the social construction of norm the experience of the valley of the elves and the proposal of the...

8/19/2019 The Social Construction Of Norm The Experience Of The Valley Of The Elves And The Proposal Of The Italian Ecovil…

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Thesis presented anddefended in Milano

4 October 2010

atMilan University(Università degli Studi di Milano)

Philosophy and Sociology of Law epart!ent

Ph thesis written withinthe doctoral progra!!e"

#enato Treves$nternational octorate

in%Law and Society&

'stablished partnership with"The University of Milano()icocca

The University of $ns*briaThe University of )ologna

The University of UrbinoThe +entro ,a-ionale di Preven-ione e

ifesa Sociale in MilanThe University of L*nd

The +arlos $$$ University of MadridThe University of .ntwerp

T/' SO+$.L +O,ST#U+T$O, O ,O#M

T/' 'P'#$',+' O T/' .LL'3 O T/' 'L'S ., T/' P#OPOS.L O T/'$T.L$., '+O$LL.'S

Ph +andidate

+ristina Spada

University of Milan

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To +ristian and Ol!o5

!y parters in life6To the baby that will be born

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Tables of contents

1.

1.1.

1.1.1.

1.1.2.

1.2.

1.2.1.

1.2.2.

1.3.

1.3.1.

1.3.2.

2.

3.

3.1.

3.1.1.

3.1.2.

3.2.

3.2.1.

3.2.2.

3.2.3.

3.2.4.

3.2.5.

3.3.

4.

4.1.

4.2.

Introduction

Aspects of the context: communitarianism and environmentalism

Communitarianism, utopianism and ideas of perfectibility

Intentional communities

Utopia in literature

The postmodern version of the intentional community: cohousing

communities and ecovillages

Cohousing communities

Ecovillages

Key word: sustainability

On "natures"

Nature becomes environment

The norm perspective as a lens to look at the phenomenon. The social

construction of norms within a complex field.

The Valley of the Elves

A methodological noteThe relationship with the earth

The house of the “cultural creatives”

Efforts towards a legal status

Conclusion

Birth

The birth of Castana

The birth of Jouko and of Elvan Luni

The birth of Marco, Oaysi, Haianò and Yannawey Silui

From rebellion to constructive interpretation. Towards a new type ofawareness

Towards a biodynamic birth

Conclusion

“The important thing is that we decided it together”: the “talking circle”

Conclusion

From non-law to law: intentional communities towards legal recognition?

Ideas of civil society

Sustainable living

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9

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22

30

30

33

37

38

47

55

63

6769

79

81

83

84

84

87

89

94

109

119

119

131

135

135

137

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4.3.

4.4.

4.5.

4.6.

4.7.

4.8.

Crisis is opportunity

Desire of recognition

Contents of the proposal, Autumn 2008

The situation in Spring 2010

From social norm to law?

Towards another normative paradigm?

Conclusions

Appendix I

Appendix II

Appendix III

Bibliography

Internet websites

Audiovisuals

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145

147

151

152

154

157

159

161

164

167

177

178

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Introduction

In the history of humanity there are several examples of groups of people that have intentionallyabandoned, both physically and symbolically, the fundamental assumptions of their dominant

cultures and socio-normative systems. Pythagoreans (6th-5th century B.C.), Essenes (2nd century

B.C.), early Christians’ “anarchic” communities, “enlightened” experiments in the 19th century,

counter-cultural communities in the last century and contemporary ecovillages: very different

motivations, of religious, political-revolutionary, utopian, existential and environmental origin,

have inspired lots of social experiments, carried out with passion and spirit of enquiry. Central to

them is the idea of perfectibility, without which, according to William Metcalf, there would be no

sense in talking about intentional communities. According to him, in the last 250 years lots of

intentional communities have revealed themselves to be important citadels of experimentation and

the avant-garde in fields as diverse as health and hygiene, child care, female emancipation, therelationship with others and the “different”, schooling, and, lately, technological innovations that

are respectful towards the environment.

+onte!porary ecovillages co*ld perhaps be considered %a post(!odern& version of the intentionalco!!*nity5 for they are characteri-ed by a less radical co!!*nitarianis!5 s!aller si-es5 attentionto ecological and e:istential aspects and their inner growth; they tend to be egalitarian5 willing notto totali-e5 and open to the o*tside world and to si!ilar e:periences5 while carrying o*t their life asartic*lation of a %planetary conscio*sness&6The Global Ecovillage Network was founded in 1995. Since then, the network has been growing

(and still is) constantly, as witnessed by the number of declared ecovillages and the number of

people involved at different levels, from the third world to the opulent West to the ex-Soviet world.The personal experience of a different relationship with the self and the other, inspired by the

discovery of holistic and cooperative synergies, is considered the most proper and surely the most

stimulating way in the personal and collective path towards a good life. The rediscovery of ancient

styles and ancient languages (attributable to some aspects of customary law), together with the

appreciation of science and technology that are respectful towards the environment, are the basis for

a cultural and normative proposal that regards creativity as the key to face the perceived ecological

and social crisis in a satisfactory way.

In the first chapter I try to illustrate the roots that explain the existence of contemporary ecovillages.

The different experiences of intentional communities, the utopian streak in belles letters and in folktales, the birth and the development of the environmental movement and of the New Age

(understood as form of “new spirituality”) have, in their intertwinings, given way to those particular

types of intentional communities that are today distinguished by ethical and ecological research and

by the effort to achieve a creative adaptation of the variegated society of men and women to the

changing present.

The second chapter illustrates the theoretical framework which I draw on, the privileged “lens”

through which I choose to consider the phenomenon. According to the Norm Science developed at

the Institute of Sociology of Law in Lund, the norm would be that outcome that is defined by

environmental conditions and by personal characteristics and inclinations. The norm in action is theobject of my analysis and the purpose of my interpretative reconstructing, according to an aesthetic


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that considers complexity as an epistemological assumption and an axiological principle.

