The Scientific Approach

• “Science” = from Latin “to know”

• Ways of asking & answering questions

• Scientific thinking reduces emotional reactions

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k2MhMsLn9B0&feature=related (Holy Grail)

The Scientific Approach

• Max Weber = “Value-free sociology”

• Researchers not to allow personal beliefs or biases to interfere:• Religion

• Racism

• Sexism

• Social class

• Science• Bases knowledge on:

• Direct

• Systematic

• Observation

• Study of society based on systematic observation of social behavior

• Empirical Evidence

• Can verify with our senses

• Sight, hearing, touch, smell

Quantitative Research Methods

• Numbers • Objective

• Deductive

• Generalizable

• Examples:

• U.S. Census

• GSS

Data File

Qualitative Research Methods

• Non-numerical data

• Texts

• Interviews

• Photos

• Recordings

• Visual media (movies, TV)

• Examples: Anne Frank’s Diary, Political Speeches, TV shows

Examples of Qualitative Data Sources

Field NotesText

Examples of Qualitative Data Sources

Mural in Northern Ireland

Qualitative Research

• Characteristics: • Systematic

• Subjective

• Analyze words or images

• Inductive

• Not generalizable

Steps of the Scientific Method

The Real World: An Introduction to Sociology, 2nd EditionCopyright © 2010 W.W. Norton & Company

• Concept: Mental construct• Deception• Love• Honesty• Happiness

• Variable: Concept which changes

Concepts and Variables

• Measurement• Procedure to determine value of a

variable in a specific case

• Operationalize • Stating exactly what is being

measured

Measurement

Example

• Concept• Mental construct that represents some part

of the world (Deception)

• Variable• Concept that changes from case to case

(Frequency of lying)

• Measurement• Procedure for determining the value of a

variable in a specific case (How often…)

Example

• Operationalize• Deception=Responses to questions about

frequency of various types of lies

• White lies

• Lies to protect partner

• Lies to protect self

• Lies that might end the relationship

Cause and Effect

• Scientists refer to the cause as the:• Independent Variable

• And the effect as the• Dependent Variable

• Understanding cause and effect is valuable because it:• Allows researchers to predict how one

pattern of behavior will produce another

Cause and Effect

Dependent & Independent Variables (Example)

• Dependent Variable=Frequency of lying

• Range: Never (1) to All the time (7)

• Independent Variables:

• Love

• Trust

• Commitment

• Dependency

• Expressiveness

Correlation & Causation

• Correlation: A relationship between two variables (they change together)

• Causation: A relationship where one variable causes another variable to change

• Spurious Correlations: Two variables appear to be correlated, but relationship caused by a third variable

Three Criteria for Causation

1. Correlation• Positive (Ice cream consumption increases; Crime

increases)

• Negative (SES increases; Infant mortality rate decreases)

2. Time Order• Cause must occur before the Effect• Independent variable Dependent Variable

3. Other possible causes eliminated• No spurious correlations

Spurious Correlation

Research Methods How do we gather data?

• Several research methods

• Each has benefits & limitations

• Which method works best?• Depends on your project

Ethnographic Methods

• Study people in their environments

• To understand meanings they give their activities

Ethnographic Methods

•Product research

•http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9tHgNXzS2EY&feature=related

•Good qualitative researchers

•http://www.youtube.com/watch?NR=1&feature=endscreen&v=jSdxYb2IVwg

Ethnographic Methods

• Ethnography usually has two steps:

Researcher:

1. Observes a social setting

2. Creates written account (field notes) of observed activity

Ethnographic Methods

• In participant observation

• Researcher both:

• Observes and

• Participates• Fraternity

• AA

Interviews

• Interviews: Direct, face-to-face contact with respondents

• Generate large amounts of data

• Researcher identifies target population

• Selects sample of people to interview

Sampling

To acquire information about a population--two basic Options:

1. Gather data from every member of the population (a census)

2. Sample—Gather data from selected members of the population

Populations and Samples

Know How the Sample was Selected: The Hite Report

• 84% of respondents (women) are not satisfied emotionally with their relationships (with men)

• 95% report "emotional and psychological harassment" from male partner

• 98% desire more communication from partner

• Only 13% of women married more than two years are still “in love” with husband

The Hite Report

• In 1972 a behavioral researcher, Shere Hite, initiated a large-scale study of female sexuality

• Sample size was 4,500 women• Questionnaires distributed through women's

groups • e.g., NOW, Ms. Magazine, and the Village Voice,

church groups, political organizations

•

The Hite Report

• 100,000 surveys distributed

• 4,500 returned

• Response rate of Hite's survey is 4.5 %

• Should have response rate of 70% to 80% to generalize to population

Problems

• Survey--127 essay questions

• Motivation of respondents?

• What about the 95.5% who did not respond?

• How did respondents differ from non-respondent?

Interviews

• Open-ended:• Respondents say as much as like

• What do you think about gay marriage?

• Closed-ended questions:• Respondents choose answers

• “I support gay marriage” Yes or No

Surveys

• Questionnaires given to sample from target population (Quantitative data)

• Survey research focus:• Large-scale social patterns

• Political opinions• Marriage & divorce • Crime

• Analyzes data using statistics

Experimental Methods

• Experiments: • Tests of specific variables and

effects

• Performed in controlled setting

• Laboratory

Experimental Methods

• Experimental & Control Groups

• Experimental group:• Participants receive treatment or intervention

Experimental Methods

Control group: • Participants receive no intervention

Compare experimental & control group results

• Did intervention have an effect?

Experimental Design

Existing Sources

• Existing Sources:• Data already collected by earlier

researchers:• U.S. Census

• FBI Uniform Crime Report

• National Health Interview Study

• General Social Survey (GSS)

Content Analysis

Verbal print media - newspaper, magazines, books, plays 

Visual media - videos, television, film

Visual print media - drawings, cartoons

Artistic productions - painting, sculpture, musicPersonal documents - autobiographies, letters, and diaries

Conducting Sociological Research: Ethics

• Institutional Review Board (IRB)

• Group of scholars who review colleagues’ research proposals

• Recommendations for protecting human subjects from harm:

• Physical

• Psychological

For you: Evaluating Research Findings

• Know source of data

• Find out how sample or participants were selected

• Other possible limitations of data and results