The Skanda Cult in India: Sanskrit sourcesby K.V. Sarma

Acculturation is a universal phenomenon that takes place when two rich cultures come together and intermingle, one sumptuous enough to supply and the other capacious enough to absorb. The results are novel and blended patterns ennobling the one and enriching the other.

In its broad and extended sense culture encompasses a variety of matters including life style, dress, food-habits and foodstuff, language, speaking habits and appellations, customs and manners, doctines and beliefs, myths and legends, deities and worship and the like. This phenomenon can take extensive strides and elaboration and also supplementation that, at times, the graft outgrows the trunk. A striking instance in point is the acculturation that has taken place in South India, especially Tamilnadu, in the cult of Skanda.

For an estimation of the prevalence of the Skanda cult through Sanskrit and, for that matter in North India where it has ceased to prevail from about the 10th century A.D., the potential sources would be vedic literature, the Sanskrit epics and purānas, prose, poetic and drama literature, texts on Dharmashastra and worship of deities, stotra literature, technical texts and inscriptions mentioning the constitution of temples for Skanda.

Places of pilgrimage, rivers, groves and ponds sacred to Skanda are also pointers to the Skanda cult in North India. Sanskrit texts mentioning the emigration and spread of the Skanda cult from the North to the South are also informative in the matter. The present paper endeavours to collect relevant information from all these sources and present them in order.

Kumāra-Skanda-Kārttikeya in Vedic literature

The evolution of Kumāra-Skanda-Kārttikeya who, during later times developed into one of the popular and prominent members of the Hindu pantheon, takes its origin from Vedic times. The tradition commences from the Rigveda where Kumāra appears as related to god Agni as his father, a feature carried forward down the tradition. Thus Rigveda 5.2.1-3 mention Kumāra as endowed with golden teeth and golden complexion who had been secreted by his mother in a cave (guhā) -- a feature current in later tradition also -- out of sight of his father1. Again, Agni is said to have seven auspicious mothers (RV 1. 141.2)2 and also born of seven mothers3, aspects which betray resemblances to the purānic Skanda.

In the Kāthaka Samhitā of Krsna-Yajurveda the birth of Kumāra in Agni is made mention of (36.5) and also his exploits (19.11). In the Śatapatha Brāhmana (6.1.3.8-10) there occurs a symbolic account of the birth of Kumāra. It is said that the six bhūta-s are the six seasons, their lord is the year (samvatsara) and they drop their seed at dawn, which, after a year, gives birth to Kumāra who is equated with Rudra, bring another traditional name of Skanda4. Elsewhere the same Brāhmana states (6.1.3.18) that Agni born as Kumāra had nine names, of which the ninth is Skanda. This Brāhmana equates the Krittikā-s with Agni (2.1.2.5).5 Again, the same Brāhmana states elsewhere

(6.1.3.18) that Agni born as Kumāra is given nine names, of which the ninth is Skanda.

The Maitrāyani Samhita of the Krsna - Yajurveda contains a Skanda-gāyatrī where three of his names occur: Tat Kumārāya vīdamahe Kārttikeyāya dhīmaī / tannah Skandah pracodayāt // The Taittirīya Āranyaka, in Prapātmaka 10, has a variant form of Skanda-gāyatrī which reads : tat Purusāya Vidmahe Mahāsenāya dhīmahī / tanno Sanmukhah pracoyaāt//.

The Siddhāntashikhopanisad portrays Skanda as Bhagavān and as a teacher.6 The Śivopanisad instructs the installation of the image of Skanda and the Mother Goddess near the Śivalinga.7 The Atharvasira-Upanisad also makes a mention of Skanda but identifies him with Rudra.8

Among the ancillary texts related to the Atharvaveda, the Atharva-parishista-s, one of the texts entitled Dhūrtakalpa or Sanmukhakalpa9 is an elaborate ritual on the propitiation of Skanda through homa (offerings in the sacred fire) and worship of his image with flowers, incense, lamps and sandal and offerings of naivedya (eatables). His names are mentioned as Skanda, Sadānana, Kārttikeya, BrahmĀnya, Svāmī and Dhūrta, the last meaning 'rogue' or 'master thief'! He is described as riding a peacock (yam vāhanti mayūrāh) embellished with bells and banners (ghantā - patākinī) and surrounded by the Mother Goddesses (yash ca Mātrganair nityam sadā parivrto yuvā). His image has six heads and lips (Sadānanostha). About his parentage it is noted:

Āgneyam Krittikāputram Aindram kecid adhīyate / ke ca Pāshupatam Raudram yo 'si so 'si namo stu te //

stating, 'who-so-ever you are, born of the Fire, Krittikās, Indra, Pashupati or Rudra, reverence to thee'.10

Skanda in domestic ritual

An understanding of the place of Skanda in the domestic ritual and social life of the common man in North India may be had from the grhyasūtras and dharmasūtras. According to the Āgniveshya Grhyasūtra ablutions were to be offered to, among other deities, Skanda, Vishākha and Sasthī, the consort of Skanda.11 The Kāthaka Grhyasūtra prescribes offerings in the sacred fire during the ritual of Havisyakalpa performed when a householder was offering his daughter in marriage. The deities to whom offerings were so offered include Skanda and Sasthī.12 According to the Bhāradvaja Grhyasūtra, (3.8.9) and Hiranyakesi Grhyasūtra (2.19.6) a seat (āsana) was prescribed also to Skanda who too was invoked along with other deities. The Mānava Grhvasūtra (2.11) instructs the performance of a ceremony in honour of Goddess Sasthī, consort of Skanda, on the sixth day of the bright fortnight.

Coming to dharmasūtras, the Baudhāyana Dharmasūtra (2.5.7) speaks about tarpana (religious offerings of water) to Skanda in his different forms, Skanda, Sanmukha, Vishākha, Mahāsena and Subramanya and also his pārsada-s and pārsadī-s.13 The mentions of the pārsada-s and Pārsadī-s implies that by the time that this work was composed Skanda had been established as the war-god.

Skanda in texts of grammar, medicine and polity

The grammarian Patañ jali of the 2nd cent. BC states in his Mahābhāsya, commenting on Pānini's sūtra 5.3.99 of the Astādhyāyi that the images of Śiva, Skanda and Vishākha were no longer being sold commercially, which was the case during the times of the Mauryas, and that during his time these images were used only for worship.14 The medical work Sushruta Samhitā prescribes a spell for the exorcision of evil spirits in which occurs the verse mentioning Skanda (and Guha) with some of his characteristics. Kautalya of the 4th cent. BC who speaks of temples and images in his Arthashāstra in a number of places, eg., devatāgrha (12.5.3), devatācaitya (5.2.39), devatāpratimā (4.8.4), devatādhvaja (12.5.5; 13.3.45), in the context of the construction of a fort specifically prescribes the installation of Senāpati (Mahāsena, Skanda) at one of the gates.15 In his Nātyashāstra (III.24) Bharata assigns Skanda to the eastern side of the hall for dramatic performances.

The prevalence of the Skanda cult and the popularity of the deity is evidenced from the discovery of a large number of coins of the Kushanas and Yaudheyas who ruled in the northwest of India during the beginning of the Christian era. These coins bear the figure of Skanda or legends or both. The reverse of a coin of King Devasena, King of Ayodhya, bears the symbol of a cock on the top of a post. The same device is found also on the coins of Vijayamitra. The device was based on Skanda-Kārttikeya according to J.N. Banerjea, as pointed out in his History of Art and Culture in Ancient India (p.141).

Banerjea describes coins Huviska, the Kushana king, bearing figures and the inscriptional names in Greek Skando, Komaro, Bizāgo and Mahāseno being Greek counterparts of the names in Sanskrit (ibid., p.146). Another Yaudheya coin described by Banerjea (p.141) has the figure of the six-headed Skanda, the heads being in two rows of three heads each, the right hand holding a long spear and left had resting on his hip (p.141).

The Yaudheyas seem to have adopted Skanda as their patron deity, as would be apparent from the legend in their coins which reads: Yaudheya bhāgavata svāmino BrahmĀnyasya and Bhāgavata svāmino brahmanyadevasya Kumārasya. A large number of Yaudheya coins from the Rohtak region of Haryana, over which the Yaudheya dynasty ruled, have been collected and preserved in the Gurukul Museum at Jhajjar in Haryana.

The earliest image of Skanda belonging to the Kushan period in red sandstone found in Rajasthan belonging to the 1st cent. BC has been preserved in the museum at Bharatpur, as mentioned by V.P. Limaye in his Critical Studies on the Mahābhāsya (VVRI, Hoshiarpur, 1974, p. 402).

Skanda in the epics and the purānas

It is in the Sanskrit epics and the purānas that the Skanda cult develops fully from the phenomenal stage to the anthropomorphic stage. The birth, form, weapons, expolits, installation as the commander-in-chief of the army of the gods, subduing demons, marriage, worship in temples, festivals connected with him, places of worship and pilgrimage, fasts and feasts — all add up to position Skanda as one of the important members of the Hindu pantheon, in due course, all over the country. Full-fledged accounts of some or all the above-said aspects are found weaved into full

texts or incorporated into longer texts like the epics and the purānas.