$n the third chapter $ present the res*lts of a piece of ethnographical research carried o*t in an$talian ecovillage5 %The alley of the 'lves&5 which va*nts a decades(long e:perience and is

c*rrently pop*lated by so!e two h*ndred people6 $n the atte!pt to reconstr*ct its nor!ativeorientation5 $ have privileged the =*alitative approach6 The e:perienced nor!5 the one that is loo>edfor5 wanted5 and b*ilt day by day5 is the ob?ect of !y field observation and of the several interviews$ cond*cted6 @hat $ witness e!erging5 while aware of the pert*rbation necessarily bro*ght on by!y presence and role of observer5 is the o*tco!e of a *nani!o*s participation5 inspired by a sharedspirit of research tending towards c*lt*ral5 social and ecological s*stainability6 The topics !orespecifically foc*sed on in !y wor> are the following"

• the approach to childbirth" pregnancy and5 above all5 the rit*als trans!itted for the !o!entof delivery5 which !ay be a significant precondition for the develop!ent of an aggressive orpeacef*l c*lt*re;

• the relation to land5 i6e6 the p*rs*it of being in t*ne with nat*re5 e:periencing nat*re as

holistically as possible;• the quest for consensus, i.e. a practice of consciousness and spiritual growth.

or several years5 the $talian +o!!*nards have been loo>ing with favo*r to the possibility of arecognition A first of all social and c*lt*ral5 and then legal Bchapter 4C A of the realities they havebeen creating6 $n 200D the $talian 'covillage ,etwor> drafted a bill5 b*t *nfort*nately5 beca*se ofthe *nfavo*rable political sit*ation5 there has been no parlia!entary disc*ssion of it yet5 eventho*gh it has been s*pported by several activities5 incl*ding a collection of signat*res6 @hat therepresentatives of ecovillages are trying to obtain is that the social nor! A created and e:periencedwith spirit of research and a certain degree of conscio*sness5 elaborated internally in conferences5debates5 periodicals5 newsletters and *niversity co*rses A get an instit*tional and nationalconfir!ation6 This wo*ld give the! the certainty of !a>ing a positive contrib*tion to the whole ofsociety5 with a significant nor!ative interpretation that wo*ld creatively face the present6 @hat isproposed is a c*lt*ral5 social and legal paradig! shift A tho*gh in the pro!oted bill this is barelygli!psed6 The new paradig! considers life in general as the o*tco!e of interrelations5 whoserichness is directly proportional to their =*antity and =*ality6 .ccording to the a*thors5 it is ti!e forthe typically !odern spirit of %con=*est& which has enabled an e:traordinary degree oftechnological progress5 and at the sa!e ti!e !ade h*!an life on earth *ncertain5 to give way toother styles and lang*ages6 These wo*ld recogni-e s*b?ectivity Balso legal5 since the law is ani!portant reg*lating instr*!ent still todayC in the other5 in a general sense6North of the Alps, European ecovillages are very interested in Italian normative and jurisprudential

developments. Some of them are thinking about a similar legal “gamble” to be promoted atStrasbourg to the European Parliament.

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chapter I

Aspects of the context: communitarianism andenvironmentalism

1.1. Communitarianism, Utopianism and ideas of perfectibility

1.1.1. Intentional communities

$n the history of h*!anity there have been !any atte!pts to create social str*ct*res which wo*ld=*alify as alternatives to the do!inant c*lt*ral paradig!s which have e!erged in different conte:ts

and geographical areas6 . co!!on intent connected to a pro?ect and a shared view of a possiblebetter society5 have5 over the cent*ries5 !otivated tho*sands of !en and wo!en in the planning andthe physical constr*ction of lives which differ fro! the do!inant c*lt*ral *niverse fro! the socio(econo!ic and religio*s points of view6

The first5 doc*!ented intentional co!!*nity dates bac> to the si:th cent*ry )+ when5 in +rotone5in that New World5 as the *ninhabited so*thern $talian coasts !*st have appeared at that ti!e5 a fewh*ndred people cl*ster aro*nd the charis!atic fig*re of Pythagoras6 or abo*t eighty years5 peoplelived5 wor>ed and ate BvegetarianC !eals together at the /o!a>oeion school6 There was no privateproperty and people dedicated their ti!e to !athe!atics5 astrono!y5 !*sic and philosophy6Mystical and intellect*al practices were e:perienced as a tool and a !ethod in the search for the

ideal society6 .ccording to 'va +antarella5 /o!a>oeion saw the recovery of the fe!ale principle5thro*gh a ret*rn of the chthonic c*lts5 aspects which reece was leaving behind16

The discovery of the so(called %ead Sea scrolls&5 at E*!ra! in 1F4s5 US.5 20075 p6 147D64 )arbara Thiering5 esus t&e man5 o*bleday5 Sidney5 1FF26

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a*thor5 the first +hristian gro*ps for who! the sharing of goods was the nor! co*ld be seen as theco*nter(c*lt*ral !ove!ent of their day5 in that they were in direct opposition to the !aterialisticdo!ination of the #o!an '!pire86

The fact that these anarchical co!!*nes went into decline was5 parado:ically5 the res*lt of thespectac*lar political s*ccess of the +hristian ch*rch6 Many historical e:a!ples show how c*lt*ral5social andIor econo!ic incl*sion of a potentially revol*tionary ideology in the political !ainstrea!tends to ca*se a wea>ening of their capacity to attract disciples and th*s red*ces their strength in thepower str*ggle96

.ltho*gh s*ffering opposition5 the co!!*nal lifestyle of the early +hristians s*rvives *ntil it leads5in the fo*rth cent*ry5 to !onasticis!6 This is *s*ally characteri-ed by collectively owned property5the conscio*s develop!ent of a fa!ily at!osphere5 co!!on wor> and the sharing of !eals as wellas shared rit*als of song and prayer6

The Medieval period sees the birth and spread of different heretical gro*ps who devise for!s ofco!!*nal living in an atte!pt to recover a %!ore a*thentic& +hristianity5 closer in spirit to itsorigins6 )etween the 11th and 12th cent*ries5 the +athars and the @aldensians flo*rish in ranceand $taly and in the 17th cent*ry5 the ret&en of t&e *ree Spirit e!erged in central '*rope6 Thelatter hold !illenarian convictions5 believing that the co!ing >ingdo! of +hrist wo*ld visibly!ateriali-e on 'arth and they wo*ld be its first b*ilders and the first to be redee!ed6

