The Self in a Social World

The Nature of the Self

• William James:– composed of one’s thoughts and beliefs about

oneself = “known” or “me”.– the self is also the active processor of

information = “knower” or the “I”

The Self

3LO1

The Content of the Self

• Self-Schema: beliefs about the self that organize and guide the processing of self-relevant information, they are elements of the self-concept

Gender Differences in Defining the Self

• Women = more relational interdependence

• Adair et al., (1998): – sentence completion test– women more relational in individualist cultures– in collectivist cultures women and men were

equally likely to hold a relational view

Development of the Social Self

Introspection• The process whereby people look inward

and examine their own thoughts, feelings, and motives.

• Csikszenthmihalyi & Figurski (1983) found that only 8% of thoughts are about the self

Social Comparison Theory

• We learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves to other people.

• We compare ourselves with others who are similar on important attributes or dimensions

We compare ourselves to others when there is no objective standard.

Downward vs. Upward social comparisons

How Violations of Personal Standards Influence How we Feel

• Discrepancies between our ideal and ought selves are especially likely to produce negative emotion

• People cope by strivings to minimize the gap between the actual and ideal self

How Do We Maintain A Positive Self-concept?

• Sanitiosi & Wlodarski (2004): participants were first led to believe that either extroversion or introversion was a good predictor of success in university and in the workplace

• Participants then received feedback about their own personalities

• Those who thought that extroversion was a positive trait remembered the feedback related to extraversion more accurately

How Do We Maintain A Positive Self-concept?

• People also maintain positive self concepts by seeing themselves as more likely than other people to experience good events and as less likely than other people to experience bad events.

How Do We Maintain A Positive Self-concept?

• Use self-handicapping– people create obstacles to success so that

potential failure can be blamed on these external factors as opposed to internal traits

Downside of Overly Positve Self-Views

• People who hold overly positive views of themselves can behave more aggressively toward others and see them in a more negative light

• Poor social skills

• Destructive behaviour.

Self-Evaluation

• Self-enhancement = unrealistically positive views

• Makes us feel better about ourselves

Self-Evaluation

• Self-effacement = negative view of oneself

• Kwok (1995) found grade 4 students in Hong Kong rated themselves lower in– scholastic competence, – athletic competence, – physical appearance, – overall self-worth

Cultural Differences in Defining the Self

North American/Western Cultures

Independent SelvesSelf-schema in which others are not represented as part of the selfContext IndependentAttend to focal object and not gestaltAnalytic ReasoningEmphasis is on the proper use of rules and that contradictory statements cannot be trueInternal AttributionsAssume behavior of others correspond to their traits

Self

mother father

friend sibling

Eastern Cultures

Interdependent SelvesSelf-schema in which others are represented as part of the self. Context DependentAttend to surroundings and gestaltHolistic ReasoningEmphasis is on considering all possible influences and balancing competing forcesExternal AttributionsAssume behavior of others correspond to the situation more than people from a Western culture

Self

mother father

friend sibling

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Self-Concept: Independent or interdependent

Independent interdependent

Identity is Personal, defined by individual traits and goals

Social, defined by connections with others

What Matters

Me—personal achievementand fulfillment; my rightsand liberties

We—group goals and solidarity;our social responsibilities andrelationships

Disapproves of

Conformity Egotism

Illustrative motto

“To thine own self be true”

“No one is an island”

Cultures that support

Individualistic Western Collectivistic Asian anddeveloping world

Individualism vs Collectivism Individualists interacting with collectivists :A. Attend to the other's group memberships and authorities

B. Recognize that the person is more comfortable in vertical than in horizontal relationships. Persuade by getting the other's superiors to show approval and by demonstrating how a new behaviour will benefit the other's ingroups.

C. Criticize sparingly. Emphasize harmony and cooperation..

D. Expect extraordinary and unjustified modesty, particularly if the person is from east Asia.

Triandis, Brislin, and Hui (1988)

Individualism vs CollectivismE.Cultivate long-term relationships.

F. Expect that initially, at least, social behaviour will be formal. It will be polite, correct, but not especially friendly.

G.Remember that your social position based on age, sex, and family name is more important than what you have accomplished.

H.Expect the person to spend a great deal of time with you, even accompanying you to such places as the doctor's office..

Triandis, Brislin, and Hui (1988)

Individualism vs Collectivism• Collectivists interacting with individualists

include the following:A. Attend more to the other person's personal beliefs and

principles than to his or her ingroups.

B. Expect the other to be more involved in horizontal and less involved in vertical relationships.

C. Expect relationships to be superficial, short-termed, but good-natured. Do not confuse friendliness with intimacy.

D. Do not be threatened if the other acts competitively. Recognize that the other person defines status more in terms of accomplishment than in terms of sex, age, or family name.

Triandis, Brislin, and Hui (1988)

Individualism vs Collectivism

E. Expect that you can do business soon after you meet. Time is money and getting down to business is important.

F. Pay attention to contracts, signatures, to the written word. Informal agreements mean much less than in your own culture.

G. Recognize that the principle of equity is likely to be followed even when you would favor distributing rewards equally or on the basis of need.

H. Do not expect to be accompanied or assisted all the time. By letting you go alone they are expressing confidence in you.

Triandis, Brislin, and Hui (1988)