance of primarysources, historical thinking, and things like that. I really like the idea [engaging students in sources] rather than justhaving them read the stupid [text]book…I really liked her approach to teaching. I guess that's where I get [myteaching approach] from.

Significantly, Isabella stated that she “agree[d]” with the way the Gomez taught the class, indicating that at some levelshe engaged in a comparative-evaluative process, much like Jose. However, like Joaquin, she also communicated tensionsbetween adopting aspects of Gomez's instructional approach and keeping her own views on teaching. Her admission, “Butnow, I see it,” shows that like Joaquin, Isabella, although fairly secure about her views on social studies and citizenshipeducation, was able to consider the benefits of programmatic philosophy and views on critical multicultural citizenship.Hence, while participants actively made connections between prior experiences and teacher education instruction, theseconnections did not come easily as students struggled to integrate Gomez's instructional tools and philosophy with theirprior experiences.

Like the others, Audrey also discussed the influence of Gomez on her teaching philosophy. She explained,

She [Gomez] was looking at Sexias [constructivist teaching] and the Blooms [scaffolding using Bloom's Taxonomy],you know, the questioning and high-level questioning and high-level thinking and going into steps to get to thathigher level…I would like to do [that]. Gomez was big on student centered learning too. And I think I might be a littlebit more on the teachers' side [direct instruction]. I am bit more about student centered [teaching], but I think I mightlike more the teacher also giving [direct instruction] than maybe Gomez would like…So I think that is the onlydifference that we might have. Obviously, she's much better at historical thinking than I am.

Like the others, Audrey engaged in the comparative process and pinpointed the major difference between her approachto social studies and citizenship instruction and that expressed in her teacher education program. Even though Audreyexpressed beliefs of citizenship education that align with those of the faculty of the teacher education program, sheestablished her preference for using more direct instruction in the classroom. This quote not only revealed the tensions inthe comparative-evaluative process, but also pointed to the consistent message about citizenship education and socialstudies teaching expressed in the teacher education program. That Audrey and the others could clearly articulate Gomez'sphilosophy and instructional approach to social studies and citizenship education highlights the importance of a cohesiveeducational program as a precursor to this process.

Using instructional strategies and toolsA second way in which participants interacted with their teacher education experiences involved relying on various tools

and teaching strategies offered in their coursework, even while student teaching in the field. Rather than merely discussingvarious approaches to citizenship and social studies education, teacher education experiences were built around engaging

se cite this article as: Castro, A. J. The role of teacher education in preparing teachers for criticalticultural citizenship. The Journal of Social Studies Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jssr.2014.02.006i





students through a variety of instructional experiences and strategies, such as the Loewen Projects. I refer to theseexperiences as tools for citizenship education in that they modeled instructional activities and provided avenues forparticipants to realize the aims of critical multicultural citizenship in the classroom. These preservice teachers drew onvarious activities learned in the teacher education program, including the Loewen Projects, teaching current andcontroversial events, and the use of primary and outside sources as part of historical thinking.

As described above, the Loewen Projects allowed preservice teachers to uncover gaps, distortions, and misrepresenta-tions found in current textbooks, using Loewen's (1995) Lies My Teacher Told Me. This activity fostered conversation aboutthe shortcomings of school textbooks as historical narratives and promoted the use of primary sources and historicalthinking to present the alternative or missing narrative. Isabella recalled, “I know what historical thinking is. We did a whole[Loewen] project on it. This is, you know, basically just about primary sources and then Blooming [scaffolding].”When askedabout historical thinking, Isabella immediately connected this concept with the Loewen Projects. In a later interview, sheelaborated on her views about teaching history by saying that teachers and textbooks often portray that “American historyis so great. We are the greatest country” and responding to these portrayals with, “No, teach them how it really happened.Not only does it make it interesting, it is just a part of our history, our heritage. Some races were oppressed. They weretreated badly.” She concluded that this approach “makes history more interesting.”

As a result of the Loewen Projects, participants felt the need to present multiple perspectives about historical issues andconcerns. Joaquin described how this informed his practice as a student teacher

Pleamul

I think the main purpose is for a teacher to provide multiple perspectives on an issue and get the students to see that. Idid that with quotations [cards] a couple times. I'm like here look, here's what one leader said, and then here is whatanother leader said. “Who do you think said that?” They [students] would always get it wrong. They would think thegood president of the United States would say the awesome [thing] and the bad dictator would say the evil thing,when it was really the other way around.

Joaquin used primary source quotations to challenge common assumptions of the American historical past. Like Isabella,Joaquin found such activities to be engaging to students. The assumption embedded in Joaquin's activity here is thatstudents adopted the “heroic” image of the United States, which is often reinforced in textbooks. The Loewen Projectsbrought this limitation of textbook narratives to light.

Jose also drew upon the concepts of the Loewen Projects to inform his thinking about immigrant students in theinternational school where he student taught. Speaking about citizenship education, he said,

I can only imagine those new students that come from Cuba and “Well, democracy is the best [narrative found intextbooks].” And I know, for example, Rick [classmate] and I, we made our Loewen Project on Cuba and Cubans withthe positive things [to say] about it….I don't think it is our job to kind of try to push them [students] to one side or theother [about democracy]….I think it is for us to give them the facts, give them the information, kind of have themassess the situation and create their own questions or their own point of view.