The .nabaptist tradition5 with its radical Protestant roots5 which probably originated in Sa:ony5inspired !any %co*nter(c*lt*ral& gro*ps fro! the 19th cent*ry to the present ti!e6 Many of thesegro*ps fo*nd ref*ge in the ,ew @orld fro! cr*el and !erciless persec*tion s*ffered at the handsof '*ropean political and religio*s hege!onies5 who saw these gro*ps essentially as a threat to the

social order6

The Mennonites5 called after their fo*nder Menno Si!ons B14F9(1891C5 today n*!ber over a!illion followers; the /*tterites5 who e!igrated to the United States5 to what is now Pennsylvania5in the wa>e of the 'nglish!an @illia! PennJsen to be co*nter(c*lt*ral are those which conscio*sly !ove away fro!5 andso!eti!es appear to openly oppose5 the f*nda!ental r*les of a hege!onic andIor do!inant c*lt*re6

9 #6 +onnell5 uling !lass" ruling !ulture5 +a!bridge University Press5 +a!bridge5 1F


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religio*s and anarchical(socialist nat*re appear6 They are atte!pts to p*t into practice the vision ofcertain intellect*als in their %ill*!inated search& for the perfect society6 These atte!pts are not so!*ch %oases of salvation& for the chosen few5 b*t rather real social e:peri!ents5 !odels for the restof h*!anity6 These co!!*nities are based on the conviction5 revol*tionary for their ti!e5 that

social reality5 far fro! being deter!ined by ,at*re or by ivine @ill5 is the res*lt of the interactionof vario*s social forces610

There are abo*t one h*ndred and thirty s!all Bin si-e b*t not so s!all in their goalsC Utopianco!!*nities flo*rishing in .!erica in the 1Fth cent*ry5 see>ing f*lfil!ent within that %greaterUtopia& and those %infinite& spaces of the ,ew @orld6 So!e of the !ain people who inspired this!ove!ent were #obert Owen B1


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by ta>ing into acco*nt peopleJs nat*ral inclinations as regards occ*pation5 the !anage!ent of theirfree ti!e and the choice of partners6 The present stage was seen as an i!perfect step in thedevelop!ent of an ideal society called /ar!ony6

Most of the o*rierist co!!*nities5 Btwenty(fo*r according to Hathryn To!ase>C are set *p in theUnited States between 1D42 and 1D4 in 1D4D intending5 not so !*ch to cond*ct an e:peri!ent5 b*t rather tocreate a !odel for the f*t*re Hingdo! of od5 tho*ght not to be hidden in the i!probable !ists ofthe .fterlife b*t fir!ly anchored on this earth61 roles6 .s the e!phasis is on co!!*nity5 any type ofe:cl*sive relationship between !en and wo!en and between parents and their children isdisco*raged6 .t the sa!e ti!e5 they follow a practice of %co!ple: !arriage& according to which

every !an co*ld !ate with each consenting wo!an6 The ai! is always one of spirit*al perfection6ro! 1D9F5 stirpic*lt*re5 or selective reprod*ction is enco*raged6 The co!!*nity5 which regardsitself as %s*perior&5 was s*pposed to prod*ce the best possible individ*als6 Oneida lasts longer thanthat the Owenian and o*rier co!!*nities" it co!es to its end in 1DD1 when it is changed into ali!ited co!pany which soon t*rns o*t to be a s*ccessf*l co!!ercial enterprise6

.ccording to ra-ia and onata rancescano5 what ca*ses the decline of the .!erican intentionalco!!*nities of the 1Dth and 1Fth cent*ry are not so !*ch the financial proble!s5 as the fail*re ofthese co!!*nities to establish the!selves as !odels for society as a whole6 ro! their position ofs!all strongholds5 these co!!*nities regarded the!selves as avant(garde forer*nners with whichordinary society wo*ld have to align itself as the contradictions bro*ght abo*t by the new

capitalistic syste! worsened6 Of co*rse a!ongst those see>ing Utopia5 i!prove!ents are visible" inhealth and n*trition5 in the increased attention towards childcare5 in higher levels of ed*cation5 inthe e!ancipation of the fe!ale role and in i!proved general social conditions6 This is certainly astri>ing contrast to the poor and *nhealthy conditions in which !ost of the new wor>ing classes inthe factory townsof the $nd*strial #evol*tion live5 especially in the Old @orld6 /istory5 however5does not prove the! right6 Mainstrea! val*es5 lifestyles5 !odels5 the strategy of e:pansion5 thecon=*est of private property and5 for religio*s co!!*nities5 the grad*al process of sec*lari-ation5all t*rned o*t to be too te!pting and *lti!ately won over their co!!*nal val*es6

onata and ra-ia rancescato write that %the recovery of the +hristian !ommonwealt&5 of theco!!*nity holding co!!on property5 co*ld not b*t fail within a syste! which had clearly chosenthe opposite pole&6 $t is not by chance that the Saints" the $iti#ens of t&e 1ingdom of 2eaven on'arth ( as the inhabitants of Oneida called the!selves ( beco!e !an*fact*rers of l*:*ry c*tlery61D

S*re eno*gh5 cent*ries ago5 there was a si!ilar pheno!enon when the +hristian co!!*nitarian!ove!ent5 with the sec*lari-ation of the early +hristian +h*rch %sh*t& itself *p inside the!onasteries; f*rther analogies !ay be fo*nd in the radical changes and in the wea>ening of theco!!*nitarian sense of e=*ality in the !onasteries following invasive sec*lari-ation and theincreased infl*: of !aterial goods61F

Leibni- in !athe!atics61< onata and ra-ia rancescato5 i+id5 p6 216

1D onata and ra-ia rancescato5 op. !it.5 p6 7


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.s far as the Old @orld is concerned5 the advent of totalitarian regi!es between the two @orld@ars Bascis!5 ,a-is!5 the ranco dictatorship5 Stalinis!C red*ces the drive towards any for! ofco!!*nitarian and socialist or Utopian develop!ent6

One of the aspects of the co*nterc*lt*ral !ove!ent ( the bac>gro*nd of which was initially +eatand then &ippie ( which developed initially in the United States in the 1F90s5 is the e!phasis of!any yo*ng people on the %ret*rn to nat*re&5 e:perienced for the !ost part as %going ho!e&205 a%ret*rn to the original condition&6

The 1F90s see the largest co!!*nitarian activity in .!erican history with the birth of over twotho*sand co!!*nes in 74 states621 The yo*ng people who ?oin these co!!*nes are !ainly %white!iddle(class&22 searching for %simpli!ity and a re!onne!tion wit& nature" to a!&ieve a spirituallyorientated and signifi!ant e-isten!e" often wit& t&e aid of drugs to e-pand t&e mind, all t&is" in anattempt to !ountera!t t&e prevailing avidity" alienation" violen!e and war3276

