the roman empire - marshall.k12.il.us · the roman empire mr. cline ... • since caracalla is most...

The roman empire Mr. Cline

History

Marshall High School

Marshall High School Mr. Cline

Western Civilization I: Ancient Foundations Unit Four EB

* Septimius and the Severan Dynasty • Once upon a time, around the year 200 AD, in a land far, far away (the Roman Empire

to be exact), there lived the Severan Emperors, a family who ruled Rome and its vast lands.

• Although history tells us they were a very violent people, and probably a bit off their rockers, they brought military and social reform to Rome.

• Let's start with the first Severan emperor who gave the dynasty its name, Septimius

Severus.

• To make it easier to remember what he did, we'll call him 'Septimius the Soldier.' • Septimius, our soldier Severan, came to power in the year 193 AD, also known

as the Year of Five Emperors, in which five different rich guys fought for the title of Emperor.

• Being rather brutal, and more than willing to kill for power, Septimius the

Soldier was the last guy standing in this fight.

• Upon becoming emperor, he reformed the military. Hence our name, Septimius the Soldier.

English Spelling of Greek Letter

Word Translation

Iota Iesous Jesus

Chi Christos Christ

Theta Theou God's

Ypsilon Uios Son

Sigma Soter Savior

* Septimius and the Severan Dynasty

• To stabilize his lands, Septimius the Soldier disbanded the very large and very corrupt Praetorian Guard, or the emperor's elite bodyguards.

• He was also the first emperor to create a standing, or permanent, army within Italy. • Not only did this keep the homeland safe, it also made Septimius very

formidable.

• Anytime there was a threat to his power, he had an army ready and waiting!

• In order to keep the soldiers on his side, he increased their pay and benefits.

• Working to keep the citizenry content, he put on games, supplied grain, and even forgave the debts of his powerful friends.

• Although all these actions kept him safe from assassination, it added a huge

financial burden to the empire. This burden was so large, many historians actually blame his policies for the eventual fall of Rome.


Word Translation

Iota Iesous Jesus

Chi Christos Christ

Theta Theou God's

Ypsilon Uios Son

Sigma Soter Savior

* Septimius and the Severan Dynasty

• Yes, his fiscal policies may have been a bit reckless, but he did establish and maintain a strong Roman military.

• Geta & Caracalla

• After the peaceful death of Septimius the Soldier, his sons, Caracalla and Geta,

were co-emperors of Rome. • Not really keen on the idea of sharing power, Caracalla arranged for the

murder of his brother and took outright control of the Empire.

• Since Caracalla is most remembered for his Antonine Constitution, in which he granted citizenship to every free person in the Roman Empire, we'll call him 'Caracalla the Citizen'.

• Although granting citizenship like this improved the lives of many, he was also cruel and punishing. • As we already learned, he had no problem killing family members.

However, he was also known for burying his victims alive and massacring at will.


Word Translation

Iota Iesous Jesus

Chi Christos Christ

Theta Theou God's

Ypsilon Uios Son

Sigma Soter Savior

* Septimius and the Severan Dynasty • Geta & Caracalla

• For example, during a visit to Egypt he was mocked while in

Alexandria.

• He retaliated by ordering a massacre of the city's youth.

• All in all Caracalla the Citizen wasn't really a guy you'd like to see in control of things, but in his defense, he did grant citizenship to every free person within the empire.

• Macrinus & Elagabalus

• Having had enough of Caracalla the Citizen, one of his relatives, Macrinus,

murdered him and claimed the title of emperor.

• For this deed, we'll call him 'Macrinus the Murderer'.

• History really doesn't record a lot about Macrinus the Murderer. For the most part, he stayed out of Rome and was assassinated within a year by another power hungry Severan known to history as Elagabalus.


Word Translation

Iota Iesous Jesus

Chi Christos Christ

Theta Theou God's

Ypsilon Uios Son

Sigma Soter Savior

* Septimius and the Severan Dynasty • Macrinus & Elagabalus

• Unfortunately for Rome, Elagabalus was a young teenager when he became

emperor.

• Like lots of teenagers, he had more interest in partying than ruling.

• For this reason, history says very little about his accomplishments. Instead, he's remembered, for lack of a better term, as being quite the pervert. • He enjoyed pretending to be a female prostitute, marrying both men and

women, forcing those around him to participate in sexual acts, and generally doing things not suitable to print.

• To remember Elagabalus, we'll simply call him 'Elagabalus the Icky.'

• Being fed up with his antics, Elagabalus the Icky's bodyguards murdered him, and his very young cousin, Severus Alexander, was put on the throne.

• Upon taking the throne, Severus's rule was dominated by his mom. For this, we give him the name, 'Severus the Sissy'.


Word Translation

Iota Iesous Jesus

Chi Christos Christ

Theta Theou God's

Ypsilon Uios Son

Sigma Soter Savior

* Septimius and the Severan Dynasty • Severus & His Mom

• Fortunately for Rome, Alexander Severus' mom, Julia Avita Mamaea, wasn't all

bad, and his rule was marked by peace.

• Although she was a rather jealous woman who got rid of anyone who challenged her control, she did make sure Severus the Sissy was surrounded by wise council.

• She was also very fiscally strict and imposed cuts to the military and its spending.

• This, along with the fact that Severus and his mom tried to bribe enemies rather than fight them, made the military mutiny.