The Skanda story as depicted in the Rāmāyana of Vālmīkī is rather short and takes up just three cantos of the Bālakānda of the epic, 35 to 37 (edition: M.L.J. Press, Madras). It occurs in the contexts of sage Vishvāmitra leading the princes Rāma and Laksmana across the forest to the kingdom of Mithilā, when they reach the banks of the river Ganges. Out of curiosity Rāma enquires of the sage about the origin of the river and the sages reply trickles on to the story of the two daughters of Mr. Himavan, Gangā and Umā, the latter the consort of Śiva. Two versions of the birth of Skanda are indicated involving Śiva, Agni, Vāyu and the Gangās. In the first version the divine Krittikās find no mention but in the second they nurse the new-born Skanda. The story stops short here since the query of Rāma had been duly answered.

However, it is patent that Vālmīki was aware of several other developments in the story as indicated by references elsewhere in the epic. Thus, Queen Kausalya refers to Skanda as a great god (skandas ca bhagavān devah, 2.25.11) his being known as Kārttikeya (Kārttikeyasya ca sthānam, 3.12.21), Śarvana-bhava (ruroda shishur atyantam shishuh sharavana yathā, 7.25.22), Mahāsena (yatra jāto Mahāsenas tam jesham upacakrame, 7.87.10), Guha and Śikhivāhana riding the peacock, (śaktim adya tejsvī guhah shikhigato yathā, 6.69.31). Skanda's being installed as commander-in-chief and his piercing the Krauñ ca Mountain have also been referred to (abhisiktah purā Skandah sendrair iva marudganaih, 7.63.15, and guho calam krauñ ca agrashaktyā, 6.67.19).

It is in the Mahābhārata that we get, for the first time, a full-fledged depiction of Skanda with his manifold accoutrements and followers, exploits, worship by the masses, specific spots of pilgrimage, names of clans adhering to him, and allied matters. The story occurs in three contexts. In the Vanaparva (Aranyaparva), chapters 223 to 232, in 403 verses, form an account of Skanda given by sage Mārkandeya in response to the queries of King Yudhisthira who had been exiled to the forest by his cousin Duryodhana. Accounts of Skanda's birth, nurturing and exploits featuring several figures including Indra, Śiva, Agni, Umā, Gangā, Svāhā and the spouses of six ascetics are given. It is interesting that the last chapter, 232, forms an enumeration of the names of Skanda followed by a decade of verses in praise of Skanda.

In the Śalyaparva of the Mahābhāratha, in chapters 34 to 55, Balarāma, elder brother of Lord Krsna, arrives after a long pilgrimage upon the scene where, in the battle-field of Kurukshetra, the warring brothers and Krsna were holding a belligerent conference. During the long narrations and discussions that followed, three chapters, 44 to 46, in 276 verses, occurring in the course Bāladeva making a reference to the slaying of demon Tāraka, brief statement on the biography of Skanda occurs. What is significant here is the coronation of Skanda with an account of the presents made to him by the gods (45.1-54) and the long list of the names of the warriors who accompanied Skanda to battle the demons (45.55-77) and their characteristics (45.78-112).

The third account of Skanda in the Mahābhārata occurs in the Anushāsanaparva chs. 84-86, in 255 verses. The context is the narrative of grandsire Bhīsma from his bed of arrows to Yudhisthira on the origin of gold. It is stated here that Agni is turned into gold and, as a digression, the relationship between Agni and Skanda causing the birth of Skanda and the extermination of demon Tāraka and his forces under the leadership of Skanda.

Despite divergences, discrepancies, additions and omissions, and, at times, contradictions, the three accounts are similar in the portrayal of the personality of Skanda. Even so are his epithets, purpose of his advent, leading the army against Tāraka and other demons and the status which he has been accorded in the pantheon16.

In the Sanskrit purānic literature three texts are directly related to Skanda. They are the well-known Skanda-mahāpurāna which is divided into seven khanda-s and contains 83,000 verses, the Skanda-Upapurāna and the Śankara Samhitā of the Skandapurāna in six khanda-s carrying 73,000 verses. All these extensive texts carry exhaustive accounts of the Skanda cult, though with considerable digressions and divergences, but the keynote story is the same, viz., the extermination of demon Tāraka who was the scourge of the gods.

The other purānas, being the seventeen mahāpurāna-s, the seventeen upapurāna-s and the purānic samhitā-s are very much in the know of Skanda and the Skanda cult on account of their popularity among the masses. Incidents from the Skanda story or his exploits are referred to at several contexts. The Vāyu-purāna 72.42 gives the derivation of Skanda as:

skanditā dānavaginās tasmāt Skandah pratāpavān/

and Mahābhārata, Vanaparva, 225.17 derives the name as:

rsibhih pūjitam Skandam anayan skandatām tatah/ satshirā dvigunashrotro dvādasāksibhujakramah//

Matsyapurāns 157.41 derives Kumāra as:

dīpto mārayitum daityān kutsitān kanakacchavih/ etasmāt kāranād devah Kumāras cāpi so 'bhavat//

The Visnupurāna, 1.15.115-116 speaks of his birth in the forest of reeds:

Agniputrah Kumāras tu sharastambe vyajāyata/ apatyam Krittikānām tu Kārttikeya iti smrtah//

The Varāhapurāna, 24-49, speaks about sixth lunar day for his ablutionary rites:

svayam Skando Mahādevah sarvapāpapranāshanah/ tasya sasthīm tithim prādād abhiseke Pitāmahah//

The Skandapurāna gives a summary in 1.1.31.6-7:

mahimā hi Kumārasya sarvashāstresu kathyate/ vedaish ca sāgamaish cāpi purānaish ca tathaiva ca// tathopanisadarsh caiva mīmāmsādvitayena tu/

evambhūtah Kumāro 'yam ashakyo varnitum dvijāh//

The same Purāna 1.2.36.61, vouches salvation for the devotee:

idam tat paramam divyam sarvadā sarvakāmadam/ tanuksave ca sāyujyam Sanmukhasya vrajen narah//17

Belle letters in Sanskrit on Skanda

Poets and playwrights in Sanskrit are in no way behind in referring to Skanda when there is a context. It is well known that the great poet Kālidāsa has adopted the Skanda theme for a full-fledged long poem (mahākāvya), the Kumārasambhava, which is one of the specimens of exquisite poetry in Sanskrit. While Kālidāsa has stopped short with its canto Eight, with the love-sports of Śiva and his consort Pārvatī, another poet of a later date supplemented the work with nine more cantos, 9 to 17, completing the theme of the story with the extermination of the demon Tāraka. That Kālidāsa conceived Skanda as a powerful god installed at a temple in Devagiri hill (modern Devagarh in U.P.) is patent from the eloquent reference to Skanda in the Meghadūta, 1.45-46. Kumāra (Skanda) is referred to by Kālidāsa also in his Vikramorvashīya, wherein the celestial damsel Urvashī was turned into a creeper as the inadvertently entered the Kumāravana (Act IV, Praveshaka).

Another great poem on Skanda is the Kārttikeyavijaya by Gīrvānendra Yajvan alias Svāmi Dīksita, son of the renowned Nīlakantha Dīksita. (Ms. Mysore I. p.243)., Kārttikeyakarnāmrta, in 51 verses, (ptd. in Poona Orientalist, 27.iii-iv. pp.90-97) in 51, verese, is an exquisite work modelled on the Śrī Krsnakarnāmrta of Līlāshuka. A Kumaravijayakāvya in eleven cantos with a com. Kavikulojjīvinī by Rāmasūri is also known (Ncc. IV, p.210). Bhāsa, the dramatist, refers to Kharapata (Skanda) in his drama Cārudattam (Act III, after verse 10), patron deity of thieves. The same idea is found also in the drama Mrcchakatika of Śūdraka (Act III, after verse 14) when Śarvilaka prays to the patron deity of thieves before he bores into the wall of Cārudatta's house. He says: namo varadāya Kumāra-Kārttikeyāya namah. Kanakashaktaye Devavratāya namo, Bhāskaranandino namo yogācāryāya yasyāham prathamah shisyah.

Poet Ashvaghosa states in his long poem Buddhacarita that Buddha's birth his father felt as much joy as Śiva felt when his six-headed son was born:

bhavanam atha vigāhya shākyarājo Bhava iva Sanmukha-janmanā pratītah/ Buddhacaritam, 1.93

Varāhmaihira describing the form of Skanda in an icon specifies him as bearing the weapon śakti and donning the peacock feather:

Skandah Kumārarūpash śaktidharo barhiketush ca// 957.41

In a context of Skanda's forces fleeing the battlefield, he delivers an exhortation to stop them as stated in Bhāravi's Kirātārjuniya, 15.7.29, the commencing verse being:

athāgre hasatā sācisthitena sthirakīrtinā/

senāyā te jagadire kiñ cid āyastacetasā//

The exhortation ends with the verse:

iti shāsati senānyā gacchatas tān anekathā/

nisidhya hasatā kiñ cit tasthe tatrānyakarinā//

Bānabhatt, the proseteur, has a number of references to Skanda in two works, Kādambarī and Harsacarita, of which one might be cited. The birth-chamber of prince Candrāpīda had a wall painting of Kārttikeya riding on the peacock, carrying a banner made of red cloth and flourishing a lustrous śakti.18 Bhavabhūti, the dramatist too makes several references to Skanda in his works. To cite an instance. In the context of his duel with Parashurāma, Lord Rāma taunts his rival -- pointing to the latter's battle-axe with scorn: ayam sa kila yah saparivāra-kārttikeya-vijayāvajitena bhagavatā Nīlalohitena sahasraparivatsarantevāsino tubhyam prasādīkrtah parashuh/ (Mahāvīracarita, Act II, after verse 33). The Kathāsaritisāgara of the Kashmirian poet Somadeva has several references to Skanda,19 one of which might be cited here. The context is where the two, Vyādi and Indradatta, worshipping Kārttikeya for obtaining knowledge:

tenānāthau sati dhane 'py āvām vidyābhikanksinām/ gatau prārthyitum Svāmi-Kumāram tapasā tatah// Kathā. 1.2.44