In this quote above, Jose demonstrated how his experience completing a project on the way Cuba is represented incurrent textbooks and creating a counter-narrative to that representation influenced his views of teaching citizenshipeducation, especially in the international school where he student taught that catered to immigrants from mostly LatinAmerican countries.

In addition to the Loewen Projects, participants incorporated a variety of strategies offered in the teacher educationprogram. Isabella, for example, recalled, “We did that one activity [on current and controversial events]. I remember usreading newspapers…We had to read a newspaper article and then switch and talk to someone about it.” Isabella referred toa strategy taught in the teacher education program to advocate the use of critical questions around current and controversialissues. Isabella incorporated these ideas in her classroom teaching. “I found an article in the local newspaper aboutimmigration and citizenship and how we closed the border, but in World War II we brought in labor fromMexico to work inour war-time factories.” She shared this article with her students as a way to address the very notion of citizenship.

The immigration debate is controversial, and a lot of teachers like to shy away from it. I don't mind talking about it,bringing it up. It relates to citizenship, because it asks the question, what is a citizen? What determines a citizen?Having a green card? Having been born here? Being White, being Black, you know, Latino?

Isabella utilized current and controversial events to have her students engage in discussion about citizenship inAmerican society. By posing a set of critical questions to her students, like Jose, she led students to assess the article as apiece of information and generate their own views of the ideal citizen.

Participants borrowed from the instructional activities modeled in the teacher education program when planning andteaching their own lessons. This borrowing of the instructional tools modeled in the teacher education program, whether byusing primary sources, presenting alternative perspectives, or discussing controversial issues, highlights the importance ofproviding preservice teachers concrete examples of teaching practices that align with critical multicultural citizenship.Preservice teachers must have access to these instructional tools before they can enact CMC pedagogy.






Adopting vocabulary from teacher education programFinally, participants adopted sets of words or key phrases that were used by Gomez in the teacher education program.

This vocabulary captured concepts and ideas associated with critical multicultural citizenship, constructivist education, andhistorical thinking. Joaquin wrote about some of the overarching ideas concerning teaching strategies in a reflection near theend of the program:

Pleamul

Make it relevant; students have to feel, touch, taste social studies; the constructivist followers of lesson planning [have]everything ready for every kind of student all the time; picture books are so cool; you have to accordion [moving fromwhole class discussion to small group to whole class debriefing] and make sure you're Bloom-in [scaffolding]; youmust look at the big picture; and every different brain learns differently. [Italics added for emphasis.]

The words italicized above refer to teaching concepts and terms discussed in the social studies program. Across all theparticipant transcripts, various key words and phrases permeated the way participants spoke, wrote, and taught for criticalmulticultural citizenship. Here I discuss three related terms: relevance, multiple perspectives, and historical thinking.

First, participants used the term “relevance” to communicate the need to teach a culturally relevant and engagingpedagogy. Isabella stated, “Just to teach them history is not really relevant. You have to teach them something that is goingto make them want to learn about history. Make it so that it matters to them.” For Isabella this term translated intoincorporating personal and cultural history into her lessons. For Audrey, relevance meant making connections between thepast and the present. Jose incorporated relevance by teaching from student interest first. Joaquin focused on teachingcurrent history, as well as sparking debate about central ideas from the past that still occur today. All participants alsodiscussed the need for teaching about the cultural histories of various individuals as being engaging and relevant forstudents. The idea of teaching for relevance not only mirrors concepts of culturally relevant pedagogy, but also aligns withcritical multicultural citizenship in that students are being asked to connect the past to the present and to explore currentgaps in democracy.

Second, participants referred to different terms, “master narrative,” “disrupting the curriculum,” “multiple perspectives,”and “alternative perspectives,” to relate their understanding of both the limitations of narratives presented in the socialstudies textbooks and curriculum and how one should teach beyond these limitations. Joaquin commented, “Disrupting thecurriculum. I think it is the job of a good teacher to not just use the textbook itself, but to have the kids use other ways tolearn besides the whole textbook, worksheet.” By using the term “disrupting,” Joaquin recognized that teaching for criticalmulticultural citizenship challenges the narratives and presentation of American democracy, citizenship, and history.Likewise, Isabella described ways teachers could use “different perspectives” to bring in the voices of marginalized groupswhen teaching about the Mexican American War:

You don't want to just tell them, you know, the textbook's interpretation of history. I was so excited about my littlelesson on Manifest Destiny and the Mexican [American] War, because we learned about the different perspectives: theMexican perspective, the Anglo perspective, and the Native American perspective, and how they were going to clash.You know, the Mexican War, we really don't talk about it. Why don't we talk about it? There was racism in the idea ofmanifest destiny.

Isabella discussed using different perspectives as a tool for illuminating the racism inherent in the concepts of manifestdestiny. In her lesson, Isabella complicated simple understandings of the historical past, alluding to persistent problemsbetween the rhetoric of American democracy and its reality. Likewise, Audrey announced, “I'm really big on perspectives andwhose perspective is this from, you know, who is this leaving out.” All the participants in this study shared similarvocabulary related to “disrupting” or “multiple perspectives.” The use of these terms by participants suggests a commonagreement about the need to dismiss textbook narratives in favor of investigating other resources and viewpoints in thesocial studies.