• Like most of the other Severans, Alexander Severus and his mom were assassinated in the year 235 AD.

• With the death of Severus the Sissy, the reign of the Severan Dynasty came to an end, and history said goodbye to one of Rome's most infamous dynasties.


Word Translation

Iota Iesous Jesus

Chi Christos Christ

Theta Theou God's

Ypsilon Uios Son

Sigma Soter Savior

* Introduction to the Crisis • The 3rd Century Crisis was a period in which the Roman Empire came very close to

collapsing.

• It was a time when the position of emperor lost its power, and, to put it in modern-day terms, the inmates began running the asylum.

• With this collapse of authority, things like civil war, foreign invasion, economic depression and even a plague brought the Roman Empire to its knees.

• To help us remember the causes of the crisis, we're going to call them The Five

Fs: feuding, factions, funding, foreigners and a freaky disease.

• Fortunately for the Empire, a man named Diocletian would step in to save the day. • But, before we get to the hero of the story, let's take a look at how the

crisis began. Then, we'll delve into our Five Fs.


Word Translation

Iota Iesous Jesus

Chi Christos Christ

Theta Theou God's

Ypsilon Uios Son

Sigma Soter Savior

* Introduction to the Crisis • Feuding & Factions

• The 3rd Century Crisis began with the end of the Severan Dynasty of emperors.

• The Severan Emperors, while being rather violent and a bit nuts,

maintained control of Rome for several generations.

• Their strength as rulers kept the military and the people from open rebellion.

• However, when Severus Alexander, the last of the Severans, was assassinated, the title of Emperor went up for grabs.

• Soon dozens of wealthy military leaders fought for the throne, creating chaos, and throwing the Empire into civil war.

• These civil wars give us our first F: feuding

• Our second F is factions.


Word Translation

Iota Iesous Jesus

Chi Christos Christ

Theta Theou God's

Ypsilon Uios Son

Sigma Soter Savior

* Introduction to the Crisis • Feuding & Factions

• Seeing the Empire in chaos, the conquered territories of Rome

decided to add to the melee by breaking from the Empire and creating their own factions.

• The territories of Gaul, Spain and Britain declared their independence and named themselves the Gallic Empire.

• They even went as far as crowning their own emperors.

• Witnessing the rebellion of these territories, the eastern provinces, comprised of Syria Palaestina and Egypt, also decided to try their hands at revolution.

• Making matters worse, the territories that did remain loyal to Rome were burdened with warring generals trying to assert their power.

• These generals, who were mostly killed in battle or assassinated, are known to history as the Barracks Emperors.


Word Translation

Iota Iesous Jesus

Chi Christos Christ

Theta Theou God's

Ypsilon Uios Son

Sigma Soter Savior

* Introduction to the Crisis • Funding

• As if civil war wasn't enough, the 3rd Century Crisis was a period of economic

depression.

• From this we get our third F: funding. • In order to try to gain or keep power, Rome's rulers began bribing soldiers

to play on their team.

• To come up with the extra funds, those in power started decreasing the amount of precious metals in the currency. • In other words, they made the coins worth less and less.

• Hmmm...sounds eerily familiar.

• In doing this, the buying power of Roman currency plummeted and

inflation spread like bad news.

• Also, since currency meant so little, people began trading and bartering, rather than paying and purchasing.


Word Translation

Iota Iesous Jesus

Chi Christos Christ

Theta Theou God's

Ypsilon Uios Son

Sigma Soter Savior

* Introduction to the Crisis • Funding

• Since no money was trading hands, tax revenue was scarce and the

economy of the Empire fell further into a pit. • Foreign Invasion and Freaky Disease

• With little money, the Empire found itself going from the frying pan into the

fire. • Since money was barely flowing, Rome had little with which to defend

itself from our fourth F: foreigners.

• Add to this that the Roman armies were busy fighting each other, and attacking Rome became as easy as shooting fish in a barrel.

• Before long, Germanic tribes were allying with one another and ransacking prosperous Roman cities.

• While the Germanic tribes were wreaking havoc in the North, Persians were attacking from the East, pillaging cities and even capturing one of the acting emperors.


Word Translation

Iota Iesous Jesus

Chi Christos Christ

Theta Theou God's

Ypsilon Uios Son

Sigma Soter Savior

* Introduction to the Crisis • Foreign Invasion and Freaky Disease

• Adding complete insult to injury, our fifth F, a freaky disease, hit the Empire.

• This freaky disease, known as the Plague of Cyprian hit the Empire in the

midst of all these other troubles.

• Unfortunately for Rome, the plague was as capricious as the warring generals. • Having no respect for rank or position, it devastated towns and

villages, killing farmers, soldiers and whomever it saw fit. • Claudius and Aurelian

• Fortunately for Rome, the sun began to come out with the rise of a few

competent emperors. • First, Emperor Claudius II began shoring up the borders around 270 AD.

• He did this by running the Gauls out of the Empire.


Word Translation

Iota Iesous Jesus

Chi Christos Christ

Theta Theou God's

Ypsilon Uios Son

Sigma Soter Savior

* Introduction to the Crisis • Claudius and Aurelian

• Unfortunately for Rome, the darn plague set its sights on Claudius and he

died before being able to gain complete control.