In his Naisdhīyacarita, 18.27, poet Śrīharsa proclaims that the feather-tuft Sanmukha's peacock bore no comparison to the exquisite locks of Princess Damayantī:

bhajate khalu Sanmukham shikhī cikurair nirmita-barhigarhanah/ Ksemendra of Kashmir, in the Brhatkathāmamjarī, 6.1.16, in the tale of Svayaprabha compares him to Skanda, son of Śiva, and Jayanta, son of Indra:

tasya Skanda iveshasya Jyanta iva Vajrinah/ Sūryaprabho bhavat sūnuh pratāpākrāntabhūdrah//

Two campū-kāvyas and a drama on the Skanda theme are also known. The campū-s are: Kumāravijaya-campū in four ucchvāsa-s by Bhāskara Yajvan, son of Śivasūrya Yajvan of Puttūr of the Mullundram family, and the other, also termed Kumāravijaya-campū by Subrahmanya, son of Rāmalingasūri, pupil of Sadāshivendra. Manuscripts of both of these are recorded in the New Catalogues Catalogorum of Sanskrit (NCC), (Madras University, Vol. IV, p. 210). The Skanda drama entitled Kumāravijaya is the work of Caundāji pant Ghanashyāma, son of Mahādeva, manuscripts of which are also recorded in NCC IV, p.210. An anonymous prose work Kumāracarita redundant with alliteration has been recorded in NCC IV. 202.

Skanda in stotra literature

The combination of popularity, charisma and personal exploits coupled with the promise of bounty to devotees have caused a number of hymnal texts on Skanda, hymns of different types like mantra, stotra, pūjā-kyama, vrata and the like. Apart from individual texts a number of works of all these types occur also in the purāna-s and sthala-māhātmyas.

The skanda-gāyatrī-s occurring in the Vedic Maitrāyanīya Samhitā and Aitareya Āranyake have already been referred to. Manuscripts of Guha-gāyatrī are recorded in NCC, V.89. Those of a Kārttikeya-mantra occur in NCC IV.6. Among texts on Skanda rituals might be mentioned Guhakalpa, Guhaprashamsā and Guhābhiseka (NCC.89), and Kumāratantra, two texts of the same title, one from Kārana-mahātantra and the other from Vādhūlatantra (NCC IV. 203).

Among vrata texts dealing with vows intended to propitiate Skanda are Kārttikeya-vrata, Kārttikeya-vratakalpa, Kārttikeya-vratakathā and Kārttikeva-vratavidhi, manuscripts of all of which are recorded in NCC IV.7.

Of stotra-s a large number have gained popularity. To mention a few: Kārttikeyastava, Kārttikeyastotra, Kārttikeyastotra-kadamba (NCC.IV 7), Guhastotra (NCC. IV 89), Kārttikeya-prajñ āvardhanastotra (NCC.6), Guhāstaka (NCC V. 90), Subrahmanyastotra, Sadāhanastuti, Śrī-Kumāramngala-stotra, Subrahmanyāstaka, Subrahmanyabhujangastotra by Śankara, Subrahmanyāstottarashatanāmastotra, Subrahmanyāstottara-sahasranāma-stotra and so on. Manuscripts of several texts bearing the same Kumarasamhitā are noted in NCC IV. 211.

Names of Skanda

As the Skanda-Kumāra concept of the Vedic age developed, legends multiplied and exploits were added, His names and epithets also grew in number alongside. The stotra literature in Sanskrit provide nearly 1100 names of Skanda as recorded in the Sanmukha-Sahasranāma-stotra or Subrahmanya-s (Skanda-purāna, Kāsi-khanda, ii. ch. 14), the Subrahmanya-Astottara-shatanāmastotra, Subrahmanyabhujanga of Sankarācārya and allied works.

Skanda temples and pilgrim spots in North India

In current times few Skanda shrines survive in North India. However early literature in Sanskrit and inscriptions speak of several shrines and pilgrim spots sacred to Skanda. Obviously a list of these must be far from full since many temples have fallen into ruins and many inscriptions yet to be unearthed.20 Still the existing ones and the sculptures preserved even now should serve as a pointer to those that existed.

Skanda comes down to the South

A matter of utmost importance in the history of Skanda cult in India is its transmission from the North to the South of India, a graphic account of which is available in the Skanda Purāna: Śankara Samihitā, Sambhava-kanda, chapters 48 to 50. It is stated that subsequent to the terrible fight between Skanda and demon Tāraka at Māyāpuri, the capital of the latter near the Krauñca Hill in the Hemakūta region of the Himalayas, which resulted in the destruction of Tāraka and the

shattering of Krauñca, the divine architect Vishvakarmā constructed a grand city named Devagiri for the victorious Skanda.

Later a thought arose in the mind of Skanda to worship at the sacred shrines in India dedicated to God Śiva. In pursuance of this wish, he left Devagiri with his troupe by an aerial path, towards the South. First the worshipped Śiva in His sacred shrine at Kedarnāth. Then he came down to Kāshi (Varanasi). From there he sped to the South, first to Śrīparvata (present-day Śrīshaila), then Virūpāksa and then to Daksina Kailāsa (present-day Kālahasti) on the banks of river Suvarnamukhī. He then visited Venkatāchala (Tirumala) from where he came to Vatātavī (Tiru-ālankātu) where is to be found God Śiva in the ūrdhava-tāndava pose. From there he came to Kanchi and then to Kumārakostha (Kumarakkottam) where he established himself.

He then worshipped at Arunācala (Tiruvannāmalai), Pennānallūr (Tiruvennainallūr) on the banks of river Pennār and then Vriddhāchalam and Chidamibaram. From there he went to Māyūram and reached the banks of Maniyār. The divine architect Vishvakarmā constructed for him at this place a city by name Kumārapura. From Kumārapura Skanda passed on to a place called Śentipura where too a grand edifice was constructed for him and where he established himself. This place has, later, become renowned as Tiru-Chendūr being one of the most important centres of the Skanda cult in Tamilnadu.

Skanda-Subrahmanya in Sanskrit Tradition

by Dr. S.S. Janaki

The religious history of Bhārata Varsa, now called India, has its origin from prehistoric times. The original name of Indian religion, namely, Sanātana Dharma, is significant and indicates its chief characteristics of eternality, continuity and variety. Foreigners have coined the name 'Hinduism' for this unique religion. Whatever be the name, the spirit of Indian religion and spiritual culture has been almost the same throughout Vedic, Vedantic, Epic and Puranic times.

Its form however, has undergone remarkable changes. In the Vedic period cosmic powers were worshipped as divine manifestations. In subsequent times, the two major deities, Śiva and Visnu, their consorts, family, and incarnations, were and are still being adored externally and internally through yoga, meditation etc. But the fact remains that Indian religious culture satisfies during all times the yearnings and needs of persons endowed with differing capacity (adhikāra) for deeper experience and varying psychological nature (svabhāva).

Kumāra is generally considered as the son of the divine parents Śiva and and Pārvatī. He is known from varied Sanskrit texts from the ancient to the present times under varied names like Kārttikeya, Visākha, Guha, Senāpati, Sanmukha and Śaravanabhava. Some of these like Kārttikeya (son of the Krttikā goddesses) and Saravanabhava (born in a thicket of reeds), clearly describe the god's personal details through their own etymology and simple legends. Amongst the god's names Skanda and Subrahmanya are crucial to understand the symbolism and evolution of the deity's concept and its worship (upāsanā) in diverse ways as suited to a range of devotees.

In the present paper the references to Skanda and Subrahmanya as occuring in the ancient Sanskrit literature, which includes Yajur, Sāma and Atharva Vedas, Chāndogya Upanisads, Rāmāyana, Mahābhārata, and Skanda Purāna, are collected and critically studied. In the final analysis it is shown that this god was and is conceived and meditated upon at different levels, in his iconographical mūrti form (skala), in a form and formless state in the pāñcāyatana worship with distinct symbolism, as also at the pure absolute level with no attributes (nirguna) or parts (niskala).

Firstly, varied information about Skanda in the selected texts is given under distinct categories and explained.

Skanda is a noun derived from the verbal root skand that carries some meanings like 'jumping', 'spurting'/'spilling'/'effusing', 'perishing', 'drying up', and 'gathering together'.

Sandhānam skandanam caiva pācanam dāhanam tathā Gamanam śosanam skandadhātvarthadarśanāditi

Early Sanskrit texts like the Rāmāyana, Mahābhārata and Skanda Purāna bring out the appropriateness of the name Skanda given to Kumāra, while describing his birth and valorous deeds. Among the meanings of the root skand, that of 'spilling', especially of the semen of Śiva, recurs in the stories about the birth of Kumāra. There are of course, slight variantions in them. Three such anedcdotes about his birth can be seen now.

Vālmīki's Rāmāyana. In Bāla Kānda (Sargas 36 and 37) of the Rāmāyana, sage Viśvāmitra recounts the details of Kumāra to Rāma and Lakshmana, in order to bring out the unique charm of the deity and his valorous deeds as a child.