Often dissatisfied with the fail*re of the !ainstrea! instit*tions to p*rs*e goals that were off*nda!ental i!portance for the!524 the new hippies search for or set *p co!!*nes Bso calledbeca*se *s*ally the !e!bers hold co!!on ownership of the property28C in order to b*ild andcreate cooperation5 har!ony5 gender e=*ality and to *nderta>e the prod*ction and cons*!ption oforganic food6 )eing %alternative& is often displayed aesthetically5 *s*ally by !eans of long hair5beads and fla!boyant clothing and is also shown in practices li>e the appreciation of roc> !*sic5the *se of !ari?*ana and psychedelic dr*gs6 The new %transgressors& are often acc*sed of Breal ori!aginedC *nconventional se:*al behavio*r6

One of the novelties in the recent co*nterc*lt*ral style consists of an inner e:istential search5 acharacteristic which5 as we shall see later5 will be co!!on to !any of the f*t*re co!!*nity

e:periences6 Undo*btedly the f*nda!ental val*es5 *nli>e those of previo*s intentionalco!!*nities5 are of a post(!aterialist nat*re295 where the !ost i!portant goal is personal Band thencollectiveC develop!ent instead of the %!aterialistic& econo!ic growth worshipped by the %oldc*lt*re&6 .ccording to .lberto Mel*cci5 the holders of these new val*es %do not fig&t for materialgoals or to in!rease t&eir parti!ipation in t&e system. '&ey fig&t for sym+oli! and !ultural sta4es"for a different meaning and orientation of so!ial a!tion.356

The intentional co!!*nities in e:istence today have their roots in these diverse e:periences6 .s@illia! Metcalf writes5 citing 6 +hristian5 intentional co!!*nities5 in different for!s and to a

20 Many of the co!!*nes fo*nded at that ti!e *se the ter! &ouse to define the!selves / onata e ra-ia rancescato5

op. !it.5 p6 9well P*blisher Ldt65 O:ford5 1FF95 p6 91627 Schehr +6 #obert5 op. !it.5 p6 48624 @hilst interviewing an activist BG6C in a innish vol*ntary pro?ect5 with a h*!anitarian5 co!!*nitarian bac>gro*nd it

e!erged that %it was the d*ty of the State to ta>e care of the proble!s of the develop!ent b*t !ore cost effectiveway& ( +ristina Spada5 Il gruppo %stelle. nalisi di un esperimento so!iale" tesi di la*rea5 anno accade!ico 1FFF(20005 p6 4< (6 .ccording to G65 !any hippie friends had chosen to go into politics and had ?oined the innish reenparty B7i&re8 0itto)5 believing that they co*ld th*s p*t their ideals into practice6 G6 had instead chosen vol*nteerwor> as a !ain occ*pation5 preferring this !ethod of contrib*ting to the i!prove!ent of society6

28 Michael S6 +*!!ings5 %$ntentional co!!*nities and !ainstrea! politics&5 in H6 +hristensen e 6 Levinson 5 20075p6 9FD6

29 #onald $nglehart5 $ulture s&ift in advan!ed industrial so!iety5 Princeton University Press5 1FF062< .lberto Mel*cci5 %Sy!bolic challenge of conte!porary !ove!ents&5 So!ial esear!&5 82 B4C5 1FD85 p6


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varying e:tent5 offer an e:traordinary array of co!!on5 basic val*es6 These val*es !ay be of asocial5 econo!ic5 spirit*al5 political and or ecological nat*re2D6 or e:a!ple5 as far as $ >now5 in$taly5 there are anarchical co!!*nities li>e Uropia2F in Salento Bfo*nded in Gan*ary 1FF85 c*rrentlyhosting abo*t 18 peopleC; +atholic(socialist co!!*nities li>e $l orteto70 in the province of

lorence Bfo*nded in 1Fibb*t-i! whose !otivation was anything b*t environ!ental6 $n 2009 theLotan >ibb*t- Bwww6>ibb*t-lotan6 co! C ( fo*nded in 1FD75 part of ', Blobal 'covillage ,etwor>C fro! 2002 (was recognised for the best practices d*ring the ann*al !eeting held in the anish ecovillage of Svanhol!Bwww6svanhol!6d>C5 specifically5 for its wor> in promoting e!ologi!al +uilding" waste management andenvironmental edu!ation, and also for its wor4 in promoting sustaina+ility t&roug& t&e +uilding of +ridges +etweendifferent et&ni! groups in Israel6 The last part refers to pro?ects involving $sraelis5 BGews and .rabsC5 yo*ng

Gordanians and Palestinians and the )edo*in co!!*nity in $srael67< @illia! Metcalf iana +hristian5 20075 p6 9


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co!!*ne of )agnaia5 alongside the r*le of co!!*nally owned goods and real estate andco!!*nity s*pport for the individ*alJs personal develop!ent7D5 it is considered *p to each !e!berto decide whether to wor> inside or o*tside the co!!*nity5 and this *s*ally entails paid wor>6 Th*sthere !ay be teachers5 far!ers5 f*ll ti!e !others and st*dents in the co!!*ne5 all living *nder the

sa!e roof and sharing !eals6 The sa!e thing occ*rs in the intentional co!!*nity of Svanhol! inen!ar>5 fo*nded at the end of the 1Fnowledged on vario*s occasions5 the financial contrib*tion of o*tside inco!es5 whetherco!!*nally or individ*ally !anaged5 is in fact often i!portant for the gro*p6

So!e intentional co!!*nities act*ally t*rn o*t to be !ore conservative than !ainstrea! c*lt*re5 asfor e:a!ple so!e +hristian f*nda!entalist co!!*nities6 .ccording to Metcalf5 it is =*ite easy foranyone in search of co!!*nities with a radical or conservative orientation to find precisely what

they are loo>ing for; however5 the search proves to be even easier for those who are see>ingco!!*nities with !oderate political views which are environ!entally s*stainable and with asyste! which pro!otes solidarity and h*!anitarian val*es67F

So!e co!!*nities self(organi-e and self(finance the!selves thro*gh the wor> of their !e!bersBo*tside wor> or the sale of food and handicrafts !ade within the co!!*nityC5 and thro*gh theorgani-ation of c*lt*ral events; in so!e co*ntries5 li>e en!ar>5 .*stralia5 ,ew Realand and$srael5 intentional co!!*nities are so!eti!es pro!oted and financed by the govern!ent6 The+hristian +h*rches and other instit*tions so!eti!es organi-e and s*bsidise so!e for!s ofintentional co!!*nity in line with their orientations and val*es6