• Next to take the throne was an aggressive and smart military man known to history as Aurelian. • Upon taking the throne, Aurelian saw victory against the Goths, the Gallic

Empire, Syria Palaestina and Egypt.

• For this he earned the title, 'Restorer of the World.'

• Unfortunately for Rome, his body guards, who must not have been too impressed with his restorations, assassinated him in the year 275 AD; yet another kick in the shins for the Roman Empire.

• Diocletian

• Fortunately for the Empire, their prince was about to come. In the year 284 AD,

Diocletian came onto the scene, claimed power and began to pull the Empire from the pit of despair.


Word Translation

Iota Iesous Jesus

Chi Christos Christ

Theta Theou God's

Ypsilon Uios Son

Sigma Soter Savior

* Introduction to the Crisis • Diocletian

• Picking up where Aurelian left off, he instituted several reforms.

• Also, in order to let people know he was boss, he took a page from Aurelian's

book and began calling himself Lord and God.

• This move set him up as a deity, not to be messed with.

• In the matter of the economy, Diocletian also took the bull by the horns. • He introduced coins with purer metal content.

• These coins became known as the gold solidus, the Latin word for

solid, and soon became the standard currency of the Empire.

• To battle inflation, he instituted an Edict on Maximum Prices, which was basically a comprehensive list, telling suppliers what they could and could not charge for an item. • In other words, the edict, not the market, determined price.


Word Translation

Iota Iesous Jesus

Chi Christos Christ

Theta Theou God's

Ypsilon Uios Son

Sigma Soter Savior


• Not one to back away from a fight, Diocletian also took on the military.

• Unlike many of his predecessors, Diocletian was not afraid to leave the

safety of Rome. This made him a force to be reckoned with.

• Adding to this, he created a cavalry-based army which he could deploy as soon as trouble arose.

• He also split troops into layers, leaving some at the borders, but also placing some within the interior of the Empire.

• Perhaps his greatest military tactic was the creation of the Tetrarchy, in which he placed four rulers across the Empire to keep his laws and orders. • Two senior Augustii, and two junior Ceasars

• The Augustii shared power in ruling the empire, and the Ceasars were

heirs apparent who assisted the Augustii

• In doing this, Diocletian could keep his finger on the pulse of the Empire.


Word Translation

Iota Iesous Jesus

Chi Christos Christ

Theta Theou God's

Ypsilon Uios Son

Sigma Soter Savior


• At the end of Diocletian's remarkable reign, the Empire had crawled its way

from the dark pit known as the Crisis of the 3rd Century.

• Yes, problems like foreign invasion, a pathetic economy and civil war would eventually sink the Empire. • However, Diocletian will be remembered as the man who conquered the

Crisis of the 3rd Century, and kept the Empire standing for a little while longer.

* Conversion Experience

• There are moments in time that have changed the world, standing out as turning

points in history. • For the United States, there's Lexington's shot heard 'round the world;

• for Europe, the crowning of Charlemagne as Holy Roman Emperor.


Word Translation

Iota Iesous Jesus

Chi Christos Christ

Theta Theou God's

Ypsilon Uios Son

Sigma Soter Savior


• Although these events shaped continents, many historians give them a back seat to the conversion of Constantine, an event which elevated Christianity to political prominence and power.

• Ironically, such a profound event is believed to have begun with a vision and a dream.

• To explain, tradition holds that Constantine converted to Christianity after an odd

experience in the 312 AD battle of Milvian Bridge.

• While warring against Maxentius, his co-heir, Constantine began praying for assistance. • In the midst of such prayer, he saw a beaming cross bearing the words: in hoc

signo vinces (translated 'by this sign you will conquer').

• At which point, he saw a sign in the sky of what we would call a letter “P” crossed at the bottom by a letter “X”

• To Constantine, this represented the Greek letters “Chi” and “Rho”, the first two letters of the Greek name “Cristos,” or Christ


Word Translation

Iota Iesous Jesus

Chi Christos Christ

Theta Theou God's

Ypsilon Uios Son

Sigma Soter Savior

* Conversion Experience • When he had a dream that very night in which God reaffirmed this vision,

Constantine was sold. • Constantine I, or Constantine Maximus was a Caesar under his father, the

Augustus of the West, and when his father died in Great Britain, where Constantine had been born in the present day city of York, the Legions there proclaimed him Emperor, not Augustus.

• Because of this Constantine had to fight against the other members of the

tetrarchy in order to assume the sole emperor position.

• The Battle of Milvan Bridge was one of the last battles of these wars for ascension.

• As a result of his vision, and his dream, Constantine had his soldiers place crosses on their shields, and they won the day.

• Now, whether Constantine's conversion was heartfelt or whether he used his

new found faith as an exaggerated good luck charm is still fodder for great debate among historians and theologians.


Word Translation

Iota Iesous Jesus

Chi Christos Christ

Theta Theou God's

Ypsilon Uios Son

Sigma Soter Savior

* Conversion Experience • However, everyone agrees on one point. Constantine's conversion caused the

political ascent of Christianity. • Legalization and Legislation

• For starters, Constantine wasted little time promoting his new found faith.

• In 313 AD, his reign saw the issue of the Edict of Milan, which legalized

Christianity and freed its followers from the vicious, state-instituted persecutions experienced under emperors like Nero and Diocletian.