In sarga 36 it is said that Śiva and Pārvatī enjoyed sexual union for one hundred divine years. No child was born to them as was expected of such a marriage by the gods who suffered a lot by the misdeeds of the demons. Headed by Brahmā, the gods approached Śiva and Pārvatī and requested them to engage themselves in severe austerities with full control of sexual instincts for the benefit of the three worlds (verse 11).

Trailokyahitakāmārtham tejastejasi dhāraya

While agreeing to do so, Śiva asked the gods, when by some chance, his instincts were stirred up, who would be

able to receive and retain his powerful semen. As suggested by the gods, after some years Śiva discharged his seminal fluid on to the Mother Earth. The latter was able to carry and retain Śiva's lustre only due to it being carried to the entire earth by Agni the Fire-god. When Śiva's fiery lustre spread over the worlds, silvery mountains and a divine thicket of reeds (śaravana) appeared on earth. In that forest was born Kumāra.

Pārvatī was however disappointed at the gods not allowing her to hear the "fire of Śiva". Thereupon she cursed both the gods and Earth, that thenceforward the gods would not be able to impregnate their consorts, and that the Earth also would be

Lord Kārttikeya

Lord Śaravanabhavana

enjoyed by many husbands. So saying Śiva and Pārvatī go to the Himalayas to perform severe penance.

The first effort of the gods was thus unsuccessful due to the displeasure caused to Pārvatī. No god could impregnate his consort on account of Pārvatī's curse. Hence Brahmā suggested to Indra and others that Śiva's 'seminal lustre' held by Agni could be transmitted to the Gangā flowing in the divine regions (Ākāśa Gangā). Besides not being the consort of any divinity, Gangā, as arising from the Himalayan ranges, was the elder sister of Pārvatī. Hence Pārvatī would be quite delighted if Gangā would bear and retain 'Śiva's lustre' and deliver it as a son for the benefit of the three worlds (Sarga 37 verse 8).

Accordingly, Śiva's tejas was transferred to Gangā by Agni with the help of Vāyu. She bore it with great difficulty and deposited it in the Himalayan range. At that time there was a brilliant glow all around. Bright dazzling metals like gold, silver and copper appeared. Kumāra was born in that atmosphere. Immediately Indra and other gods arranged for the six Krttikā stars, who represent a star cluster in the third mansion having Agni as its regent, to nurse the child with their milk. They did so in the form of nymphs. Concluding the birth-story of Kumāra, Vālmīki says that the gods called the child Skanda, being born from the spilling of Śiva's tejas through Agni (verse 27).

Mahābhārata (Vana 183-4, Śalya 39) narrates the birth of Kumāra as the son of Agni and Svābhā. But the significance of his name 'Skanda' is explained (Vana 184.18; Salya 39.6) as in the Rāmāyana.

The birth-story of Kumāra in the Skanda Purāna (chapters 25,26) is different. As narrated here, Śiva listens to the troubles of the gods created by the demons against them, and the necessity for Śiva procreating a son soon to overcome their problems. According to their wishes, Śiva took up a beautiful form with six faces and looked at Pārvatī lovingly. At that time, a dazzling lustre similar to numerous suns arose from the eye in his forehead. This was so, because Śiva is greatly self-controlled that his semen can have only an upward movement. Hence he is called Ūrdhva-retas.

The six-faced lustre spread out in the whole world. People, not being able to put up with it, ran in all directions. At Śiva's suggestion, the Fire and Wind gods carry the lustre to a forest of reeds near Ganges, who united it with a lotus that was in a pond nearby. There a charming child with six faces and twelve arms was born. In the next moment the infant was transformed into a normal but extremely beautiful child (26.16-17).

Again, when at the bidding of Visnu, the six Krttikās came near, the child again became sextuple in order to allow each of them to feed it with millk ( tāsām anugrahārthāya sodhā mūrtir abhūt ksanāt). In another context it is said that when Pārvatī embraced the children, they all converged into one form.

In this account there is the emission of the lustre of Śiva through his eye(s) in his forehead. We also have the appearance of Kumāra as a baby in six forms or their merger into a single

personality as needed in the context. Hence both the meanings of the root skand, namely, 'emitting' and 'merging into one' are applicable here.

II.v. In yet another context the Skanda Purāna (35.11) applies the third meaning of skand as 'drying' or 'scorching' (śosana). Does he not attack and scorch the power of his enemies in the three worlds and win over them?

ākramya ca yato śkandaddhikramena jagattrayam tena skando yamākhyātah sutaste girisambhave.

In section II, in the context of explaining the etymological significance of the term Skanda as applied to Kumāra, a few versions of his birth were noted. The variations in them are quite interesting and need to be critically studied and analysed. There are, for example, different persons like Śiva, Brahmā, Agni, Indra, Pārvatī, Svāhā, and Gangā who are considered as Kumāra's parents. Also, he is considered as one person, a person with six faces, one with six forms, or, as seen in II. iv., he is born as single and transformed into six different babies for being fed by the Krttikās, only to become single again when embraced by Pārvatī. In fact, the Mahābhārata (Śalya 41.85-7) refers to Kumāra's varied parentage and his being considered as one, two or four or even as hundred or thousand:

kevidenam vyvasyanti pitāmtasutam vibhum sanatkumāram sarvesām brahmayotim tamagrajam kecinmaheśvarasutam kecitputram vibhā vasoh umāyāh krttikāyāśca gangāyāśca vadantyut ekadhā ca dvidhā caiva caturdhā ca mahābalam yogināmīśvaram devam śatadhā ca sahasradhā.

Having seen Kumāra in II. iv. as one or six in appearance, we can see now an account of him taking four forms on a special occasion, as narrated in the Mahābhārata (Śalya. 39).

The story starts here, after the birth of Kumāra to Gangā., when Brhaspati performs the divine child's purificatory rites (jātakarma). Immediately thereafter, due to the grace of goddess Sarasvati, Dhanur Veda with its accessories of missiles (astra), weapons (śastra) etc. attend on the body. It became powerful, internally and externally (mahāyogabalānvitah).

His parents eagerly approached the unique baby with great affection. As they all wanted to meet him at the same time, Kumāra took four similar and resplendent forms, (samarūpinah, bhāsvara-dehāh) and went to them with a spear in hand. Thus he approached and saluted Rudra as Skanda, Umā as Viśakha., Agni as Śākha, and Gangā as Naigameśa.

It is to be noted that of these four, Skanda and Viśākha are well known as Kumāra's names. Dazed by the unique powers of Kumāra, the divinities requested Brahmā to anoint him as their commander-in-chief. Brahmā acceded to their wishes. As a mere child, Kumāra then performed miracles like killing powerful demons like Tāraka and Sūrapadma, and splitting the Krauñca mountain with his Śakti.

Regarding Skanda and Visakha there is interesting information in some ancient texts. According to the Sāmavidhāna Brāhmana (I. 20. p. 59) Skanda is one of the deities to be propitiated with the chanting of specific Sāma Vedic hymns (like I.246, I.533 and I.565).

iti dve esā skandasya samhitā, etām prayuñjan skandam prīnati

The Vamśa Brāhmana is a minor treatise associated with the Sāma Veda. It is concerned with the deities, the Samhitās or their musical renderings of specific hymns among them, and the long line of sages through which the Sāma Veda has come down. The introductory part of Vamśa Brāhmana entitled Sāmatarpana enumerates the list of deities, to whom water-libations are to be offered. Amongst them figure the twin-gods Skanda-Viśākhau, (p. 217, Vamśa Brāhmana).

The Atharva Pariśistas are a collection/compilation delating with elaborate ritualistic and procedures details of important Atharva rites as related to many deities. The 20th section in this text is titled Skandayāga or Dhūrtakalpa, 'dhūrta' (literally, 'rogue') being a synonym of Skanda.

This vrata is to be observed on the sixth day after new moon in the months of Phālguna (February-March), Āsādha (June-July) and Kārtika (October-November). The worship of Skanda on the occasion follows the usual routine of invocation (āvāhana), invitation (āhvāna), his entry, offering of pādya to wash his feet, worship with flowers, followed by the cordialities (upacāras), naivedya, offerings in fire, worship and consecration of the thread (pratisara), and tying the same, and allowing the god to leave the place (visarjana).

Skanda is called by his other names including Viśākha in the course of the varied worship. In one context (20.6.4) his diverse parentage as the son of Agni, Krttikās, Paśupati, Rudra and Indra is mentioned.

āgneyam krttikāputiamaindram kecidadhīyate / kecitpāśupatam raudram yo śi so śi namo stu te // iti //

Importantly in 20.2.9, in the context of inviting Skanda to be present for the worship, Skanda is referred to as a 'brother of Viśākha'.

bhrātra viśakhena ca viśvarūpa imam balim sānucaram jusasva

The grammatical texts of Pānini and Patañjali also refer to Skanda and Viśākha as twin gods, worshipped in images, under the sūtra "Devatādvandve ca" (Pānini VI. 3. 26). Patañjali (Mahābhāsya on VI. 3. 26) clarifies that these two gods were not offered libations together in the Vedic age:

na caite vede sahanirvāpanirdistāh

Hence it is clear that the consideration of Skanda and Viśākha as twin gods was only a post-vedic concept. But in the earlier times they may have been considered as brothers.

It is interesting to note that Valmiki in his Rāmāyana, compares Rāmā and Laksmana to Skanda-Kumāra, the twin sons of Agni, in youthful charm and prowess (Kumārāviva Pāvakī).