Finally, participants all used the term “historical thinking.” Audrey defined this term in the following way:

My idea of historical thinking is thinking critically, thinking through it [content]…questioning or thinking throughlooking at different pieces and different parts to come to what's actually happened, you know, putting it all together.So not just being fed, fed, fed, and memorizing, memorizing, memorizing.

Audrey defined historical thinking as involving in-depth analysis of a variety of sources and perspectives. In the teachereducation program, the reliance on historical thinking offered preservice teachers not only justification for going beyond thetextbook, but also a way to envision teaching historical and social studies content. Joaquin described teaching for historicalthinking as providing students with a buffet of options, “Social studies has to be one big giant buffet. Give the kids a lot ofoptions, let them choose…Let them make their own choices in the social studies…There's a lot of options beyond thecurriculum, beyond that boring narrative.” Thus, historical thinking not only referred to how students critically engage withsocial studies content, but also how students encountered a variety of narratives and counter-narratives about the historicalpast and present. As a result of crafting lessons based on historical thinking, Jose concluded that “it kind of gives them[students] a sense of ownership” by allowing them to form their own decisions about pressing historical and current issues.

In combination with the instructional tools modeled in the social studies teacher education program, these three termsaddress the practices of CMC, which call on teachers to assist students in making informed decisions and address multiple






perspectives, critique and expand upon school knowledge, grapple with current events, and pay attention to the historicaland institutional deterrents to democracy. Even though these participants may have been predisposed to the conceptsof CMC as a result of their prior experiences, teacher education played an important part in shaping their views aboutcitizenship education.

Discussion

This case study addressed two questions: Where did participants acquire their views on citizenship and citizenshipeducation? What role did their teacher education program play in fostering their views of citizenship education? Findingsfrom this study revealed that participants attributed their original views about citizenship to their experiences prior toentering into the teacher education program. These prior experiences included aspects of their cultural biographies, priorexperiences in school settings, and academic coursework or collegiate experiences. While all participants pinpointed aspecific teacher or course as being influential in their thinking about citizenship, their reflections about their culturalbiographies play perhaps a more formable role in their civic worldview (see Salinas & Castro, 2010). Regardless, participantsdid acknowledge the influence of the teacher education program to help shape and refine their orientations to citizenshipeducation. Before I discuss the role of teacher education in fostering critical multicultural education, I first briefly reviewsome of the literature on the preservice teachers' prior experiences in determining educational outcomes during teachereducation.

Teacher education researchers have long reported on the dominant role that prior beliefs and experiences play inlearning to teach (Pajares, 1992; Richardson, 1996). Lorti (1975) originally coined the term “apprenticeship of observation” torefer to preservice teachers' own experiences in the classroom as students, which molds their outlook in what teachingshould entail and which practices ought to occur in the classroom. Indeed, in a classic study, Holt-Reynolds (1992) foundthat preservice teachers who preferred more teacher-directed means of teaching (e.g., lectures) were reluctant to acceptstudent-centered instructional strategies or recognize that having students listen to a lecture was not a form of activelearning. Holt-Reynold's study suggested that teacher educators held little power over the force of these previously heldbeliefs.

In this study, participants did adopt the tenets of critical multicultural citizenship, and they also engaged in a similarprocess by which they compared their views and beliefs against the overall message of their teacher education program (likethe participants in Holt-Reynolds's study). However, the findings of this study indicated a more nuanced interactionbetween participants and their teacher education program. The components of this interaction reveal essential roles forsocial studies teacher education programs and valuable insights into preparing preservice teachers for critical multiculturalcitizenship (see Fig. 1).

The first role of teacher education, as revealed in this study, involves allowing students opportunities to reexamine theirown prior experiences before adopting new alternatives. Given the literature about the persistence of textbook-basedinstruction in the social studies (Levstik, 2008; Russell, 2010), all participants shared and reflected on the ways in whichthey used textbooks as students. Building on this prior experience, participants in this study reacted favorably to the LoewenProjects, which outlined issues in textbooks narratives. Drawing on a mixture of constructivist teaching and historicalthinking, critical multicultural citizenship pedagogy was presented to participants as a possible alternative to the traditionalsocial studies, textbook-driven instruction. Through the Loewen Projects, participants made their own conclusions about thecurrent state of social studies education and textbook narratives. Joaquin asserted that “Just telling students about analternative narrative to a topic different than their textbook is not enough. Students must be able to make their ownopinions.” Simply put, Joaquin warned teachers and teacher educators to not “indoctrinate” students. Rather than merelytelling participants about the issues of “official social studies knowledge,” participants investigated these issues forthemselves.

At the other end of Fig. 1, the teacher education program serves as a means for challenging students to consider teachingbased on critical multicultural citizenship. In this study, that participants clearly articulated the philosophical stancetowards teaching held by Dr. Gomez points to the significance of creating a program around a cohesive and coherent vision.