• Not content with merely legalizing Christianity, Constantine had no problems

mixing church and state. • In fact, the integration of church and state is often referred to as

Constantinism. • In other words, he enacted legislation that acted like fertilizer for the

faith. He declared Sunday as an official Roman holiday, making getting to church much easier for his subjects.

• He also offered tax exemption to the church and many of its clergy. Adding to this, Constantine changed December 25th from a celebration of a pagan God to a celebration of Christ's birth, giving Christianity and kids all over the world Christmas!

Corruption It must be mentioned that although these things definitely aided the ascent of Christianity, many historians also credit them with its corruption. Seeing the favor Constantine showered on the church and its members, it's believed many flocked to the faith for political gain and personal advancement. Yes, their hearts may have been a bit tugged but their pocketbooks were downright sucked in. This trend only increased as Constantine became more and more intolerant of the pagan faiths throughout his reign. Anyone wanting to climb the social ladder would have been a fool not to convert. Nicaea and the Bible Perhaps the most well-known and lasting piece of Constantine's political portfolio is the 325 Council of Nicaea, a gathering of about 300 bishops issuing an official statement affirming Jesus Christ as completely divine. This statement of faith is known as the precursor to today's still famous Nicene Creed. Without a doubt, Constantine put his political weight behind this creed, and the world still feels his influence. For instance, I live in a rather small town, but I wouldn't have to go very far on a Sunday morning before I'd run into a Christian church displaying the Nicene Creed or quoting it as a congregation. Constantine also played a role in validating the Bible. Wanting Christendom to rally around the sacred texts, he led the Council of Nicaea to begin the process of formal acceptance, or canonization, of scripture. Since the word cannon actually means measuring stick, this was an official proclamation saying these books measure up! They are inspired by God. In short, Constantine and the Council sort of put their rubber stamp of agreement onto the words actually found in 2 Timothy of the Bible itself, which reads, 'All Scripture is God-breathed and is useful for teaching, rebuking, correcting and training in righteousness, so that the servant of God may be thoroughly equipped for every good work.' (2 Timothy 3:16,17) Intro to Augustine Throughout time, there have been a pieces of writing that captured the hearts and minds of generations. There's Gone with the Wind, The Grapes of Wrath, and perhaps most famous, the Bible. Today we'll be discussing a famous work that in many ways has come to be a companion read to the Bible. It's known as the City of God. Although this work isn't found in most households or lining most bookstore walls, its content molded modern Christianity, and its author, St. Augustine of Hippo, is revered as one of the preeminent sculptors of modern-day Christianity. Because the work is so complex, we could take days studying the City of God, a work that flew in the face of the Greek philosophies of men like Plato and the pagan philosophers of Rome. In order to condense these vast writings, we're going to break it down into his three main points. First, Augustine wrote the City of God to refute the Romans who blamed the Christians for Rome's troubles. Second, Augustine wanted people to know that internal peace could be found here on earth. Third, Augustine wanted people to know that hell is real. Before we jump into his works, let's take a look at St. Augustine. Born in 354 CE in a Roman North African province, Augustine was an educated and well-traveled man, spending time in places like Africa, Carthage, and Italy. Although he wasn't always the most upstanding of gents (for example, he had some real issues with promiscuity and mistresses), Augustine is heralded as one of the most influential figures in Christianity, an influence that really began to take shape around the year 386 CE. Tradition tells us it was in this year that Augustine heard a voice telling him to read the Bible. Upon picking up his Bible, it fell open to the book of Romans, which reads, Let us behave decently, as in the daytime, not in carousing and drunkenness, not in sexual immorality and debauchery, not in dissension and jealousy. With this, his heart was convicted and changed. Christians Blamed After his conversion and baptism, Augustine moved back to North Africa to become a preacher. Around 395 CE he became the Bishop of the Algerian region of Hippo Regius, hence his name, St. Augustine of Hippo. As bishop, Augustine sought to guide his people through a turbulent time in Roman history, a time when the empire was being invaded and destroyed by a Germanic tribe known as the Visigoths. When Rome was captured in the year 410 CE by the Germanic king, Alaric I, the future of the empire was bleak. Looking for someone to blame for their woes, many Romans turned to the Christian faith, saying it was their fault that the empire was in such turmoil. Wanting to refute such claims, Augustine picked up his quill/pen and began the City of God sometime around 413 CE. With this we come to our first main point: Augustine hoped to silence Romans blaming the Christians for the fall of their empire. As Rome was ransacked and its people brutally murdered and raped, the rest of the empire was left wondering how the Eternal City of Rome could have fallen. Needing some way to make sense of it, they blamed the Christians, their argument being that the gods of Rome had abandoned the empire because the Christian monotheists, or worshipers of only one god, had insulted them by refusing to pay them homage. Being ticked off, the gods had allowed the Visigoths to destroy the city. Completely disagreeing, Augustine used the City of God to lay out a logical refutation of this argument. First, he reminded the people that bad things happen to everyone. Next, he gave a list of horrible things, like plagues, that happened while almost all of Rome actively worshiped the old gods and Christianity wasn't even on the scene. Simply put, he asked, 'Where were your gods then?' He then took the gloves off by stating Rome fell because it was spiritually corrupt and morally bankrupt. The Christians had nothing to do with it. Peace is Possible Once he dealt with all the blamers, Augustine got to our second point: Peace can be acquired here on earth by those who choose the city of God, over the city of man. Concerning peace, Augustine explains there are two