It is clear from these references that Viśākha is not a mere synonym of Skanda because he was born in the particular star (Viśākhāsu jātah). But in some later Vedic texts and in the Rāmāyana they are considered as brothers or even twins.

As seen above in sections II to IV, the Vedic, Epic and Puranic literature use the term 'Skanda' meaningfully. True to the different etymologies of the term, the texts provide information of the god like his birth, parentage, concept and rituals. In a retrospective such details are:

1. He was born from the 'spilling' or 'emission' of the semen or lustre of Śiva that got spread out through the gods of Fire and Wind.

2. At birth he was a person with six faces of six separate individuals, but was subsequently 'lumped into one' by the embrace of Pārvatī.

3. He 'scorches' or 'thoroughly destroys' the external enemies or internal vices of his devotees.

4. Primarily he is the son of Śiva and Śakti (Pārvatī). Others associated with his birth and evolution are Brahmā, Agni, Indra, Svāhā, Gangā and Krttikās.

5. According to one version, the born child miraculously appeared in four forms, Skanda, Viśākha, Śākha and Naigameśa, respectively to his four parents Rudra, Umā, Agni and Gangā.

6. He is also considered as the twin deities, Skanda-Viśākha, to whom water-libations are offered. Skanda-yāga to these twins is mentioned in some Atharva texts. Specific Sāma Vedic hymns are also said to be chanted for them.

7. According to grammatical texts, the concept of Skanda-Viśākha as twin deities is post-Vedic.

The term Skanda also occurs along with names of his parents, as Somāskanda representing the triune aspects of Śiva, Pārvatī and Skanda. It is the most

common form of Śiva worshipped in many South Indian temples.

The signification of Somāskanda can be understood in the light of Śiva's explanation of Kumāra's concept of Pārvatī in Skanda Purāna (Sambhava, 35.5-8). Accordingly, the love of the two streams of grace, namely, Śiva and Śakti, unite in Subrahmanya. He represents the eternal union of the Supreme Śiva and Pārvatī of Inexhaustible Energy, that is comparable to the blend of sound and sense. Kumāra is 'six-faced' on account of his representing both Śiva as Sadāsiva with 'five faces' (namely Sadyojāta, Tatpuruśa, Vāmadeva, Aghora and Īśāna) and the many faceted Śakti endowed with one face:

Somāskanda Mūrti

Śivo ham niskalah pūrnaś śaktis tvamanapāyinī / prakrtipratyayākārāvām śabdārthakau matau // tvam śabdo rtho smyaham bhadre jagattvam patirasmyaham // pañcakrtyaparaścāham pañcavaktrassadāśivah / ekavaktrāsi bahudhā bhinnāpi parameśvarī // tvanmayo manmayo yasmāt sadvaktrah parikīrtitah /

Thus by invoking the grace of Kumāra, one invokes the grace of Śiva and Śakti. All these ideas are signified through the form of Somāskanda, in which Skanda is placed between his parents. In every temple of Śiva we have these images. It is noteworthy that in Kāñci near Chennai, temples dedicated to these three gods are themselves situated in the same order - the Kumāra Kośta temple of Skanda is located in between the temples of Ekāmranātha and Kāmākshī.

While the term Skanda and the legends based on its etymology highlight mostly the personal details of the deity, the term Subrahmanya is loaded with symbolism at the supreme and absolute levels. This signification is quite in keeping with the two components of the term, namely, the prefix su- (meaning beauty, excellence, joy etc.) and its qualifying noun brahmanya that is related to Vedas, Supreme knowledge, Absolute Reality etc. A few puranic legends and the liturgic formula Subrahmanyom and its many-sided symbolism support the prime status given to Subrahmanya as being on part with the Supreme Śiva. In a few versions he is even considered higher than his father.

The Skanda Purāna (Sambhava., chaps. 34, 35) highlights the supernal qualities of Subrahmanya in the words of Śiva himself. In this context (34.28-30) it is said that both these gods signify the mystical syllable Om. These are evident in the two formulas containing the names of the two gods followed by Pranava. Moreover, the son secretively explains the same to his father Śiva also.

arthamāha sma senānīh pranavasya rahasyatha / śrutvā śambhuh svarasyārtham evameva na samśayah // subrahmanyom svarasyārthastvam cāham ca sadāśivom // iti jānanti ye loke te yānti mama tulyatām //

In more than one context (Sambhava 35,20,26-7) the Purāna refers to Śiva's glorification of his son. Herein Śiva says "At the level beyond formlessness (Niskala) my son represents the Absolute Truth, Consciousness and Joy (Saccidānanda). He is the importable Supreme Lustre (Param Jyotih), before which the sun, moon, and stars are dulled". It is also said that while Śiva is the Lord of divinities and of supreme knowledge, his son is their leader in yet a higher degree. Herein a novel derivation of Subrahmanya as sutrām brahmanyah is given.

In the midst of myths and legends, one is constantly reminded of Subrahmanya as the embodiment of BrahmĀ Jñāna, as the expounder of the meaning of Om, and as the upholder and lord of Vedic way of life and rites. 'Subrahmanyom', with the repetition of pranava three items for special reverence ('ādarārtham' as Sāyana explains) in many Vedic sacrifices and rituals, is intended not only for Śiva's son but also for any divinity like Indra and Agni. So much so, that this mantra is to be found in many Vedic texts, especially the Brāhmanas.

In conclusion it can be seen that Skanda/Subrahmanya is a federal deity and an integrator among the divinities. He is endowed with the essential of all divinities. Svāmi is the most common word for 'God' in India. It is significant that 'Svāmi' is primarily the name of Subrahmanya alone. In the lexicons like those by Amara Simha, Svāmi occurs as a name of Kumāra. Other divinities have, so to say, borrowed the name from Kumāra.

Skanda is the son of Śiva and Śakti, younger brother of Vināyaka, son-in-law of Mahāvishnu, and is identified with the rising sun. By worshipping Kumāra we can be the recipient of the bounties conferred by all the other gods.

Skanda Legends in the PuranasIntroduction

The purānas in Sanskrit are important source books for understanding Hindu culture, since the purānas have assimilated much material on diverse topics in the course of the past several centuries. There are several legends relating to the three primary gods Brahmā, Visnu and Shiva and others associated with them. There is a general statement that the Vedas have to be amplified with the help of the itihāsas and Purānas. Though we can find the roots of some purānic legends in the Vedas, such as the Trivikrama form assumed by Lord Visnu, there are other legends in the pūrānas which are of independent origin. Though legends relating to Skanda in the pūranas appear to have developed independently, there is a Vedic basis for these legends. It is proposed here to examine the legends relating to Skanda in the Purānas in their historical development.

Birth of Skanda: general account

In general the Purānas describe Skanda as the son of Lord Shiva. The legend is almost the same in all the pūranas. When Lord Shiva and Pārvatī were having coitus, the celestials were disturbed by the might of the demon Tāraka and deputed Agni to Lord Shiva to seek protection. When Lord Shiva was disturbed in his privacy, his semen fell on the ground. Lord Shiva directed Agni to swallow it. Agni did as directed but he could not retain it and released it into the river Gangā. She got impregnated and later cast the child onto the bank. Then the asterism known as Krttikā assumed human form as the Krttikā nymphs and nursed the child. Hence he got the name Kārttikeya. There are certain minor variations in the above legend in the different Purānas. The Mārkandeya Purāna, Nārada Purāna and Kūmara Purāna have no reference to the origin of Skanda.

Various legends about his origin

There is a brief reference to the birth of Kumāra as the son of Agni in the forest of reeds in the Visnu Purāna1 and Vāyu Purāna.2 The Matsya Purāna describes elaborately the oppression of the celestials by the demon Tāraka,3 the marriage of Shiva and Pārvatī4 and briefly the birth of Kumāra.5

According to the Matsya Purāna the seed of Shiva was first taken by Pārvatī and then ejected and received by Agni, through whom it entered the belly of all the gods, but it could not be digested and burst out to become a pool of fresh water. Then the six Krttikā maidens drank it and offered it to Pārvatī who conceived. But the babe came out of her right side.6 He was born as a wonderful boy, illuminating all the worlds, having six heads and wielding the weapon shakti. Since he was destined to kill Mārā, the evil ku asuras, he came to be known as kumāra. The six Krttikās had united into a single Sākhā and hence Kumāra as their son was known as Kārttikeya and Visākha.8

Visākha and Kārttikeya were joined together by Indra and anointed as Lord Guha by all the gods headed by Brahma, Indra and Visnu on the sixth day.9 Indra offered him his daughter Devasena.10 Tvasta gave him a toy kukkuta, capable of assuming any form.11 Visnu endowed him with different weapons. Agni blessed him with splendour. Vāyu gave him a vehicle. He was extolled by all the gods. Skanda killed Tāraka. Elsewhere in the Matsya Purāna12 the popular version is described. Agni dropped Shiva's semen in the Gangā, who cast it off in the reeds. The child Guha was born from it and killed the demon Tāraka.

Describing the creation of Daksa and the creation made by him, the Garuda Purāna13 makes a brief reference to the birth of Kumāra as son of Agni born among the reeds. Sākha, Visākha and Naigameya were also born to Agni. Since Kumāra was the child of Krttikās, he was known as Kārttikeya. The Bhāgavata Purāna14 mentions Skanda as son of Agni and the Krttikās and as the father of Nisākha and others.