+oho*sing co!!*nities and ecovillages represent the !ost recent for! of intentional co!!*nity6Us*ally5 in coho*sing co!!*nities5 people live in s!all(scale5 self(organi-ed neighbo*rhoods5averaging between twelve and forty fa!ilies; each fa!ily owns their ho!e and shares theownership of co!!*nal areas which incl*de a space or b*ilding for collective activitiesBrecreational5 c*lt*ral5 !eal sharing etc6C6 )eginning in en!ar> in the 1F


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co!!*nication ro*tes6 /owever5 !any of the! are in *rban conte:ts as in the case of the st*dentho*sing cooperatives40 or of the recent coho*sing pro?ects6 There is in fact a long tradition of radicalpolitical activists who live in *rban intentional co!!*nities altho*gh this is changing5 in that anincreasing n*!ber of co!!*nities are fo*nded by city(dwellers5 who opt for coho*sing5 creating

cooperatives with the intent of b*ilding or b*ying co!!on residential ho!es41

5 and who hold!oderate political views6

The ecovillage of Los .ngeles5 in a totally *rban conte:t5 is an intentional co!!*nity of abo*tthirty five people and it is the intention of the !e!bers to de!onstrate the processes which give riseto healthy and lively *rban cohabitation5 ai!ing at a red*ced environ!ental i!pact along with!odels of a high =*ality of life642 One of their covert ai!s is that of reclai!ing p*blic spaces andstreets5 seen as desirable places for !eeting and interpersonal e:change6

So!e lay intentional co!!*nities as for e:a!ple the 3a!agishi co!!*nities in Gapan are part ofbigger organi-ations6 #eligio*s co!!*nities li>e )r*derhof5 the '!issaries of the ivine Light5

the /*tterites5 The fa!ily and /are Hrishna have centres in different parts of the world and the!e!bers !ove fro! one to another6 So!eti!es co!!*nities inspired by the sa!e ideology arefo*nded independently of one another Bas in the case of +a!phill co!!*nity and L.rche in'*rope and ,orth .!ericaC; in other cases single5 intentional co!!*nities can beco!e !e!bers of!ore vast co!!*nitarian networ>s li>e the lobal 'covillage ,etwor> B',C475 in ,orth .!ericathe ederation Of 'g*alitarian +o!!*nities B'+C445 the ellowship for $ntentional +o!!*nitiesB$+C48 or the +oho*sing ,etwor>496Living ro*tes5 an organi-ation based in Massach*setts5 offers co*rses on the the!e of s*stainability;the co*rses are held in ecovillages located in '*rope5 $ndia and in the United States6 Theorgani-ation cooperates with so!e *niversities A people ta>ing part in these co*rses can obtaincollege credits4 in ,orth .!erica for abo*t a do-en co!!*nities who have as co!!on gro*nd

inco!e(sharing5 non(violence5 shared decision(!a>ing and ecological practices6 The website is www6thefec6org648 $+ s*pplies infor!ation and coordinates co!!*nities and people interested in s*ch iss*es in ,orth .!erica5

p*blishing the ?o*rnal $ommunities and '&e $ommunity Dire!tory6 $+ organi-es regional !eetings forco!!*nities every co*ple of years6 The pertinent websites are www6ic6org and http"IIstore6ic6org6

49 $o&ousing Networ4 5 which in the United States5 pro!otes and s*pports co!!*nities in coho*sing condo!ini*!sthro*gh the coordination of the networ>5 the spread of infor!ation and a !aga-ine which co!es o*t every fo*r!onths6 The website is" www6coho*sing6org6 $n +anada5 the $anadian $o&ousing Networ4 provides a si!ilarservice Bwww6coho*sing6ca C6

4< www6livingro*tes6org64D www6ic6orgIcsa6

19

http://ena.ecovillage.org/English/ecovillages/index.htmlhttp://www.laecovillage.org/http://www.gaia.org/http://www.gaia.org/http://www.thefec.org/http://www.thefec.org/http://www.ic.org/http://www.ic.org/http://store.ic.org/http://store.ic.org/http://store.ic.org/http://www.cohousing.org/http://www.cohousing.org/http://www.cohousing.org/http://www.cohousing.ca/http://www.livingroutes.org/http://www.ic.org/csahttp://ena.ecovillage.org/English/ecovillages/index.htmlhttp://www.laecovillage.org/http://www.gaia.org/http://www.thefec.org/http://www.ic.org/http://store.ic.org/http://www.cohousing.org/http://www.cohousing.ca/http://www.livingroutes.org/http://www.ic.org/csa


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the!es of Utopia5 in literat*re and psychology and in the concrete i!ple!entation of Utopia withinintentional co!!*nities6 The SUS organi-es an ann*al conference and p*blishes the scientificreview Utopian Studies6

The $nternational +o!!*nal St*dies .ssociation B$+S.C4F

incl*des people who live in intentionalco!!*nities and people st*dying the pheno!enon internationally5 both fro! a historical and aconte!porary perspective6 'very three years $+S. organi-es a conference at a *niversity or at alarge intentional co!!*nity6 The first international conference was held in May 1FD8 in 3adTaben>in5 $srael5 in 200< it too> place in $taly in the co!!*ne of a!anh*r5 and in 2010 it washeld in $srael in Emek Yizrael College with the title “Communities: the varied paths of communallife”.