cities, one that is temporal, called the City of the World, and one that is eternal, the City of God. In his writings, the City of the World represents the natural, sinful world (for example, Rome). By doing this, he encouraged his fellow Christians that Rome was never their true city. On the contrary, heaven is their true home and it alone will last. It will never be conquered. With this truth, he told his fellow believers that peace could be experienced on earth by those who follow the guidelines of the Holy Scriptures. This is the highest good. Hell is Real With the blamers dealt with, and how to acquire peace explained, Augustine moved on to last point, eternal punishment is real and waiting for those who belong to the City of the World. Obviously, this one didn't make him a crowd favorite, but it does give us our last point. Augustine told the people of his age that the judgment described in the Holy Scriptures is true. He wholeheartedly believed the words of the Bible, which read: If this is so, then the Lord knows how to rescue the godly from trials and to hold the unrighteous for punishment on the day of judgment. This is especially true of those who follow the corrupt desires of the flesh and despise authority. Taking it a step further, Augustine encourages his audience to live as citizens of the City of God, for not only will they escape judgment, they will be welcomed into heaven, a place of eternal rest and happiness with God. Hmm, I'm thinking that sounds like a much better option. Reasons for Fall As the familiar saying goes, 'Rome wasn't built in a day.' As the not so familiar saying also goes, 'It didn't fall in a day either!' To explain this saying, we're going to look at the gradual decline of Rome, culminating with its sacking in the year 476 CE. In doing this, we're going to blame internal corruption, division, and outside invasion for the demise of Rome, known to the ancient world as the Eternal City. Although there are a plethora of reasons for the fall that we could cite, most of them can be traced back to these three. Internal Corruption Let's get started with internal corruption. As the Empire grew, it became very hard to govern and control. Violence began replacing law and order. Instead of emperors, generals, and politicians being chosen on the basis of merit, positions of power were paid for or gained through violence that could rival any modern day mob movie. Adding to the problem, the rulers of Rome - many of whom had bought or murdered for their positions - had little desire to actually govern, let alone preserve the city. Without a strong central power base, civil wars waged between feuding political groups, while corrupt officials levied devastating taxes on the people of Rome. Inflation soared, commoners died of starvation and disease, and the lights of the Eternal City began to dim. Division In an attempt to keep the light of Rome from completely dying, one emperor, Diocletian, stepped in with a plan to save the day. However, his 3rd century plan actually gives us our second reason for the fall of Rome: division. Seeing that the Empire was just too large to govern effectively, Diocletian decided to divide it into Western and Eastern halves. When one of Diocletian's successors, the famous Constantine, officially moved the capital of the Empire from Rome to Constantinople in the first half of the 4th century, the center of political power moved with it. Outside Invasion To history, the Eastern part of the Empire came to be known as the Byzantine Empire, while the Western half remained under the faltering control of Rome. Since the political force of the Empire had moved East, Rome was, in a manner of speaking, left to fend for itself against not only corruption from within, but also our third reason for its fall: outside invasion. As the Byzantine Empire of the East began to thrive, Rome and its surrounding areas faced further decline. With the political power of the Empire now in the East, and with the city of Rome suffering from corruption from within, the ancient city was ripe for attack. Soon nomads from the North, known as the Germanic tribes, began attacking along the northern borders of the Empire. Without a strong leader, or a strong, well-disciplined military, the city could not mount a suitable defense. Around the year 410 CE, Rome, the city once thought unconquerable, was invaded by the Germanic Visigoths led by Alaric, a name which has become synonymous with the demise of Rome. The Eternal City was looted, much of its ancient architecture was reduced to rubble, and its people were ravaged. For many historians, this event signaled the beginning of the very end for the Eternal City. Finally, in 476, the Germanic people fell once again on Rome. However, this time they gained complete control of the city and its surrounding lands. Their leader, Odoacer, declared himself the ruler of Italy, forcing the last emperor of Rome, Romulus Augustulus, to surrender his crown. This signaled to history the fall of Rome - the extinguishing of the Eternal City. Effects of Constantine When discussing Roman history, most of the emperors after Constantine don't get a lot of mention. In fact, other than perhaps Justinian, most people probably couldn't even name one. Today we're going to remedy this by exploring a few of the emperors after Constantine. Although we're going to focus mainly on Justinian, we'll still give a few others their day in the sun. For starters, when Constantine converted to Christianity in the year 312 CE and then moved the capitol of the Roman Empire from Rome to Constantinople in the year 330, the Roman Empire drastically changed. The West, or Rome and its surrounding areas, faced continual invasion from the Germanic tribes of the North, while the Eastern regions of the Empire flourished. Now onto our emperors. Julian & the Apostate After Constantine, the first event and emperor really given much history-book playing time is Emperor Julian and his reign spanning 360-363. His claim to fame is his attempt to restore paganism to the Empire. Paganism refers to any religion other than Judaism or Christianity. History has termed this, the Apostate. In short, Julian tried to undo Constantine's Christian reforms, calling for the Empire to return to the worship of their old gods. Unfortunately for Julian, he underestimated the sticking power of Christianity. His attempts at restoring paganism were overturned by his successor, Jovian. Valens and Adrianople The next noteworthy event we'll discuss is the entrance of the Huns into Europe and the Battle of Adrianople, occurring under Emperor Valens. The Huns were a warring and rather ruthless people from Asia. To put it very mildly, they were intent on claiming