From the Skanda Purāna15 we know details about the formation of different parts of the body of Skanda on different lunar days as he was born from the reeds. He was cast on the reeds on the first day of the waxing moon in the month of Caitra. On the second day his body was collected together. It attained a definite shape on the third day. All the limbs including his six faces and twelve eyes became prominent on the fourth day. He was decorated by the gods on the fifth day. He rose up on the sixth day. All the sacraments (samskāras) were performed for him by Brahmā. But according to the Shiva Purāna these were done by sage Visvāmitra.16 Shiva conferred on him

the shakti (spear), Gaurī the peacock as his vehicle, and Agni presented the goat. Differing from the Matsya Purāna, it is stated that the ocean gave him the cock. 17 According to the Brahmānda Purāna 18 further gifts were made by others: Visnu gave him the peacock and the cock, Vāyu a banner, Sarasvatī the lute, Brahmā the goat and Shiva the ram. We find the same details in the Vayu Purāna19 also. The Shiva Purāna20 states that the semen of Shiva that fell on the reeds developed into a child on the sixth day of the waxing moon in the month of Mārgasīrsa (December). It describes in detail the marriage of Shiva and Pārvatī, the birth of Kumāra and the killing of Tāraka.21

The Padma Purāna22 gives a slightly different version of his origin. When Shiva and Pārvatī were in sexual union, Agni came there as a parrot. The disturbed Shiva released the semen outside and made Agni to drink it. But a lake was created out of a portion of the semen that fell on the ground. Pārvatī bathed in this lake. Then she met the six Krttikās there. They offered her water to sip from a lotus-leaf.

Soon after drinking the semen-mixed water she became pregnant and gave birth to a male child. The child came out tearing her right side and was known as Kumāra. Similarly an identical one called Vishakha burst out from the other side. These two were born on the fifteenth day of the waning moon in the month of Caitra. They were united into one on the fifth day of the waxing moon of that month. On the sixth day he was anointed as the chief of the army of the gods, and was called Guha. Tvastr presented him a cock as a toy.

The Brahma Purāna23 begins the description as in the Padma Purāna as above and makes a digression in order to explain the greatness of the sacred spots in the region around the river Gautamī. The description is same as in the Padma Purāna up to the birth of Kāttikeya. The Vāyu Purāna24 refers to the despatch of Agni by Indra to obstruct the union of Shiva and Pārvatī, Agni was cursed by the enraged Pārvatī that he would bear the foetus for having caused the obstruction. The foetus was later transferred by Agni to the river Gangā; the details are the same as in the general version. The narration explains the reason for the name Skanda as causing the destruction of the demons.

The Vāmana Purāna25 gives a different account of the birth of Skanda answering a query relating to the destruction of Krauñca. Agni is said to have dropped the semen of Shiva in the river Kutilā. The river proceded to the mountain Udayagiri and deposited the foetus in the reeds. The child was known as Sanmukha since he was nourished by the six Krttikā stars.

According to the Brahmavaivarta Purāna26 Kārttikeya was born from the semen of Shiva that fell in the reeds on the bank of the river Sanmukha. He had the peacock as vehicle. The Bhavisya Purāna27 dealing mainly with various austerities states that the sixth day of Mārgasīrsa is the day one when he killed the demon Tāraka.

The Linga Purāna28 describes the destruction of the god of love and mentions that Kumāra, born of the wedlock of Shiva and Pārvati, would kill the demon Tāraka.29 The Linga Purāna further describes the penance of Shiva and Pārvatī and their marriage, but the actual birth of Kumāra is not mentioned.30 We have a reference to the destruction of Tāraka by Kumāra in the chapter describing the destruction of Tripura.31 In the same chapter, Kumāra, referred to as Sanmukha, is

described in his beautiful form as a sportive child adorned with ornaments.32 He is described as accompanying Shiva setting out for the destruction of Tripura in the next chapter.33

It is well-known that Skanda killed the demon Tāraka with the shakti. The Skanda Purāna34 gives some details relating to this legend. Shakti had fallen at Camatkārapura in the Hātaka region and extended support to the mountain Raktasrnga ('Red Summit'). The city was hence known as Skandapura. The greatness of the shakti is that if one rubs his back against the shakti, he does not contact any disease for a year.

Marriage of Skanda

The Brahmānda Purāna35 states that Skanda married Devasenā, the daughter of Indra. But the Skanda Purāna36 states that he married Senā, the daughter of Yama, the god of death. But according to the Varāhapurāna37 Shiva blessed him with all playthings and asked him to be the husband of Senā.38 Since the meaning of the words Devasenā and Senā denote the army of celestials, it is considered that they are symbolic representations of Kumāra made as the chief or leader of the celestials.

According to another version found in the Brahma Purāna39 describing the Kumāratīrtha, he never married. This purāna adduces the reason for the same. After killing the demon Tāraka, Pārvatī devised a plan and made every woman to appear to Skanda as his mother. This had the desired effect. Skanda beheld his mother in every woman and hence got detached from life and declared that all women were mothers for him and resolved to be a bachelor.

The Shiva Purāna40 contains a different version furnishing the reason for Skanda remaining unmarried. According to this version when Skanda was going round the earth, he was informed by Nārada that the marriage of Ganesa, his brother, was performed by his parents in order to get rid of him. On hearing this Skanda was angry in spite of the entreaties made by his parents and proceed to the mountain Krauñca with the resolve not to marry any time. Hence Skanda was known to be Kumāra indicating that he was not married. It is to be noted that the traditional Tamil account holds that he set out to the Palani Hills protesting the favourtism shown by his parents in offering the fruit to his elder brother for having won the competition of going round the world first. Similarly the legend of Skanda marrying Vallī is unknown to the Sanskrit purānic tradition.

The significance of the Skanda legend in the Purānas

On this legend is the Matsya Purāna, V.S. Agarawal has stated41 that its purpose is to explain the ancient Kumāravidyā or the metaphysical doctrine of Agni as the miraculous Child.42 The Child is same as Kumāra Agni which is but another name of Rudra, as often identified in the Brāhmanas.43

Moreover the Brāhmana text propounds the theory of eight names of Shiva such as Rudra, Shiva, Pashupati, Ugra, Asani, Bhava, Mahādeva and Īsāna44, corresponding to the astamūrtis of Shiva. These eight cannot simply create life and when they unite they incarnate as Kumāra, which is stated here as the ninth creation. Thus Kumāra is the principle of life.45

Skanda represents the integral power of all the six cakras or six Krttikās and therefore is called Kārttikeya, each cakra representing a Krttikā nurse. In the legend in the Matsya Purāna, Vīraka (foremost attendant of Shiva), Skanda and Ganesa are all identified. It is stated that Pārvatī was attracted by the elephant-headed attendant of Shiva among a group of attendants frolicking on the mountains. She agreed with Shiva's suggestion that she may take him to be her son. Vināyaka was then addressed by Pārvatī as Vīraka. Though in later mythologies they are conceived as quite distinct, here they are stated to be created from the ablution of the body of Pārvatī. Hence Ganapati is Vīraka and Vīraka is Skanda46. The gift of a cock made by Tvastā to Skanda is the symbol of differentiated vowel sounds in their short, long and prolated sounds. Since Skanda is the son of Agni, his pet bird is the cock.47

The destruction of Krauñca

The legend associated with Skanda as piercing the Krauñca mountain is described in the Vāmana Purāna.48 After Skanda killed the demon Tāraka, the demon Mahisa entered the Krauñca mountain. Skanda was requested by Indra to kill him and also break the mountain. Skanda had his own reservation about Krauñca, since Krauñca was the grandson of Himālaya, the grandfather of Skanda. Indra was angry and there was an argument. It was hence agreed upon that whoever goes round the Krauñca mountain earlier than the other would be declared stronger. The mountain was requested to be the judge. After they completed their round, the mountain falsely declared Indra to be the winner. The infuriated Skanda smote the mountain along with the demon Mahisa. But according to the Shiva Purāna49 Skanda saved the Krauñca mountain from being afflicted by the demon Bāna on another occasion.

Other minor legends relating to Skanda

Skanda is stated to have been blessed to become a Brahmarsi by Visvāmitra according to the Skanda Purāna.50 When Indra hurled his thunderbolt at Skanda certain maidens known as the 'mothers of the children' were born, and assumed the practice of carrying away newborn babies. Their names are Kākī, Hilimā, Rudrā, Vrsabhā, Āyā, Palalā and Mitrā.51

The Shiva Purāna52 has a rather unique and interesting account about an exploit of Skanda. Nārada, a Brāhmana, once approached Skanda and requested him to find his sacrificial goat that had run away. Skanda entrusted the task to his attendants. They ultimately found the goat in the abode of Lord Visnu and brought it to Skanda. Skanda rode on the beast and went around the whole universe. When Skanda returned, the Brāhmana noticed him without the goat, and asked him to produce it. But Skanda advised him against the use of goat as a sacrificial item and added that he should feel satisfied since the sacrifice was completed already by his favour.

From the above description we understand the different stages of the development of the Skanda legends in the purānas. We find that the references to Vallī and the legend of the killing of Sūra are absent in the purānic tradition.

Skanda Kumāra in ancient North IndiaR.K. Sethபண்டை�ய வ� நா�ட்டில் ஸ்கந்த குமா�ர

The vast literary references to Skanda or Murukan or Subrahmanya throughout the history of Sanskrit and Tamil literature alike prove his importance as a pan-Indian deity. The poets of Paripātal are familiar with the Skanda mythology. Murukan of Tamil, the 'Red-god' bears the 'gem-like' peacock flag and rides a peacock or an elephant and is the commander of the hosts of heaven. In Tirumurukārruppatai he is the child of the daughter of Himavat, born down to the earth by Agni and nursed by six Krittikā devis and the vanquisher of the demons.