Prior Experiences of Preservice Teachers --cultural and personal biographies --prior educational experiences (teachers, professors, study abroad) --academic coursework (readings, courses in human rights, multicultural history)

Interaction in Teacher Education --comparative-evaluative process --teacher educator modeling --deliberation and dialogue

Teacher Education Lexicon --vocabulary and concepts (multiple perspectives, relevance, historical thinking) --tools and strategies (Loewen Projects, controversial issues, counter narratives)

Fig. 1. The comparative-evaluative process.






Teacher education researchers argue that a consistent framework ought to be embedded through its coursework andactivities (Darling-Hammond, 2006; Darling-Hammond & Bransford, 2005; Howey, 1996). The findings from this studyrevealed that participants adopted both the vocabulary and tools presented in the coursework. Hence, as one of its essentialroles, the teacher education programs ought to provide a transparent lexicon about its instructional pedagogy. A lexiconrefers to a specific vocabulary and/or set of tools associated with a field of study or occupation. Learning the language andthe tools of the field allows individuals access to participate within that community of practice (Lave & Wenger, 1991). Insocial studies education, such a lexicon might include concepts such as historical or geographic thinking, standards ofevidence, and historical narratives. In this study, vocabulary and tools associated with critical multicultural citizenshipincluded master narratives, disrupting the narrative, multiple perspectives, and relevance. For multicultural teachereducation, Milner (2010) identified key concepts that could form a lexicon that included the myth of meritocracy, deficitthinking, and low teacher expectations.

Teacher education must also offer tools or strategies in addition vocabulary. In this study, Dr. Gomez provided studentswith specific tools for implementing these concepts into classroom practice, which included classroom deliberation anddiscussions, analyzing texts and historical narratives, utilizing and teaching for critical thinking, facilitating the use ofoutside resources, and engaging students in analysis of a variety of primary sources (primary source documents, politicalcartoons, and images). These teaching tools enabled preservice teachers to see how critical multicultural citizenship can beenacted in the classroom. Kennedy (1999) emphasized the role of teacher educators in providing these enactment tools. Inher work, she discovered that preservice teachers may adopt a conceptual frame for teaching, such as constructivist teachingor critical multicultural citizenship, but lack a vision for how to implement these ideas. In this study, participants not onlyidentified what a master narrative was, but through Loewen Projects, they constructed their own counter narratives ofmarginalized or misrepresented groups. These skills modeled how they can facilitate conversations about historicalnarratives with students through discussions of controversial issues, exploration of the perspectives of others andinvestigations into the histories of marginalized communities.

Finally, the middle of Fig. 1 captures the interaction between the prior experiences of the preservice teacher and thecohesive message of the teacher education program. The role of teacher education ought to create an open forum fordiscussing what we should teach and how we should teach in the social studies. For critical multicultural citizenship, theseconversations inevitably lead to topics such as racial oppression, dominant/master narratives, and equity in the classroom.As Moule (2012) noted, engaging in this dialog can be unsettling for beginning teachers who may feel that their worldviewsare being challenged. Ways in which instructors work with preservice teachers through these topics influence howpreservice teachers participate in the comparative-evaluative process. Teacher educators must first see preservice teachers,regardless of their background as “learners” (Lowenstein, 2009). Teacher educators should also model the kinds ofcompassion and understanding that must be associated with any critical multicultural or social justice oriented citizenshipeducation (Conklin, 2008). This modeling means that teacher educators share in a transparent manner their commitmentsto issues of social justice, critical multicultural citizenship, and equity in the classroom. However, Sevier, 2005 discoveredthat preservice teachers must also be allowed opportunities to see how social justice issues relate to them and theirexperiences. Thus, this interaction between teacher educators and preservice teachers involves a kind of conceptual give-and-take. At the heart of this process, teacher educators and preservice teachers engage in constructive deliberation aboutthe problems inherent in society, schools, and social studies education.

In this study, the participants were minority teachers who had prior experiences that predisposed them towards moresocial justice-oriented views of teaching. Even so, their responses to the teacher education program communicate a need toenvision teacher education as a dialog, one in which teacher educators must establish a sense of clarity about the purpose,aims, and philosophy they wish to bring into this dialog. While the goal of teacher education often centers on increasing thecapacity of preservice teachers to teach for diversity, building this capacity must begin in partnership with the studentsthemselves. In short, teacher educators must allow space for the comparative-evaluative process to occur, for self-reflection,and even for students to challenge the methodology or philosophy being proposed in the teacher education program. Ifpreservice teachers and teacher educators agree that the traditional mode of teaching social studies (textbook-driven,didactic in nature) is a major concern, then deliberation about critical multicultural citizenship education as an alternative tothe traditional method can ensue.