whatever land they came to. When they entered Europe from the East, they pushed the Goths ,or members of Germanic tribes, into the Roman Empire. Rather than declaring all-out war on these refugee-like Goths, the Empire folded them into its lands. This setup worked for a while, but soon the Germanic Goths rebelled and defeated the Roman army in the 378 battle of Adrianople. Emperor Valens himself was killed in this famous battle. Theodosius The last event and emperor we'll discuss before getting to Justinian is Emperor Theodosius. He is known to history as the last emperor to rule both the Western and Eastern halves of the Empire. History tells us Theodosius' reign, which spanned 379-395, was one of violence and military vengeance. Any who dared cross him, or his imperial forces, was severely punished. Despite his propensity toward violence, he is often referred to as Theodosius the Great. After all, he managed to hold the Empire together during a very turbulent time. Justinian Now, we come to Justinian. By the time Justinian came to the throne in the year 527, the Eastern Roman Empire was also known as the Byzantine Empire. It was Justinian's goal to bring the Empire back to its glory days. Not one to waste any time, he sent his military to reclaim much of the Western Empire that had been lost after the Battle of Adrianople and the fall of Rome. This even included Italy and the beloved city of Rome. Not content with merely reclaiming lands, Justinian also respected the laws of ancient Rome. In order to cement them into his time and his Empire, he called for all of Rome's ancient laws to be recorded. In doing this, Rome's ancient laws, also known as the Twelve Tables, were broken down into categories. Outdated laws were done away with, and complex laws were simplified. Desiring the Empire to thrive, Justinian also added new laws dealing with the fair treatment of those within the Empire. For instance, one of his laws held that a person is innocent until proven guilty. This one should be very familiar to anyone who has sat in a history class or watched a TV cop show. Justinian's new laws, together with the laws of ancient Rome, are known today as the Corpus of Civil Law or Justinian's Code of Laws. Completed around the year 529, these laws have formed the basis for the judicial systems of the Western world. Yes, Justinian may not be as well-known as Caesar or Nero, but his influence just might be one of the strongest and longest-lasting of all the Roman Emperors. Early Christian Art: An Underground Movement The first few centuries after the death of Jesus afforded Christians few opportunities for artistic or architectural expression. Christianity was often oppressed by the Roman Empire. Christians might have their property seized or be burned alive. In such a hostile environment, Christian artwork would have proven a liability. The only distinctly Christian symbol of this early age was the Ichthys, or 'Jesus fish.' The Ichthys was a secret symbol, whose name formed an acrostic for the central concept of Christian faith. Jesus Christ, God's Son, Savior. So the nature of Jesus could all be summed up with a simple fish, allowing Christians to identify their secret places of worship as well as the burial places of the faithful. The Catacombs of Rome The burial of Christians was a secret affair as well. Unlike their pagan predecessors, Christians were not fans of cremation. Christians believed in a bodily resurrection. I suppose they thought Jesus wouldn't know what to do with an urn full of ashes. So, instead of keeping the burnt remains of their loved ones on a shelf at home, Christians buried their dead. In overpopulated Rome, with its severe lack of space, this meant Christians had to find unique places to put their bodies. So Christians tunneled into the soft volcanic stone beneath the city, and there they built amazing catacombs. And it is in these catacombs that we begin to see the first traces of Christian art. Early Christians decorated their catacombs with frescoes, or paintings on fresh plaster. These frescoes are very simple and allegorical; not refined at all. This sort of primitive Christian painting copies the Pompeian style that was popular across the Roman Empire. They just reused an old style for new content. Sarcophagi After the Emperor Constantine fully legalized Christianity with the 313 Edict of Milan, Christians began moving their burials above ground, with grand sarcophagi, or stone caskets. These sarcophagi provide us with our first examples of Christian sculpture. Yet with sculpture, Christians faced a new problem. The classical world was full of sculpture, from idols of gods to friezes to life-sized sculptures adorning buildings. The early Christians saw pagan sculptures of gods as what they were - graven images, which are strictly forbidden by the Bible as idolatry. For this reason, sculpture took a back seat during the early Christian years. Though the early Christians did make use of sculpture on occasion, they took special care to make sure that the sculpture was clearly part of the decoration, rather than an object of adoration. Therefore, early Christian sculpture avoided the life-sized scale of their pagan predecessors, and almost completely avoided full statues or sculpture in the round. Instead, Christians used shallow relief sculpture and depicted biblical scenes and Christian allegory. Early Christian Mosaic Yet Constantine did more for Christianity than just protecting it from persecution. Constantine also actively sponsored the spread of Christianity through the building of churches throughout his empire. Though these churches were very plain on the outside, their interiors were bursting with colorful design in the form of mosaics. The mosaic had been around since Sumerian times. The Romans and Greeks did some incredibly detailed mosaics using cubes of colored marble. Provided with these vast spaces, early Christians took the art form of mosaic from the floor and spread it onto the ceilings, the walls, everywhere. Early Christians created mosaics of biblical narratives and symbolic awesomeness. And instead of natural stone, they used colored glass, allowing them to create vibrant colors. This glass also gives the mosaic a sort of glittery, semi-translucent quality that you really must see in person to appreciate. The figures seem to shimmer as you move about. Though the Christians created some beautiful mosaics, the art of mosaic would reach its apex in the Byzantine art to follow. Illuminating the Word of God Just one form of early Christian art remains to be covered, and that is the illuminated manuscript. Illuminations are illustrations to accompany a written text, usually incorporating gold leaf. This