The concept of co!!*nitarianis!5 in the version with which we are conversant5 has recent origins6The ter!5 in fact5 *nderstood as a world view or ideology which sees co!!*nity as a val*e in itself5appears in recent encyclopaediasusti!e by Gohn #awl815 essentially a reaffir!ation of liberalis!5was p*blished in 1Fusti!e by the co!!*nitarian Michael Sandelwas p*blished in 1FD2826

Since the spreading of $nternet5 vario*s virt*al co!!*nities have for!ed who hold disc*ssions onthe s*b?ect of co!!*nitarianis! and the develop!ent of Utopia6 The two best(>nown gro*ps !aybe fo*nd at the following addresses" http"IIwww6gaia6orgIlistIecobalance andhttp"IIwww6gro*ps6yahoo6co!Igro*pIintentionalIo!!*nities6

.ccording to @illia! Metcalf5 fro! the !id 1FF0s $nternet has given a significant boost to thedevelop!ent and spreading of intentional co!!*nities5 ecovillages and the val*es on which theyare fo*nded6 $f5 as Metcalf and the rancescatos say5 on one hand the intentional co!!*nities of thepast appeared as isolated strongholds co!pared to the wider society and on the other hand5 theco*nter c*lt*re5 despite its high profile in the !edia5 lac>ed any real connection with the !asses 875over the last 10 years5 $nternet has bro*ght the val*es and the lifestyles of intentional co!!*nities%closer& to ordinary individ*als5 !ost of who! live in !edi*! and large cities6 Many intentionalco!!*nities and ecovillages have a website or are referred to in the virt*al web6

/istorically spea>ing5 !ost intentional co!!*nities are short lived845 even tho*gh this sho*ld not

4F www6ic6orgIicsa680 alentina Pa-N5 op. !it.81 $t was translated into $talian in 1FD25 with the title Una teoria della giusti#ia5 edi-ione eltrinelli682 $t was translated into $talian in1FF45 with the title Il li+eralismo e i limiti della giusti#ia5 edi-ione eltrinelli6

87 ra-ia and onata rancescato5 i+id5 p6 9


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be considered the !ain criteria for ?*dging their s*ccess886

The factors which shape the c*lt*ral and nor!ative orientation of each intentional co!!*nity canbe s*!!ari-ed in the following points"

the alche!y of the internal organi-ation and of the governing syste!5 which can be for!allynor!ed Bfor e:a!ple5 the co!!*nity of a!anh*r has its own written constit*tionC orinfor!ally nor!ed B!ost co!!*nities at least refer to the stat*tes of their associationC;

the financing !odalities5 which can be based either on the conventional !onetary andfinancial econo!y5 or5 at the other e:tre!e5 on e:change and bartering5 donation and evenby !a>ing re=*ests to charitable instit*tions Bli>e the +aritas in $talyC6 #ecently so!eco!!*nities have opted for for!s of self(financing5 also thro*gh the creation of an internalc*rrency6 This is the case5 for e:a!ple5 of a!anh*rian +redit5 of the '>o at indhorn andof the Ln at +hristiania6 The !odes of financing are *s*ally closely bo*nd *p with theval*es and nor!s of the gro*p;

conflict !anage!ent" according to Gosefin Larsson5 !ost intentional co!!*nities declare an

intention to adopt a syste! of decision !a>ing by consens*s6 There are vario*s ways to dothis Bfacilitation5 the circleC5 the nor!s of the single gro*ps differ;

the sociali-ation proced*re for new !e!bers" so!e co!!*nities have a trial period B*s*allyof a yearC5 others organi-e co*rses for the introd*ction into the co!!*nity of new !e!bersBas in the case of the Scottish co!!*nity of indhornC5 others5 preferring to red*ce then*!ber of r*les5 leave this process to spontaneity Bas is the case of the ?opolo degli %lfi5altho*gh for the sa>e of s*ccessf*l cohabitation5 there is an *nwritten r*le abo*t the need toidentify with the gro*p and above all abo*t sharing the vario*s r*ral activitiesC;

interaction with the s*rro*nding pop*lation5 which can be of an open and cooperativenat*re5 or a closed and hostile nat*re;

interaction with local and national a*thorities" intentional co!!*nities have often been

negatively regarded and at ti!es5 fiercely opposed by national govern!ents5 especially inthe age of the constit*tion and consolidation of govern!ents6 Many past co!!*nities fo*ndref*ge fro! persec*tion in .!erica5 where they often prospered6 Today5 especially in $taly5there is a growing desire on the part of so!e intentional co!!*nities BespeciallyecovillagesC to obtain legal recognition of their stat*s896

These points5 tho*gh only a s*!!ary5 give an idea of how the different per!*tations of thesefactors5 adopted both conscio*sly and *nconscio*sly by the single intentional co!!*nities5deter!ine their s*ccess and longevity6 These per!*tations also define the internal val*e syste!s5along the contin**! that r*ns between the preservation of the status @uo and dyna!is!6

Most intentional co!!*nities which were set *p between the 1F90s and 1Find68D

88 See #obert +6 Schehr5 op. !it. .ccording to Schehr5 ?*dging the s*ccess of a pro?ect by its longevity is an attit*deflawed by a !ommitment to positivism: an attit*de which see>s to satisfy a need for certainty with str*ct*ralsteadiness5 control5 re?ection of any %deviance&5 in line with an evol*tionary perspective6 This wor>s to the detri!entof change5 creativity5 and grassroots innovation6

89 or an analysis of this s*b?ect5 see below6

8< ra-ia and onata rancescato5 1FD06 pp6 9D(


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Many of the established intentional co!!*nities5 as the co!!*nards grow older find it !ore and!ore diffic*lt to attract new !e!bers and to >eep alive the !echanis!s *nderlying the sense ofco!!*nity; as a conse=*ence5 these co!!*nities s*ffer a decline in the n*!ber of their !e!bersand in the e:tent to which they live co!!*nally6

Until recently5 the !ass !edia depicted intentional co!!*nities as colo*rf*l social deviations5 andth*s as *nworthy of serio*s coverage6 The style of the !edia was characteri-ed by salacio*sall*sions to se:*al or other >inds of !isde!eano*rs5 which often proved false5 or stories abo*tdangero*s c*lts6.s de!onstrated in recent research by @illia! Metcalf and the )ritish researcher +hris +oates5these representations5 where the *se of the ter! !ommune is !anip*lated to discredit thee:periences of intentional co!!*nities5 contin*e for over one h*ndred years6 That which Metcalfdefines as an anti intentional !ommunity &ysteria appears either as the predictable defensiveresponse that !any people have when faced with act*al alternatives to !ainstrea! society or theres*lt of political !anip*lation6 Many gro*ps were persec*ted and acc*sed of being c*lts5 *s*ally

witho*t solid gro*nds6 This was the case5 a!ongst others5 of the first Mor!ons and of Oneida in theUnited States5 of the 'nglish Sha>ers in the 1F th cent*ry and of ederative /o!e in ,ew Realand5also in the 1Fth cent*ry8F6 The interest of the !ass !edia5 however5 has bro*ght .!ericanintentional co!!*nities li>e New 2armony5 '&e S&a4ers5 mada5 the appities5 Aneida" roo4

