The Roman Revolution

post bellum?• acquisition of new

territory• influx of slavery• latifundia• inheritance of

Pergamum• provincial

corruption• troop loyalty to

commanders• fierce competition

for aristea, honores, and dignitas

• Patrician nobiles• mater Cornelia, filia Scipio Africanus• Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus– treaty as quaestor in Spainelected as tribune in Dec. 134BC– concilium plebis for land redistribution (ager publicus)– co-Tribune Octavius vetoes Tiberius– Tiberius uses veto power to shut down the government– agrarian bill passed over veto of Octavius (threat of mob

retaliation)– Senate hesitant to finance implementation of the bill– illegal re-election campaign of Tiberius– Scipio Nasica, fustes, and the murder of Tiberius

Gracchi

• consul with a Sardinian provincia, and 2 consecutive terms as tribune

• exile of consul Popolius, and the Acilian law• laws for restriction on taxes, state subsidized grain, re-

adoption of Tiberius’ agrarian law, and push for public works projects

• Italian Question• senatorially backed Drusus as tribune• failure of 3rd re-election, and protest on the Aventine• consul Opimius, and Senatus Consultum Ultimatum

(SCU)

Gaius Sempronius Gracchus

Impact of the Gracchi

• optimates versus populares

• Senatorial quaestiones check on magristrates challenged

• senatus consultum ultimatum

• unresolved Italian Question

THINK PAIR SHARE:What are the underlying causes of

radical revolution in the Roman Republic? Why couldn’t any of the

defenders of republicanism see these causes, or how could’ve they

acted to prevent the eventual downfall of the Republic?

Outbreak of the Jugurthine War• expansion• Jugurtha and throne of

Numidia• capture of Cirta and its

Italian defenders• 112BC: war and

corruption• 110BC: war, defeat, and

outrage• 109BC: Q. Caecilius

Metellus• 107BC: consul Gaius

Marius• recall and triumph of

Metellus

Rise of Gaius Marius• equestrian family and the cursus

honorem• the tribunate and populares tactics• marriage to the Julii, support by the

Metelli• 107 BC consulship and command of

Numidia• reorganization & professionalization of

the army – capite gens, voluntarii, and loyalty– 20 – 25 years, and officer corps– uniform equipment and “Marius’ mules”

• L. Cornelius Sulla• Bocchus’ betrayal, Sulla’s captive,

Marius’ triumph

The Height of Marius’ Power

• Germanic Cimbri victories, the “Gold of Tolosa”, Caepio, Mallius, and the Battle of Aurasio

• 104 – 100BC consecutive consulships

• destruction of the Cimbri et al., the “savior of Rome”, and the “3rd Founder”

• Catulus and Sulla’s role at Vercellae

Political Turmoil• Marius’ citizenship

grant and land for veterans

• the tribune Saturninus, mob violence, a SCU, and self-imposed exile

• the tribune Drusus, citizenship, the doubling of the senate, and the Social War

• the return of Marius and Sulla

Sulla and Marius• fratracitic and matricitic

Mithridates executes Romans and socii, 88BC consulship of Sulla, and Marius’ tribune Rufus, Sulla takes refuge in Marius’ villa

• Sulla’s march on Rome, Rufus’ death, Marius’ escape, Sulla’s command of the Mithridatic War

• the demagogue Cinna, Cinna’s exile, Marius’ return, a reign of terror, and Marius’ death

L. Cornelius Sulla• siege of Athens, victories at Chaeronea and

Orchomenos, Flaccus and Fimbria, settlement with Mithridates, and Fimbria’s suicide

• mutiny against Cinna, Sulla’s second march on Rome, Metellus, Crassus, and Pompey side with Sulla

• Battle of the Colline Gates 82BC• unrestricted dictatorship, proscription, and anti-

populares constitutional reform • ascendency of Crassus Dives, M. Tullius Cicero’s rise as

lawyer and orator, and Pompey (Magnus) adulescentulus carnifex

• the survival of C. Julius Caesar (mater Aurelia, flamens, vestal virgins)

• retirement, disdainful departure, and death in 78BC

THINK PAIR SHARE:What precedents have both

Marius and Sulla established? What role does warfare play in the

downfall of the Republic?