Lord Kārttikeya

Arunagirināthar with 'sublimity of thought and depth of mystic feelings', Kumāra Guru Para with his devotional hymns and many others including Saint Ramalinga have sung the glory of this 'embodiment of grace', and unfailing compassion of the Lord. By the time of Tirumurukārruppatai, Murukan worship was prevalent throughout South India. For Brahmāns he was personification of the sacrifice; for warrior chieftains he was known for his valour, for rishis he was the object of 'meditation and austerity' and also as a source of wisdom and integration. Murukan had become the source of 'eternal youthfulness' as well as 'release and liberation'.

Skanda in the Upanisads, Brahmanas and Sutras

The Chandogya Upanisad (ca. 7th Century B.C.) identifies Skanda with the Vedic sage Skandakumāra: 'tam Skanda ityacaksyate' (7.26.2). Skanda was regarded as a separate deity, but not as a war-god by the time of Chandogya Upanisad. Rather, the early Skanda was regarded as a 'religious teacher'. His identification with Sanatkumāra has been explained by M. Mukhopadhyaya: "Ksastriyas had influence in the formulation of upanisadic doctrines and the brahmanic policy of drawing Ksatriya sympathy attributed the teaching of secret knowledge to Ksatriya chiefs. And in this background it may not be improbable that Sanatkumāra was identified with the divine army chief.1

S.S Rana feels that the common parentage -- Skanda described as the son of Brahmā, Sanatkumāra also being son of Brahmā -- and the similar functions of both led to the identification of Skanda and Sanatkumāra in Chandogyopanisad.2 In the Śatpatha Brahmāna Kumāra appears as one of the aspects of the Rg Vedic god of war, Agni. By the time the Skandayāga text of Pariśistas of the Atharvaveda came into being, his association with the peacock was known.3 His description includes bells and banners4 and is having mothers around him.5 Śiva, Agni and the Krittikās are described as his parents.6

The mixing up of various motifs is such that Skanda is associated with Agni, Krittikās, Pashupati and Rudra. However the rsi says 'whoever you are I pray to you!7 In Baudhāyana Dharmasūtra, Sanmukha, Jayant, Vishakha, and Mahāsena are some of the names of Skanda. The offerings of oblations for these and his parsadas and parsadis suggest his being recognised as a war-god.8

This process of rituals and oblations for Skanda are described in Kathākagrhyasūtra and Agnivesya Grhyasūtra, etc. Various other references in sūtra literature suggest that the myth of Skanda - Kumāra existed by this time and that he was a popular god by the time sūtras were written.

Explaining Panini's sūtra 99, Patañjali mentioned the images of Śiva, Skanda and Viśakha. The expression samratipugartha indicates the worship of these gods. Images of these gods were sold by the Maurya kings for replenishing their royal coffers (A.K. Chatterjee p. 29).9 From Patañjali we come to know the separate identity of Skanda and that Viśakha came out of the right side of Skanda when Indra struck him with his vajra.

A.K. Chatterjee has given some references to prove that Skanda was worshipped as a god, probably even in the lifetime of Buddha (6th Cent. B.).10 Kautilya has referred to Skanda as Senāpati, the Generalissimo of the celestials.11 It is known that temples of Kārttikeya existed during the time of Kautilya.

Skanda-Kārttikeya in Mahābhāratā

Chapter Sixteen in Mahābhārata describe in detail Skanda-Kārttikeya. Ten chapters of Vanaparva, three in the Salya Parva and three in Anusasana Parva provide details regarding the birth and exploits of Skanda. The development of the Skanda-myth in Mahābhārata is quite evident. In Vanaparva Skanda is the son of Agni and Svaha. Agni is, of course, identified with surya. In Vanaparva when Kārttikeya displayed his enormous capabilities the devas instigated Indra who after initial hesitation declared war against Kārttikeya. Indra was completely defeated. The thunderbolt hurled by him at Skanda pierced him on the right side. A new god Viśakhā came out from the right side of Skanda.

When Indra accepted the superior capabilities of Kārttikeya and requested him to become the king of devas he politely refused and instead agreed to become the Chief Commander of the Devasena ('army of devas'). The growing power and prestige of Skanda is quite apparent in this episode. Skanda achieved a very prestigious place as a deity and only next to Visnu and Śiva in importance. The śalyaparva refers to his intimate relationship with mothers. A.K. Chatterjee correlates this with the 'mother worship in vogue in the days of Mohenjadaro'. There are references where Skanda is termed as Yogīśvara or Mahāyogi. This idea was later on developed in the Purānas.

In Mahābhārata, Rudra, Uma, Agni and Ganga request Brahmā to perform the rites of making child Kumāra the generalissimo of the army of celestials which is done on the banks of river Sarasvatī. Here Skanda assumes four forms - Sakha, Visakha, Naigameya and Skanda. Sakha goes to Ganga, Naigameya to Agni, Vishakha to Parvati and Skanda to Rudra. All the four claiming to be the parents of Kumāra achieve satisfaction.

A large number of gifts are presented to Skanda after which he kills all the demons. Taraka, the chief and Mahisa his aide are destroyed. Daitya Bana hides in Krauñca Mountain that is pierced by Skanda and the demon is killed. He is praised for his victory. Some call him son of Mahesvara others associate him with Agni, Ganga, Pārvati or Krittikas.

Skanda-Kārttikeya in Rāmāyana

The Balakanda of the Ramayana provides a direct role of Agni in the birth story of Skanda. Although in one version Skanda is described as the son of Śiva but the role of Agni is also mentioned. As he is named Kārttikeya the relationship of Krittikas was known. When Rama is proceeding to the forest Kausalya invokes the blessings of Bhagavan Skanda for the welfare of Rama during the exile.12 In the Agastya hermitage a shrine of Kārttikeya and other gods is mentioned.13 Various other references about Skanda e.g. a great warrior, Mahāsena, śakti as his weapon and peacock as his vahana, his name Guha, his piercing the Kraunca mountain etc. are available in Valmiki Ramayana.

Skanda-Kārttikeya in Purānas

The description of the birth and other aspects of Skanda-Kārttikeya occūrs at various places in a number of purānas. Vayu Purāna (generally placed between 350 BC and 550 AD) describes the

birth and exploits of Skanda which is similar to Ramayana. It confirms the account of Mahābhārata-Vanaparva by describing Skanda as the son of Agni by Svāhā (1.8.11). The account of Brahmānda Purāna, one of the earliest but later than Vayu Purāna, tallies with that of Vayu.

The Matsya Purāna (Chapters 158-160) Provides a 'romantic elucidation' of the story of Skanda as given in Ramāyāna and Mahābhārata (Salyaparva). Here the Krittikas provide drinking water to Parvatī, who was taking bath in the golden lake created by the semen of Śiva which Agni and other gods were forced to swallow, and which burst out of their bodies after sometime. The condition of Krittikas was that on drinking the water the son who would be born to her right side, the three lokas were filled with the bright golden rays emanating from his body.

By the time of Vamana Purāna Kārttikeya's birth was from 'Agni' but mother became Kutila - another daughter of Himalaya but this idea does not appear in any other Purana. We have a philosophical interpretation regarding the birth of Skanda in Varaha Purāna. The poet is aware of the variations about the origin of Skanda in previous ages.14

From the union of Prakrti (Uma) and Purusa (Śiva) is born Ahamkara the highest tattva or param tattva (Varah 25.1-5)

In Brahmāvaivarta Purāna Skanda is identified with Visnu. In Bhagavata Purāna and Visnudharmottara Purana. (III.71.7) Kumāra-Kārttikeya is the manifestation of Visnu for leading the devasena in battle against the demons.15 It was perhaps an effort of reconciliation of different sectarian cults. Later on Maya of Visnu is identified with Parvatī (Brahmāvaivarta Purāna III. 15.34), who is accepted as mother of Kārttikeya.

Skanda, an instructor god, identified with Sanatkumāra in Chandogya Upanisad is endowed with the epithet 'best among the knowers of Dharma' (Matsya Purāna 184.2-4). He provides the secret of Mahādeva to the rsis. The knowledge of Skanda acquires such dimensions that in Skanda Purāna even Śiva acknowledges his superiority.16 In Mahābhārata (IX.46.14) Kārttikeya is described as Yogīśvara.

This aspect is continuously remembered. Skanda as a yogi is the subject matter of various puranic references. Brahmāvaivarta Purāna mentions the foster-mothers Krittikas as yoginis and kalas of Prakrti (III.15.36). The reason of Skanda being depicted as a 'yogi' or 'preceptor of the yogis' is his being the son of Śiva, the great yogi. An allegorical meaning is also available whereby the energy of Śiva (transcendent Divine Being) and Parvatī (female energy) descends to the level of matter (ejected semen) taken by Agni (Susumna). The River Ganga is the left cord. In the words of V.S. Agarvala, 'from there it was thrown in grove of reeds, which is the body itself or more properly Sahasrara, the centre of thousand spokes in which each spoke is compared either with a reed or to a petal of Infinite Mind, that inheres in the highest centre.17

Kārttikeya is quite often compared to the Sun. In the earliest Vedic literature Sun god is connected with Agni; Surya is another aspect of Agni. From very early period Skanda and Agni are associated, hence the relation of Skanda with Surya is quite natural. In Vāyu Purana Skanda

is 'Adityasatasankaso mahatejah pratapvān.' In Brahmānda Purāna the epithet used is Dvādas'arkapratapavan. Various other puranas reveal his association with the Sun-god.18

The motifs of Son, Sun and Warrior

The motifs of son, sun and warrior have been analysed in detail (Clothey: "Sonship is not necessarily related to physical generation; the role of the son is "as a manifestation or realisation of that being or idea which is called . . . father." In Brhadāranayaka Upanisad the son is explicitly understood as a manifestation and fulfillment of the idea represented by father, and the father is said to be poured forth in manifestation in the son.