Appendix A

First interview protocol

�

Pm

Becoming a social studies teacher○ What do you think is the purpose of teaching social studies?○ How has your thinking about becoming a social studies teacher changed since you first entered the teacher education

program?○ What experience in the teacher education program has had the most influence on your philosophy about teaching

social studies?○ How has your field experience contributed to your sense of teaching social studies?

leault
se cite this article as: Castro, A. J. The role of teacher education in preparing teachers for criticalicultural citizenship. The Journal of Social Studies Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jssr.2014.02.006i



�


�

�

Pm

Constructivist instruction○ What is your sense of constructivist teaching?○ How have you been able to apply constructivist teaching in your classroom practice?○ What challenges have you faced in applying constructivist teaching?○ How is constructivist teaching related to historical thinking? Is it?

leault

Classroom teaching, management, and discipline○ Right now, how would you describe your management philosophy?○ How has your thinking changed about classroom management and discipline since you began your last

semester?○ What strengths do you feel you have in terms of your classroom teaching?○ What weaknesses do you feel you would like to improve about your classroom practice?
Issues of diversity and culturally responsive teaching○ What have you learned about teaching in a culturally and linguistically diverse classroom?○ What experiences have you had so far teaching with culturally and linguistically diverse students? What have you
learned as a result of those experiences?○ How would you reevaluate the selection of social studies/historical materials and/or your teaching practices for

culturally and linguistically diverse students?○ How prepared do you feel to work with students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds?○ What else would you like to learn when it comes to teaching culturally and linguistically diverse students?

Second interview protocol

Context of the student teaching experience

1.
Describe your student teaching experience? Explain. 2. Describe your cooperating teacher's philosophy/approach to teaching social studies? In what ways was your
cooperating teacher's philosophy/approach to teaching social studies similar to and different from your approach?Explain.

3.
In what ways do you feel that your philosophy/approach of teaching social studies was similar to or different from thephilosophy communicated by Dr. Gomez?
4.
How has your philosophy and approach to teaching social studies changed since you began the student teachingsemester? (What accounts for the stability/change?)Concepts of democracy and citizenship
5.
What does democracy mean to you?a. How successful is the United States at being a model for democracy?b. How role should the public schools play in fostering democracy? What about the teaching of social studies?
si

6.
As the United States grows more culturally and linguistically diverse, is there a need to address the question ofdemocracy differently? If so-how?
7.
This last semester, one of the journal response questions you responded to asks you to think about what makes an idealcitizen. [Interviewer might refer to what the participant wrote.] Throughout the course, you have read articles about andlisten to speakers talk about citizenship. Now, how would you characterize a good citizen in today's diverse society? Hasyour thinking changed? If so-how?
8.
What skills do you imagine this citizen would need to be productive in society?a. How might a social studies teacher teach these skills? (What does it look like in the classroom?)b. How successful were you are teaching these skills during your student teaching semester? Explain.
(Resources? Barriers?)
9. What has influenced your views of citizenship most? Teaching for citizenship?
10.
How do your views on citizenship and civic education compare with that of Dr. Gomez?Social studies teaching for citizenship
11.
In your opinion, what is the purpose for teaching social studies content? 12. One of the journal response questions you responded to during the semester asks you take a position on the following
statement: “Some believe that teaching about the oppression of different cultural groups in U.S. history takes away froma sense of American unity and progress.” [The interviewer might refer to what the participant wrote.] What are youthoughts about this question now?a. Does knowing about the oppression of different cultural groups play in the development of good citizens? (If so,

what role does it play?) Explain.b. Should a teacher incorporate social studies content that addresses the historical experiences of different cultural

groups? If so, how might a teacher do this? If not, why not?c. Were you able to incorporate this type of knowledge while apprentice teaching?

e cite this article as: Castro, A. J. The role of teacher education in preparing teachers for criticalcultural citizenship. The Journal of Social Studies Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jssr.2014.02.006i




13.


3.

4.

5.

6.

Plm

We are on the eve of a major national election. The candidates from both parties present different stances onfundamental issues facing the American people. What do you think the role of the social studies teacher should beconcerning the teaching of contemporary or even controversial issues?a. What experience have you had teaching about current events (or controversial) in your student teaching experience?b. How have students responded to discussions about current events (or controversial)?c. What barriers do you face when helping to bridge current events (or controversial) with the content in your social

studies course?

easulti

Third interview protocol

Revisiting the context of the student teaching experience

1.
Thinking back about your student teaching semester, what would you say was the most difficult challenge you faced? 2. What have you learned about teaching social studies as a result of the student teaching semester?
a. Were you able to apply some of these insights into your teaching this semester as an apprentice?b. What insights would you like to incorporate into you first year of teaching that you felt you couldn't really develop on

as well as you would have liked as an apprentice teacher?Teaching for critical multicultural citizenship

In the last interview, we discussed what citizenship and democracy means to you. Now, I would like to ask you a fewadditional questions.a. Do some groups experience democracy differently than others? Explain.b. What role should citizens take in order to maintain a democracy?c. What role should social studies teachers take in order to maintain a democracy? (Should they even play a role?)
In the last interview, you presented your ideas about various skills that individuals need in order to be good citizens.a. In general, how would you teach for these skills in the social studies classroom?b. What barriers might you face when teaching for these skills?c. What resources would you rely on to help you teach these skills? Thinking back on your involvement in the teacher education program, how has your views of citizenship changed?a. What views of citizenship did you have coming into the program have remained the same?b. Where did course activities or components that most influenced your views on citizenship and civic education? Thinking back on your interaction with students in your student teaching semester, how would you introduce and teachcitizenship education with these students?a. During the student teaching semester, did you address issues of citizenship or civic education? How did you address
citizenship?b. How successful was your attempt to address citizenship education? Explain.