addition became possible as the ancient world shifted from the tightly wound scroll of papyrus to the bound codex, what we would call a book. The fact that papyrus scrolls needed to be rolled made illumination all but impossible, because layers of paint would crack off and fall apart with repeated rolling and unrolling. The advent of vellum, or parchment, as a writing surface provided artists with a much more supple surface than brittle papyrus. It also meant that pages could lie flat, rather than being rolled and unrolled. The codex arrived on the scene around 100 AD, just in time for Christians to start illustrating their favorite book: the Bible. One of the earliest surviving illuminated Bibles is the Vienna Genesis, created around 500 CE. Here we can see a naturalistic style and a strange association of place and time. The picture does not display a single event, but a whole sequence, strung out along the path of the illustration - sort of like a medieval comic book. This illustration technique allowed illustrators to pack a lot of story into a very small space. The Rise of Constantine and Christianity Christianity and the Roman Empire had a long history of bad blood. Several Roman emperors made a point of persecuting Christianity, either because they were trying to preserve the religion of their ancestors or simply because Christians provided a convenient scapegoat for the problems of the empire. Christianity was illegal throughout the empire, and Christians were subject to injustices ranging from seizure of property to death in the arena. Yet, after three centuries of Roman Emperors grinding Christians under their feet, a new emperor decided to give Christians a hand up. His name was Constantine. Early Christian architecture exploded under the protection and patronage of this ambitious emperor. Constantine wanted to unify the crumbling Roman Empire under Christianity. To do so, he began building churches across the empire on a massive scale. The Basilica For centuries Christians had been meeting secretly in houses. With Constantine's conversion to Christianity, there was suddenly an opportunity to build public places of worship. Yet what should these churches look like? They could not look like Roman temples. A Roman temple is a pretty place for an idol to sit. It holds a god, a place for ritual sacrifice and perhaps a treasury. Christian ritual is not about burning food to an idol; it's about coming together as a congregation. The problem is there's nowhere in a Roman temple for a congregation to congregate. A bigger, more open space is necessary. To meet these needs, Constantine chose the Roman basilica as the model for his churches. Basilicas were the shopping malls of ancient Rome; they also served as council chambers, meeting halls and law courts throughout the empire. The basilica was a large rectangular hall with colonnades running down both sides. It had high windows to let in plenty of light. Many were built with a wooden roof, making their construction cheap and fast. Others featured an apse or raised semi circle at the opposite end of the entrance, framed by a triumphal arch, one of the most distinctly Roman forms of architecture. Constantine adapted this building to Christian services. The long, open rectangular colonnade was the perfect place for congregations to congregate. This area became known as the nave. That semicircular area at one end, or apse, seemed like the perfect place to put an altar. The entrances were then moved from the sides to the front, so the whole building has a single axis, with the apse as its focal point. Before the entrance, he added an atrium, or open-aired columned courtyard typical of Roman palaces. Between the atrium and the nave was the narthex, or main entrance of the church. With these adaptations, the Constantine's basilicas provided the space the Christians needed for their congregations and lent the Church the authority of an established form of imperial architecture, thereby proclaiming Christianity's status as a state religion. Unfortunately, none of Constantine's basilicas survive unaltered. The closest surviving example is the Basilica of St Paul outside the walls in Rome. Here we can see how these architectural elements came together to create a powerful visual and spatial effect. Entering the church requires passing through all of the elements we just covered. You start out in the columned atrium and then pass through the narthex. This brings you to the nave, which runs up to the triumphal arch, with the apse behind it. The overall effect was one of increasing grandeur as one stepped deeper and deeper into God's house. The basilica provided Christians with a place to commune and engage in the foremost Christian sacrament: the eucharist, in which pious Christians shared a communal meal of bread and wine, symbolizing the body and blood of Christ. Yet there was another important Christian sacrament, something that made a Christian a Christian, and that was baptism. The Baptistry While baptism would eventually become a matter of sprinkling babies, the early Church followed the example of the Bible and baptized people of all ages by immersion. Indeed, the very word 'baptismo' means 'I submerge.' Most Basilicas lacked an in-ground pool, thus a different space would need to be created for this important rite of passage. Luckily, the Romans already had the perfect public places for this service readily available: the Roman bath. The Roman bath took several forms, but the most popular was a round or polygonal building crowned with a dome. By the 1st century CE, this round design had already been expanded upon by the Romans to build temples, like the Pantheon. The form was later adapted for tombs, like the mausoleum Constantine built for his daughter. Early Christians adapted this form to build baptistries, or places to baptize people, like this Arian baptistry built in Ravenna circa 4-500 CE. Later, the Byzantines would expand upon this form, building their churches around this central-planned, domed scheme. True Beauty Lies Within As you've looked at these pictures of early Christian churches, you may have noticed a trend. These buildings have a rather plain, if not severe, exterior. Their lack of external decoration is offset by their lavish interior decoration. This marks a sharp contrast with the Roman temple. The Roman temple is a grand thing, decked with life-sized, realistic sculpture. Yet life-sized statues make Christians nervous, since they're so close to pagan idols. Christians needed a new way to decorate their buildings. Rather than sculpture and friezes, the early Christians chose a different medium: the mosaic. Basilica Santa Maria Maggiore Rome Arian Baptistry Ravenna