Pompey and Crassus• 78BC (consul M. Aemilius Lepidus)

– restoration of populares tactics• SCU sends Pompey against

Lepidus, Marian Sertorius in Hispania, Pompey’s command in Spain, assassination of Sertorius, and Pompey’s triumph

• Spartacus, victory over the praetorian, and two consular armies, propraetorship of Crassus, initial Roman defeat, decimation, return of Pompey from Hispania, and crucifixion of slaves

Pompey’s triumph• Cilician pirates and the return of

Mithridates• Pompey’s success against the pirates,

the consul C. Manilius, with Cicero as advocate, and Pompey’s eastern imperium

• Roman victory at Dastira, and the flight and eventual suicide of Mithridates

• client kingdoms and Roman consolidation of the East (Nicomedes IV of Bithynia and Caesar)

• return to Rome and triumph in 62BC

M. Tullius Cicero• defense of Sextus Roscius from Sullan proscription• quaestorship in Sicilia, and the prosecution of Verres,

Cicero overshadows Hortensius• Catilinian Conspiracy

– political rivalry– epistulae– armed mob in Etruria– SCU– Catiline’s exile and a second SCU– Caesar vs. Cato: strangulation (death sentence) of conspirators– destruction of Etrurian mob and death of Catiline– pater patriae

• Tribune Clodius, handouts, collegia, and Cicero’s exile

Rise of C. Julius Caesar• descended from Aeneas

and Venus• 80BC siege of Miletus (Asia)• study of oratory in Rome• capture by Cilician pirates

and vengeful crucufixion• cursus honorem,

relationship with Crassus• funeral oration of Aunt

Julia• political marriage to

Pompeia• support to Pompey

THINK PAIR SHARE:What motivates Pompey, Crassus, Caesar, and Cicero? Are these men products of the times in which they

live, or are they masters of their own destiny?

The First Triumvirate• Cicero’s prosecution of Clodius, Caesar’s divorce of

Pompeia• Caesar’s proconsular governorship in Hispania (imperator)• 60BC: Caesar returns to Rome to run for the consulship of

59BC… amicitia– Pompey unable to secure land for veterans– Crassus in need of politician for Equestrian interests– Caesar’s political marriage to Calpurnia (Piso’s filia)– Pompey’s political marriage to Julia

• 59BC: propaganda machine, a land bill, and tax proposals• Caesar’s proconsulship of Gaul• Pompey reinstates Cicero, and the Luca agreement• death of Crassus in Parthia at Carrhae

Gallic Wars• “Gallia est omnis divisa in

partres tres…”– propoganda, tribal division,

and divide et impera• campaign against Helvetii,

Germanic pressure, and ambitions of Orgetorix

• involvement in intra-Gallic conflicts (campaign against Ariovistus)

• punitive expeditions across the Rhine and the English Channel

• insurrection of Vercingetorix, scorched earth, and Caesar’s victory at Alesia

Rubicon• boni (optimates) desire to prosecute Caesar (illegal

incursion into Germania, illegal war, devaluation of wealth, populares tactics in 59BC consulship) via senatorial quaestiones

• Caesar’s bid for consulship in absentia• Pompey (sole consul) and the optimates pass a law forcing

candidates to be present to run for office• pro-Caesarian tribunes, Mark Antony and Scribonius Curio• Curio’s peace proposal, consular order for Pompey to raise

legions against Caesar, Caesar’s rejected peace proposals• SCU: Caesar labeled as hostis, violence against pro-

Caesarian tribunes• alea iacta est

Civil War• Pompey and the optimates

escape at Brundisium• Caesar quickly

consolidates his hold on Rome, Italy, Sicily, and Sardinia, and seizes the treasury

• campaigns in Hispania• Bibulus’ fleet, Antony’s

reinforcements, and defeat and near-disaster at the Battle of Dyrrhachium

• Battle of Pharsalus, the flight of Pompey Magnus, and Pompey’s fate in Egypt

THINK PAIR SHARE:What if Pompey defeated Caesar?