References

Adams, A., Bondy, E., & Kuhel, K. (2005). Preservice teacher learning in an unfamiliar setting. Teacher Education Quarterly, 32(2), 41–62.Alridge, D. P. (2006). The limits of master narratives in history textbooks: An analysis of representations of Martin Luther King, Jr. Teachers College Record,

108(4), 662–686.Apple, M. W. (1992). The text and cultural politics. Educational Researcher, 21(7), 4–11.Apple, M. W. (2004). Ideology and curriculum 3rd ed.). New York: Routledge.Avery, P. G., & Walker, C. (1993). Prospective teachers' perceptions of ethnic and gender differences in academic achievement. Journal of Teacher Education,

44(1), 27–37.Banks, J. A. (1990). Citizenship education for a pluralistic democratic society. Social Studies, 81(5), 210–215.Banks, J. A. (1997). Educating citizens in a multicultural society. New York: Teachers College Press.Banks, J. A. (2001). Citizenship education and diversity: Implications for teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education, 52(1), 5–16.Banks, J. A. (2004). Teaching for social justice, diversity, and citizenship in a global world. The Educational Forum, 68(4), 296–305.Banks, J. A. (2008). Diversity and citizenship education in global times. In J. Arthur, I. Davies, & C. Hahn (Eds.), Sage handbook of education for citizenship and

democracy (pp. 80–91). Los Angeles: Sage.Banks, J. A., & Nguyen, D. (2008). Diversity and citizenship education: Historical, theoretical, and philosophical issues. In L. Levstik, & C. Tyson (Eds.),

Handbook of research in social studies education (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge.Bartolome, L. I. (1994). Beyond the methods fetish: Towards a humanizing pedagogy. Harvard Educational Review, 64(2), 173–194.Boeiji, H. (2002). A purposeful approach to constant comparative methods in analysis of qualitative interviews. Quality and Quantity, 36, 391–409.Boyle-Baise, M. (1996). Multicultural social studies: Ideology and practice. The Social Studies, 87(2), 81–88.Boyle-Baise, M. (2003). Doing democracy in social studies methods. Theory and Research in Social Education, 31(1), 51–71.Castro, A. J. (2010a). Themes in the research on preservice teachers' views of cultural diversity: Implications for researching millennial preservice teachers.

Educational Researcher, 39(3), 198–210.Castro, A. J. (2010b). Challenges in teaching for critical multicultural citizenship: Student teaching in an accountability driven context. Action in Teacher

Education, 32(2), 97–109.Castro, A. J., Field, S. L., Bauml, M., & Morowski, D. (2012). “I want a multicultural classroom”: Preparing social studies teachers for culturally diverse

classrooms. The Social Studies, 103(3), 97–106.Castro, A. J. (2013). What makes a citizen? Critical and multicultural citizenship and understanding citizenship skills. Theory and Research in Social

Education, 41(2), 219–246.

e cite this article as: Castro, A. J. The role of teacher education in preparing teachers for criticalcultural citizenship. The Journal of Social Studies Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jssr.2014.02.006i

http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0885-985X(14)00026-6/sbref1































Conklin, H. G. (2008). Modeling compassion in critical, justice-oriented teacher education. Harvard Educational Review, 78(4), 652–673.Conklin, H. G., Hawley, T. S., Powell, D., & Ritter, J. (2010). Learning from young adolescents: The use of structured teacher education coursework to help

beginning teachers investigate middle school students' intellectual capabilities. Journal of Teacher Education, 61(4), 313–327.Darder, A., Baltodano, M., & Torres, R. D. (2003). Critical pedagogy: An introduction. In A. Darder, M. Baltodano, & R. D. Torres (Eds.), The critical pedagogy

reader (pp. 1–21). New York: Routledge Falmer.Darling-Hammond, L. (2006). Powerful teacher education: Lessons from exemplary programs. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.Darling-Hammond, L., & Bransford, J. (Eds.). (2005). Preparing teachers for a changing world: What teachers should learn and be able to do. San Francisco: JohnWiley

and Sons.Dee, J. R., & Henkin, A. B. (2002). Assessing dispositions toward cultural diversity among preservice teachers. Urban Education, 37(1), 22–40.Dilworth, P. P. (2004). Multicultural citizenship education: Case studies from social studies classrooms. Theory and Research in Social Education, 32(2),

153–186.Erlandson, D. A., Harris, E. L., Skipper, B. L., & Allen, S. D. (1993). Doing naturalistic inquiry: A guide to methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Evans, M. (2008). Citizenship education, pedagogy, and school contexts. In J. Arthur, I. Davies, & C. Hahn (Eds.), The Sage handbook of education for citizenship

and democracy (pp. 519–532). Los Angeles: Sage.Freire, P. (1999). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Continuum.Gallavan, N. P. (2008). Examining teacher candidates' views on teaching world citizenship. Social Studies, 99(6), 249–254.Garmon, M. A. (2004). Changing preservice teachers' attitudes and beliefs about diversity: What are the critical factors? Journal of Teacher Education, 55(3),

201–213.Gay, G. (2002). Preparing for culturally responsive teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, 53(2), 106–116.Hahn, C. L. (2008). Education for citizenship and democracy in the United States. In J. Arthur, I. Davies, & C. Hahn (Eds.), The Sage handbook of education for

citizenship and democracy (pp. 263–278). Los Angeles: Sage.Hess, D., & Avery, P. G. (2008). Discussion of controversial issues as a form and goal of democratic education. In J. Arthur, I. Davies, & C. Hahn (Eds.), The Sage

handbook of education for citizenship and democracy (pp. 505–518). Los Angeles: Sage.Holt-Reynolds, D. (1992). Personal history-based beliefs as relevant prior knowledge in course work. American Educational Research Journal, 29(2), 235–349.Howey, K. (1996). Designing coherent and effective teacher education programs. In J. Sikula (Ed.), Handbook of research on teacher education (2nd ed.).