*arm and I!aria to the attention of a wider p*blic; this is also tr*e of the last cent*ryJsco*nterc*lt*re co!!*nity e:peri!ents and this attention contrib*ted to the spread of the Utopianbelief in perfectibility5 according to which a new5 ideal society co*ld e:ist here and now in the realworld and not in heaven906The e!ergence5 in the 1FF0s of coho*sing !ove!ents and ecovillages has changed the reportingstyle of the !ain newspapers and progra!!es aro*nd the world5 in that the n*!ber of positivestories has increased6 So!e well(>nown Band5 $ !ay say5 s*ccessf*lC intentional co!!*nities5 li>e

indhorn and a!anh*r5 have people who are in charge of p*blic relations6

The !ost recent for!s of intentional co!!*nity Bcoho*sing and ecovillagesC5 tho*gh following ar*le of co!!on ownership of so!e possessions5 are far less co!!*nal than past !odels6.ccording to ra-ia and onata rancescato5 even the Utopian co!!*nities of the late eighteenh*ndreds and early nineteen h*ndreds5 tho*gh constit*ting enclaves of collective thin>ing Bthe verything e:cl*ded fro! the .!erican rea!C5 especially in the United States5 felt the effects of thespreading of capitalist c*lt*re and progressive individ*alis!6 $n the last thirty years5 even the

8F @illia! Metcalf5 20045 pp6 111(1146#ecently5 in $taly5 the !e!bers of the .nanda co!!*nity in .ssisi in the province of Per*gia5 defined as a

!ystical(religio*s sect5 were *nder investigation5 acc*sed of being a !afia(type association involved in slavery5fra*d and *s*ry6 $n 200D5 after seven years of investigations5 the ?*dge5 at the preli!inary hearing5 ac=*itted all the.nanda co!!*nard6 The sentence was prono*nced on the gro*nds that no cri!e had been co!!itted6

90 Sectarian visions have occasionally triggered tragic events6 So!e recent e:a!ples are"• Gonestown5 in north *yana5 where in 1F


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organi-ation of $sraeli Hibb*t-i! has progressively evolved towards a less co!!*nitarian style6

@ith regards to the approach to technology5 as in other fields there are differing responses6 So!eco!!*nities only *se pencils for writing5 on the gro*nds that a pen is !ade fro! the by(prod*cts of

oil Bth*s choosing to opt o*t of the h*ge international oil ind*stry with its negative i!plications forthe health of the planetC691 $n other co!!*nities5 there !ay be a belief in the develop!ent ofdevices which red*ce the h*!an i!pact on the biosphere and therefore there !ay be a certain levelof invest!ent in the research and develop!ent of s*ch devices5 th*s e!bracing a co!!it!ent tothe i!prove!ent of technology5 seen as a tool for the better!ent of life on earth6 Tho*gh both thesetendencies5 leading to opposite res*lts5 display a critical approach towards !ainstrea!technological develop!ent5 there are other intentional co!!*nities whose attention chiefly foc*seson other areas and for who! the environ!ental iss*e is !arginal or absent6

$n the @est5 after @orld @ar $$5 there is a great increase in the n*!ber of new religio*s gro*ps6 Thenew for!s of worship to which these gro*ps s*bscribe diverge noticeably fro! traditional

+hristianity6 The !e!bers of these %new religions& also find co!!*nitarian lifestyle alternativescongenial926

+o!pared to their 1Fth cent*ry predecessors5 the intentional co!!*nities of the 20th and the early21st cent*ries tend to have a spirit*al orientation5 b*t *s*ally do not hold dog!atic religio*s views5tending instead to !ove away fro! instit*tionali-ed religions6

+o!paring c*rrent co!!*nities to hippie co!!*nes5 todayJs intentional co!!*nities tend toattract older !e!bers who are !ore in line with the dictates of !ainstrea! c*lt*re5 who appear todiverge less in their style of dress5 who are less li>ely to *se dr*gs5 who are !ore li>ely to adhere toconventional se:*al !ores5 sharing si!ilar !*sical tastes with the o*tside world and interacting

!ore easily with their neighbo*rs6

On the whole5 these !e!bers are also better organi-ed5 !ore inclined towards the >ind oforgani-ation which adopts str*ct*red progra!s and open to the incl*sion of whole n*clear fa!ilieswithin the !ore e:tended fa!ily of the co!!*nity697

+*rrently5 abo*t a h*ndred tho*sand people live in intentional co!!*nities in ,orth .!ericaBabo*t 0607K of the whole pop*lationC in abo*t two tho*sand co!!*nities6 So!e of these are wellestablished co!!*nities and so!e are newly e!erging gro*ps; the indicators show that thispheno!enon is a healthy and growing trend in the US. and in +anada6$n reat )ritain5 there are abo*t five h*ndred intentional co!!*nities in which ro*ghly tentho*sand people live6 .ccording to +hris +oates5 intentional co!!*nities have never beforeprovided a ho!e and a set of val*es for s*ch a large gro*p of individ*als in the United Hingdo! asthey do today6

er!any hosts the biggest and !ost diversified !ove!ent of intentional co!!*nities in '*rope6Many of these co!!*nities arose fro! the co*nterc*lt*ral and environ!ental !ove!ents of the

91 This is the case of a s!all co!!*nity Bless than 10 residentsC on the '!ilian .pennine who prefer to re!ainanony!o*s5 according to the wishes of one of the !ain representatives6

92 G6 ordon Melton5 %$ntentional co!!*nities and new religio*s !ove!ents&" in H6 +hristensen and 6 Levinson5 et6al6 BedsC5 op. !it.5 p6


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past few decades5 and often have anarchist5 fe!inist and socialist *nderpinnings6 %urotopia: '&edire!tory of intentional !ommunities and e!ovillages in %urope presents 101 pro?ects5 altho*gh onehas to pres*!e that !any pro?ects do not appear in this list6

The develop!ent of intentional co!!*nities in eastern '*rope and #*ssia ( i!possible d*ring the+o!!*nist regi!e beca*se party g*idelines i!plied that society as a whole sho*ld ta>e on thefeat*res of an intentional co!!*nity ( starts in the 1FF0s6 $n this case too5 the !ove!ent5 which isoften in contact with its @estern co*nterparts5 is *ndergoing healthy e:pansion6