Similarly the warrior motif is related to Vedic Indra, Agni and Rudra. Warrior is the preserver of Dharma. Warrior destroys the enemies and is the savior of the cosmic order, hence he is a creator who preserves the old order and initiates the new order. The motifs of son-sun-and warrior coalesce in Skanda. The chronology of the development of these cosmological and mythological aspects are encased in obscūrity but the fact is that 'Skanda mythology embraces motifs that had already developed in earlier Vedic mythology'. The son, warrior and sun attributes had been associated earlier with Indra, Agni and Rudra. Incidentally all the three have association with Skanda.

It has been argued that the admittance of Skanda in the Aryan pantheon (as distinct from the probable Skanda cult in the Indus Valley culture) and his subsequent association with Rudra-Śiva necessitated the merging of Skanda myth with the Śiva-Pārvati myth, though his early association with Agni was not contradicted (Rana S.S.).19 This is in line with the development of Son-Sun-Warrior myth noted herewith.

Skanda in Kālīdāsa

Kumārasambhava represents a transition period from late Epic to early puranic times. Cantos 9 to 11 describe the "three stages of gestation of Śiva's emanation, Kumāra: first within Agni, the Divine Fire; second in Ganga's waters. One ought to remember that Ganga also born of Himalaya is Śiva's consort and regarded with intense jealousy by Gaurī; then taken in by Krittikās, the Pleiades into their wombs when they bathe in the holy waters of the river. Unable to bear the burning heat of the fetus, they throw it back into Ganga, who pushes it into a clump of reeds on the bank. Śiva's emanation Kumāra is born in this spot. Pārvatī chances upon the new born babe, 'blazing in splendor' and accept him as her own son..." Chandra Rajan explains that 'Kumāra, the son is self-begotten of Śiva. In the metaphysical terms it might be appropriate to regard Kumāra as the emanation of Śiva. In Meghadutam the idea is already incorporated:

Skanda has made that hill (Devagiri) his fixedFor his is the blazing energy, sun-surpassingThat the wearer of the crescent moon placedIn the Divine Fire's mouth to protect Indra's hosts.

In the next stanza the request to Meghadūtam continues -- spur the peacock the fire-born god rides to dance.20 In Kumārasambhavam the appointment of Kumāra as general of the gods and his conquest of Tāraka and other asuras has been described:

Śiva's son, his lotus face radiant with joy, released a missile that was like the Fire that consumed the universe at the end of time.

This results in the Lord of Titans being fatally struck and falls on the ground like a mountain peak hit' thus making devas led by Indra jubilant. (Canto 17-49,51)

The names of Skanda used by Kalidasa include Kumāra, Sadānana, Sanmukha, Sanmatura, Guha, Śaravanabhava, Śarajanma, Kārttikeya and Pavaki. Kalidasa provided a new splendor to the already brilliant myth of Kārttikeya. The poet was familiar with the Mahābhārata, Ramayana and Śiva Purana descriptions of the Skanda story.

Bana Bhatt, a contemporary of Harshavardhana, mentions the slaying of Tāraka and Krauñca. The śakti of Skanda and its immense capability is described; riding on a beautiful peacock, he carries a red cloth banner.

When Skanda myth was absorbed by Śiva-Parvatī concept various interpretations for the symbolism were provided. Śiva is Sat (Existence): Umā is Cit (Knowledge) and Skanda is ānanda (bliss). The three together constitute Brahmān who is Existence-Knowledge-Bliss Absolute. Skanda as the form of Ananda is an aspect of the Supreme. Anado Brahmeti Vyajanat' (Taittirēya Upanisad III, 6)21 "The peacock -- his vehicle -- represents Vedas, his weapon Śakti is Brahmāvidya, i.e. Jñāna-Śakti (Power of Knowledge)... Vedas being the śabda or sound form of the universe and the peacock symbolizes the universe or the evolutionary trend of Maya. The cock on Skanda's banner stands for nivrtti or the path of wisdom leading to the Knowledge of the self".22

Swami Harshananda23 has associated Skanda with the 'spiritual perfection'. His six heads represent the five sense organs and the mind, which co-ordinates their activities. By the control, refinement and sublimation the concept of highest level of perfection is achieved. Another dimension of symbology is linked with yoga, the six centres of psychic energy, of consciousness in the human body. When a yogi is able to raise his psychic energy to the uppermost Sahasrāra Cakra, he achieves the vision of supreme knowledge, Śiva-Śakti. This supreme knowledge and perfected state of spiritual consciousness (Turiyatīta) is represented by Skanda-Kārttikeya.

By riding the peacock that kills the snake that stands for 'time', shows that he is 'beyond what is within time and outside it'. Snake represents lust and northern Indian Skanda is throughout a personification of celibacy. Peacock is creation in all its glory' hence the master of creation Skanda rides it. It may seem to be a devotional interpretation of a devotee but the inherent meanings and psychological interpretation of the concept of Skanda has an unusual charm surrounding it from the beginning.

Skanda Worship and Iconography

Worship of Skanda was prevalent in north India quite early. Bilsad stone pillar inscription of the time of Kumāragupta (415-16 AD) and various other stone and bronze sculptures discovered from northern and eastern India are a testimony to the popularity of Skanda.

A red sandstone image of Skanda (2nd cent AD) at National Museum, New Delhi; sculptures of Skanda as 'instructor god' in the Gwalior Museum; image of Kumāra Kārttikeya at Baijnath, Almora (U.P) in the Pārvatī temple and a sculpture from Himachal Pradesh at National Museum, New Delhi are a testimony of the popularity and importance of Skanda. A large number of sculptures ranging from 7th century Ad onwards found in the eastern India, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and also from Chamba hills and Mandi area of Himachal Pradesh further establish the antiquity and prevalence of Skanda 'holding the portfolio of defense in the kingdom of heavens'. Yaudheyas, an ancient Indian military tribe, had adopted him as their spiritual and temporal ruler. Kumāra Gupta of Gupta dynasty, Devamitra of Ayodhyā (1st Cent. AD) and Vijaymitra are also known as devotees of Skanda.

Rohtika -- now Rohtak in Harayana near Delhi --was historically a town of Yaudheyas. Mahābhārata description24 of this being a favorite city of Kārttikeya is confirmed by the discovery of several Kārttikeya type coins.

The famous text of northern Buddhism, Mahāmayūri (4th Cent. AD) mentions that Kumāra Kārttikeya was the well-known deity of Rohitaka.25 Although Skanda is no longer known in this area, his vahana the peacock is treated as sacred and its killing is a taboo (perhaps due to other reasons).

The discovery of 5th century AD six-armed image of Skanda in the ruins of Avantipura indicates that he was present in Kashmir. References from Nilamata Purāna of a 'Kumāraloka' indicates that Skanda had an important place as a deity. Mention is also available of 'Skandabhavana-Vihāra' in Kalhana as indicated by Stein in Rajatarangini, (Vol. II, p. 340). The name of the founder was Skandagupta. The available detailed information of copper coins of Devamitra, King of Ayodhya (1st Cent AD), the carved pillar shaft near Kānpur suggest the popularity of Skanda-Kārttikeya in U.P. areas.

Skanda sculptures traced at Mathura of Kanishka's time and of the later period inform us of Skanda worship. There is sufficient evidence to prove that Skanda was publicly worshipped in temples, specific instance being of Dasāvatāra temple at Devagarh in Jhansi area and the discovery of several Skanda sculptures from this area belonging to post-Gupta period. The popularity of Skanda worship in ancient times in Bengal, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa etc., is also a known fact. By providing information from various memoirs of

Yaudheya coinage of Punjab (300-340 AD): Kārttikeya standing facing, holding sceptre; peacock on right. In Brahmi: 'Yaudheya Ganasya Jaya' (Victory to the Yaudheya people). Reverse: Goddess standing with hand on hip, wearing transparent garment.

Archaeological Survey of India and other research works Rana S.S. (pp. 96-106) has explained this in his work.

The image of Kārttikeya or Kumāra signifies the idea of youth and spirit. The very name Kumāra indicates strength. His vehicle the peacock and his attendants all symbolize energy and strength. The sculpturing of Kārttikeya as explained by D. D. Sukla26 and J.N. Banerjea27 provide he intricate details for the purpose. In this context also the emphasis is on representing his figure 'like the morning sun', clothed in red cloths and 'himself having a fiery red color.' His youthful form should be 'beautiful, auspicious and pleasing to look at'. His face is full of smile, splendor, grandeur and his 'head is adorned with variegated and beautiful crowns' etc.

The details about Skanda-Kārttikeya sculptures indicate the interest shown in the god and his various aspects, especially as the commander of the army of gods. His general form, six headed, the five fold Skanda, multi-armed Skanda are described. The Uttarākamika Āgama, Ansumad Bhedāgama, Purakārnagama, Kumāratantra etc. Provide unique, detailed attributes of the appropriate forms of the images of Skanda.28