New York: MacMillan.Kennedy, M. M. (1999). The role of preservice teacher education. In L. Darling-Hammond, & G. Sykes (Eds.), Teaching as the learning profession: Handbook of

teaching and policy (pp. 54–86). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.Kickbusch, K. W. (1987). Civic education and preservice educators: Extending the boundaries of discourse. Theory and Research in Social Education, 15(3),

173–188.Kincheloe, J. L. (1999). Critical democracy in education. In J. G. Henderson, & K. R. Kesson (Eds.), Understanding democratic curriculum leadership (pp. 70–83).

New York: Teachers College Record.Kincheloe, J. L. (2001). Getting beyond the facts: Teaching social studies/social sciences in the twenty-first century. New York: Peter Lang.Ladson-Billings, G. J. (1995). But that's just good teaching! The case for culturally relevant pedagogy. Theory into Practice, 34(3), 159–165.Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. New York: Cambridge University Press.Levstik, L. S. (2008). What happens in social studies classrooms? Research on K-12 social studies practice. In L. S. Levstik, & C. A. Tyson (Eds.), Handbook of

research in social studies education (pp. 50–62). New York: Routledge.Lewis, J. B. (2001). Social justice, social studies and social foundations. The Social Studies, 92(5), 189–192.Loewen, J. W. (1995). Lies my teacher told me: Everything your American history textbook got wrong. New York: Touchstone.Lortie, D. (1975). Schoolteacher: A sociologial study. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Lowenstein, K. L. (2009). The world of multicultural teacher education: Reconceptualizing White teacher candidates as learners. Review of Educational

Research, 79(1), 163–196.Marri, A. R. (2003). Multicultural democracy: Toward a better democracy. Intercultural Education, 14(3), 263–277.Marri, A. R. (2005). Building a framework for classroom-based multicultural democratic education: Learning from three skilled teachers. Teachers College

Record, 107(5), 1036–1059.Marri, A. R. (2008). Connecting diversity, justice, and democratic citizenship: Lessons from an alternative U.S. History class. In J. S. Bixby, & J. L. Pace (Eds.),

Educating democratic citizens in toubled times: qualitative studies of current efforts (pp. 58–80). New York: State University of New York Press.Martin, L. A. (2008). Elementary and secondary teacher education students' perspectives on citizenship. Action in Teacher Education, 30(3), 54–63.Mathews, S. A., & Dilworth, P. P. (2008). Case studies of preservice teachers' ideas about the role of multicultural citizenship education in social studies.

Theory and Research in Social Education, 36(4), 356–390.McCadden, B. M. (1998). Why is Michael always getting timed out? Race, class, and disciplining other people's children. In R. E. Butchart, & B. McEwan

(Eds.), Classroom discipline in American schools: Problems and possibilities for democratic education (pp. 109–134). Albany: State University of New YorkPress.

McCall, A. L. (1995). Constructing conceptions of multicultural teaching: Preservice teachers' life experiences and teacher education. Journal of TeacherEducation, 46(5), 340–350.

McCarthy, C. (1993). After the canon: Knowledge and ideological representation in the multicultural discourse on curriculum reform. In C. McCarthy, & W. Crichlow(Eds.), Race, identity, and representation in education (pp. 289–305). New York: Routledge.

McLaren, P. (1995). White terror and oppositional agency: Towards a critical multiculturalism. In C. E. Sleeter, & P. McLaren (Eds.), Multicultural education,critical pedagogy, and the politics of difference (pp. 33–70). New York: State University of New York Press.

McLaren, P. (1997). Revolutionary multiculturalism: Pedagogies of dissent for the new millennium. Boulder: Westview Press.Merryfield, M. M., & Wilson, A. (2005). Social studies and the world: Teaching global perspectives. Silver Spring, MD: National Council for the Social Studies.Middleton, V. A. (2002). Increasing preservice teachers' diversity beliefs and commitment. The Urban Review, 34(4), 343–361.Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Milner, H. R. (2010). What does teacher education have to do with teaching? Implications for diversity studies. Journal of Teacher Education, 60(1), 118–131.Monroe, C. R. (2006). Misbehavior or misinterpretation? Kappa Delta Pi Record, 42(4), 161–165.Montecinos, C., & Rios, F. A. (1999). Assessing preservice teachers' zones of concern and comfort with multicultural education. Teacher Education Quarterly,

26(3), 7–24.Moule, J. (2012). Cultural competence: A primer for educators. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.Mueller, J., & O'Connor, C. (2007). Telling and retelling about self and “others”: How pre-service teachers (re)interpret privilege and disadvantage in one

college classroom. Teaching and Teacher Education, 23(6), 840–856.Nieto, S. (1995). From brown heroes and holidays to assimilationist agendas: Reconsidering the critiques of multicultural education. In C. E. Sleeter, &