Cleopatra VII Thea Philopater and Gaius Julius Caesar

• rivalry with Ptolemy XIII (13 year old younger brother)

• pressured by Gabinius, Cleopatra sends support to Pompeii

• Ptolemy XIII presents the head and signet ring of Pompey to Caesar

• Cleopatra sneaks into the palace, meets with Caesar, and gains his support against Ptolemy

• Alexandrian War• Caesarion

Consolidating Victory• opportunism of Pharnaces II of

Pontus• Roman victory at Zela (veni,

vidi, vici)• political stability in Rome,

revolt of legio X• Caesar in Africa, Battle of

Thapsus, Utica, and Cato’s suicide

• dictatorship, 4 triumphs, social reform, building projects, and the Julian calendar

• sons of Pompey, Hispania, and the Battle of Munda

Ides of March 44BC• dictator perpetuus• C. Cassius Longinus and

M. Junius Brutus (Servilia’s filius)

• departure for Parthia on March 18th

• Sybilline Books• curia of Pompey

(theatre on the Campus Martius)

• et tu Brute?, 23 wounds• panic, postridie meeting

of the senate, Caesar’s will, Lepidus in Rome, and Antony’s eulogy

THINK PAIR SHARE:Was Brutus noble? What was

Brutus’ intention for killing Caesar?What if Caesar had not been killed

on the Ides of March 44BC?

Mark Antony and Octavian Caesar• Octavian’s return to Rome and

acceptance of Caesar’s posthumous adoption

• Antony in Gaul against D. Brutus, Octavian’s use of soldierly clientela

• Cicero’s support of Octavian and the Phillipics

• Octavian and Antony at Mutina• Lepidus and Antony in Gaul• Octavian’s march on Rome,

consulship at 19, and “enemies of the state”

• Role of Agrippa and Maecenas

The Second Triumvirate• the execution of D. Brutus• reconciliation between Antony

and Octavian• triumviri rei publicae

constituendae (lex Titia 43BC)– Lepidus: Spain– Antony: Gaul– Octavian: Africa, Sicily, and

Sardinia (Sextus Pompeius, the pirate)

• proscriptions (100’s senators, 1000’s equites, familia, and Cicero)

• Battle of Phillipi (2 battles, suicide of Cassius, then Brutus)

Octavian’s Consolidation of the West• Antony in the East• Octavian back in Rome (land

confiscation)• L. Antonius, Perusine War,

Pact of Brundusium, amicitia by marriage (Octavia)

• Sextus Pompey, Treaty of Misenum, M. Visanius Agrippa and Lepidus invade Sicily, Battle of Naulochus, removal of the Pontifex Maximus and triumvir Lepidus

• Imperator Caesar Divi Filius, marriage to Livia (wife of T. Claudius Nero)

Antony and Cleopatra• winter 41 - 40BC• Antony’s victorious campaigns

against eastern kings• 3 children, and the rejection of

Octavia• Octavian’s propaganda,

Antony’s “Donations of Alexandria”, Antony’s will, and war against Cleopatra

• Actium (31BC)• suicides of Antony and

Cleopatra• Pharoah, Caesarion, and

clemency

THINK PAIR SHARE:Why do you think Caesar chose Octavian and not Antony as his

sole heir? Would Caesar have been pleased at what Octavian

accomplished?

The Roman Revolution• The fall of the Republic, the

emergence of the Principate

• role of the military, role of propaganda

• Augustus, Princeps, Imperator (gradual)

• Syme’s factions• social/ political revolution• sexual revolution (Caesar,

Antony, and Cleopatra)• role of the Senate and the

causes of revolution?