Word Translation

Iota Iesous Jesus

Chi Christos Christ

Theta Theou God's

Ypsilon Uios Son

Sigma Soter Savior



• He also offered tax exemption to the church and many of its clergy.

• Adding to this, Constantine changed December 25th from a

celebration of a pagan God to a celebration of Christ's birth, giving Christianity and kids all over the world Christmas! • Why December 25th?

• Spring had been accepted in most religions as the rebirth of

nature.

• According to the Roman religious calendar, Spring’s arrival was on March 25th

• The Virgin Mary’s annunciation would have signified the beginning of rebirth, so it seemed logical to place it when spring began.


Word Translation

Iota Iesous Jesus

Chi Christos Christ

Theta Theou God's

Ypsilon Uios Son

Sigma Soter Savior



• As she was human, her birth would have occurred nine

months from that date, which would be December 25th.

• So, the fact that Christmas occurs near the Pagan celebration of the Winter solstice and traces of several pagan festivals can be found in Christmas including the birthday of the God Mithra and the Roman festival of Saturnalia (Sun God) starting on the 17th December and ending on the 23rd with 'Dies Natali Solis Invictus', 'the birthday of the unconquered sun‘, are not the reason Christmas is December 25th, as many other festivals throughout the year could have been chosen as well.


Word Translation

Iota Iesous Jesus

Chi Christos Christ

Theta Theou God's

Ypsilon Uios Son

Sigma Soter Savior


• Corruption

• It must be mentioned that although these things definitely aided the ascent of Christianity, many historians also credit them with its corruption. • Seeing the favor Constantine showered on the church and its members, it's

believed many flocked to the faith for political gain and personal advancement.

• Yes, their hearts may have been a bit tugged but their pocketbooks were downright sucked in.

• This trend only increased as Constantine became more and more intolerant of

the pagan faiths throughout his reign.

• Anyone wanting to climb the social ladder would have been a fool not to convert.


Word Translation

Iota Iesous Jesus

Chi Christos Christ

Theta Theou God's

Ypsilon Uios Son

Sigma Soter Savior


• Nicaea and the Bible

• Perhaps the most well-known and lasting piece of Constantine's political portfolio is the 325 AD Council of Nicaea, a gathering of about 300 bishops issuing an official statement affirming Jesus Christ as completely divine.

• This statement of faith is known as the precursor to today's still famous Nicene Creed.

• Without a doubt, Constantine put his political weight behind this creed, and the world still feels his influence. • For instance, Marshall is a rather small town, but I wouldn't have to go very

far on a Sunday morning before I'd run into a Christian church displaying the Nicene Creed or quoting it as a congregation. • For most congregations, it goes something like this in English:


Word Translation

Iota Iesous Jesus

Chi Christos Christ

Theta Theou God's

Ypsilon Uios Son

Sigma Soter Savior



• We believe in one God, the Father, the Almighty, Maker of all that is, seen and unseen. We believe in one Lord, Jesus Christ, the only Son of God, eternally begotten of the Father, God from God, Light from Light, true God from true God, begotten, not made, one in Being with the Father. Through him all things were made. For us and for our salvation he came down from heaven: and by the Holy Spirit was born of the Virgin Mary, and became man. For our sake he was crucified under Pontius Pilate; he suffered, died and was buried. On the third day he rose again in fulfillment of the Scriptures; he ascended into heaven and is seated at the right hand of the Father. He will come again in glory to judge the living and the dead, and his kingdom will have no end. We believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver of life, who proceeds from the Father and the Son. With the Father and the Son he is worshipped and glorified. He has spoken through the Prophets. We believe in one holy catholic and apostolic Church. We acknowledge one baptism for the forgiveness of sins. We look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come.


Word Translation

Iota Iesous Jesus

Chi Christos Christ

Theta Theou God's

Ypsilon Uios Son

Sigma Soter Savior



• Basically, a statement of what defines what it means to be a Christian

• Constantine also played a role in validating the Bible.

• Wanting Christendom to rally around the sacred texts, he led the Council of

Nicaea to begin the process of formal acceptance, or canonization, of scripture.

• Since the word canon actually means measuring stick, this was an official proclamation saying these books measure up! • They are inspired by God, while there are some books that are not,

and did not make the cut into what we accept as the Bible to this day.

• In short, Constantine and the Council sort of put their rubber stamp of agreement onto the words actually found in 2 Timothy of the Bible itself, which reads, 'All Scripture is God-breathed and is useful for teaching, rebuking, correcting and training in righteousness, so that the servant of God may be thoroughly equipped for every good work.' (2 Timothy 3:16,17)


Word Translation

Iota Iesous Jesus

Chi Christos Christ

Theta Theou God's

Ypsilon Uios Son

Sigma Soter Savior

the roman empire - marshall.k12.il.us · the roman empire mr. cline ... • since caracalla is most...

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