P. McLaren (Eds.), Multicultural education, critical pedagogy, and the politics of difference (pp. 191–220). New York: State University of New York Press.Ochoa-Becker, A. S. (2007). Democratic education for social studies: An issues-centered decision making curriculum. Greenwich, CT: Information Age

Publishing.Pajares, M. F. (1992). Teachers' beliefs and educational research: Cleaning up a messy construct. Review of Educational Research, 62, 307–332.Parker, W. C. (1996). "Advanced" ideas about democracy: Toward a pluralist conception of citizen education. Teachers College Record, 98(1), 104–125.Parker, W. C. (2003). Teaching democracy: Unity and diversity in public life. New York: Teachers College Press.Parker, W. C., & Hess, D. (2001). Teaching with and for discussion. Teaching and teacher education, 17, 273–289.Pidgeon, N., & Henwood, K. (2004). Grounded theory. In M. A. Hardy, & A. Bryman (Eds.), Handbook of data analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.





















































































Richardson, V. (1996). The role of attitudes and beliefs in learning to teach. In J. Sikula (Ed.), Handbook of Research on Teacher Education (2nd ed.). New York:MacMillan.

Robinson, C. (2007). Figured world of history learning in a social studies methods classroom. Urban Review, 29(2), 191–216.Ross, D. D., & Bondy, E. (1993). Classroom management for responsible citizenship: Practice strategies for teachers. Social Education, 57(6), 236–328.Rubin, B. C., & Justice, B. (2005). Preparing social studies teachers to be just and democratic: Problems and possibilities. In N. M. Michelli, & D. L. Keiser

(Eds.), Teacher education for democracy and social justice (pp. 79–103). New York: Routledge.Russell, W. B. (2010). Teaching social studies in the 21st century: A research study of secondary social studies teachers' instructional methods and practices.

Action in Teacher Education, 32(1), 65–72.Salinas, C., & Castro, A. J. (2010). Disrupting the official curriculum: Cultural biography and the curriculum decision making of Latino preservice teachers.

Theory & Research in Social Education, 38, 428–463.Schlessinger, A. M. (1992). The disuniting of America: Reflections on a multicultural society. New York: W.W. Norton and Company.Sevier, B. (2005). "What does this have to do with us?": Pursuing transformative possibilities and cultural relevancy in a social foundations teacher

education course. Theory and Research in Social Education, 33(3), 347–375.Smith, R. W. (2000). The influence of teacher background on the inclusion of multicultural education: A case study of two contrasts. The Urban Review

32(2), 155–176.Smith, R. W., Moallem, M., & Sherrill, D. (1997). How preservice teachers think about cultural diversity: A closer look at factors which influence their beliefs

toward equality. Education Foundations, 11(2), 41–61.Stake, R. E. (1995). The art of case study research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Stake, R. E. (2005). Qualitative case studies. In N. K. Denzin, & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Sage handbook of qualitative research (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Stanley, W. B., & Longwell, H. (2004). Ideology, power, and control in social studies teacher education. In S. A. Adler (Ed.), Critical issues in social studies

teacher education (pp. 189–229). Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing.Su, Z. (1997). Teaching as a profession and as a career: Minority candidates' perspectives. Teaching and Teacher Education, 13(3), 325–340.Sunal, C. S., Kelley, L. A., & Sunal, D. W. (2009). Citizenship education in the elementary classroom: Teacher candidates photograph and describe their

perceptions. Journal of Social Studies Research, 33(1), 33–70.Szpara, M. Y., & Ahmad, I. (2007). Supporting English lanague learners in social studies class: Results from a study of high school teachers. Social Studies

98(5), 189–195.Tomlinson, C. (2004). Curriculum differentiation in mixed ability classrooms. Alexandra, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.Ukpokodu, N. (1999). Multiculturalism vs. globalism. Social Education, 63(5), 298–300.Villegas, A. M. (2008). Diversity and teacher education. In M. Cochran-Smith, S. Feiman-Nemser, & D. J. McIntyre (Eds.), Handbook of research on teacher

education: Enduring questions in changing contexts (3rd ed.). New York: Routledge.Villegas, A. M., & Davis, D. (2008). Preparing teachers of color to confront racial/ethnic disparities in educational outcomes. In M. Cochran-Smith,

S. Feiman-Nemser, & D. J. McIntyre (Eds.), Handbook of research on teacher education: Enduring questions in changing contexts (3rd ed.). New York:Routledge and The Association of Teacher Educators.

Weiner, L. (2003). Why is classroom management so vexing to urban teachers?. Theory into Practice, 42(4), 305–312.Yin, R. K. (2003). Case study research methods: Design and Methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Zinn, H. (2003). A people's history of the United States, 1492–present. New York: HarperCollins.Zong, G., Wilson, A., & Quashiga, A. Y. (2008). Global education. In L. S. Levstik, & C. A. Tyson (Eds.), Handbook of research in social studies education (pp. 197–216).

New York: Routledge.












































the role of teacher education in preparing teachers for critical multicultural citizenship

Documents