The $sraeli case is certainly worthy of !ention6 .ccording to the !ost recent cens*s5 abo*t 2K ofthe pop*lation B1185700 peopleC live in 29D >ibb*t-i!5 representing by far the largest percentage ofresidents in intentional co!!*nities co!pared to any other co*ntry6 egania is the oldest >ibb*t-B%gro*p& in /ebrewC5 fo*nded in 1F0F and e:isting today in two branches which host D70 people6This !ove!ent5 s*ccessf*l for so!e decades in infl*encing the social nor!s and even acting as aso*rce of inspiration in the forging of national policies5 reached its ape: in the !id(1FD0s and then

began to i!plode d*e to econo!ic and political diffic*lties5 decreasing at an ann*al rate of 068K6@hen the State of $srael was established in 1F4D5 one third of the !e!bers of the govern!ent andtwenty si: o*t of the h*ndred and twenty Me!bers of Parlia!ent lived in Hibb*t-i!; this is nolonger the case for any !e!ber of the political class694 $n $srael5 there is the Cad 'a+en4in esear!&and Do!umentation $enter of t&e 1i++ut# Movement which is one of the biggest acade!ic centresfor research on intentional co!!*nities5 the other one being the $enter for $ommunal Studies atthe University of So*thern $ndiana6

The n*!ber of people wishing to live or presently living in intentional co!!*nities is increasingeven in $ndia5 where traditional religio*s c*sto!s blend with ,ew .ge trends i!ported fro! the@est985 and in .*stralia5 where there are between one and two h*ndred intentional co!!*nities6

$n general5 the e:tre!ely dyna!ic5 changeable and cyclical !ove!ent of intentional co!!*nities5at the present ti!e 9is growing dramati!ally in terms of num+er of people w&o are involved and in!ountries w&ere su!& so!ial e-periments are found3996

94 aniel avron5 %The >ibb*t- awa>ening fro! *topia&5 in in H6 +hristensen and 6 Levinson5 BedsC5 '&e %n!y!lopedia of $ommunity: *rom t&e 7illage to t&e 7irtual World5 Sage5 Tho*sand Oa>s5 US.5 20075 p


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1.1.2. Utopia in literature

.ccording to the scholar @illia! Metcalf5 if it were not conceded that the h*!an race co*ldchange5 evolving towards perfection Bif not reaching itC5 it wo*ld be !eaningless to spea> ofintentional co!!*nities6 Metcalf5 in fact5 holds that s*ch a ?*:taposition is so obvio*s that it ris>sbeing overloo>ed6 /ere we need to loo> at the long history of Utopia in its *niversal and ti!elessappeal69<

The neologis! %Utopia& was coined in the 19th cent*ry by the 'nglish states!an Tho!as MoreB14 ou topos" 9no place&" b*t also eu topos" %good place&5 Utopia derives fro! whatPa!ela ,eville(Sington and avid Sington call the al!ost *niversal5 enth*siastic yearning for the

%olden .ge&69D

To =*ote so!e e:a!ples5 /esiod5 Ovid5 the )ible5 the S*!erian epic of ilga!esh5 altho*gh indifferent historical and c*lt*ral conte:ts5 all present a si!ilar pict*re of ancient ti!es as being freefro! any hardship arising fro! the search for the necessities of life6 Often the reference is to thegenerosity of 'arth in lavishly providing co*ntless delicio*s fr*its5 the en?oy!ent of which appearsfree fro! labo*r and pain6

/esiod says" %With hearths free of sorrow and remote from toil and grief, the fruitful earthspontaneously bore them abundant fruit without stint&69F $n the i!agination of Ovid5 in the olden.ge5 a period of innocence to be retrieved5 !an sine lege fidem re!tum@ue !ole+at


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is an overly liberal interpretation of the Script*res6


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ordered according to a divine principle is depicted6 The Horan5 the law of .llah5 as co!!*nicatedto !an>ind in the words of the prophet Moha!!ed5 ai!s at establishing an ideal life for theco!!*nity of believers thro*gh abidance by r*les which pro!ote !ercy as well as ethical and ?*stattit*des5 incl*ding special attention for the poor and needy6

$n his De $ivitate Dei5 St6 .*g*stine B784(470C post*lates the e:istence of two opposing worlds" theheavenly city B%+ity of od&C and the city on earth B%the +ity of Man&C6es itpossible to s*rvive in the vale of tears and which co*ld only be reached in an indeter!inate endti!e6 The doctrine of incarnation5 however5 !a>es d*al citi-enship possible for !an as a %foreignresident& in the world6 The wor> of .*g*stine5 the writing of which too> abo*t a do-en years5 will beco!e one of thefo*ndation stones of @estern c*lt*re5 changing the !illenarianist +hristian Utopia for the ne:t

seven cent*ries of $talian !on> ioacchino da iore Bcirca 1170(1202C6 The latter proposes a progressive interpretation of the history of h*!anity and s*ggests that!onastic r*les be followed both by religio*s and lay co!!*nities6 ioacchino5 who saw hi!self asthe g*ardian of ivine revelation5 divides h*!an history into three eras" the era of the ather5 thatof the Son and that of the /oly Spirit6 The !on> saw his own ti!e as the ape: of the last era5 d*ringwhich lay!en5 clergy and !on>s sho*ld live according to the !onastic r*le5 holding all goods inco!!on5 writing and practicing conte!plation to enhance their spirit*al *nderstanding6 Theinfl*ence of ioacchino da iore Bespecially his having divided history into separate periods and hisbelief in progressive h*!an develop!entC had5 according to Tho!as Long5 far(reaching effects6These effects co*ld be seen in the wor>s of the $talian o!inican irola!o Savonarola B1482(14FDC who5 after the decline of the Medici fa!ily5 atte!pted to establish a theocracy in lorence6

The infl*ence of ioacchino da iore co*ld also be traced in the life of the e:plorer +hristopher+ol*!b*s B1481( 1809C5 the first of !any '*ropeans to see the ,ew @orld as a possible Utopia ing of the philosopher To!!aso +a!panella B189D(197FC5 who p*ts forward a vision of a Universal #ep*blic of the +h*rch in a new olden .ge6Long !entions the 'nglish P*ritans and the radical Protestants for their Utopian social pro?ectswhich often acco!panied the develop!ent of the Protestant refor!5 the socialist disciples of therefor!er +la*de /enri Saint(Si!on B1


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e:tensive refor!s6 The 0evellers try to eli!inate the social hierarchy in their co*ntry6The Diggers5 one of the !ost radical gro*ps of 'nglish Protestantis!5 Bb*t also forer*nners of thatanarchical for! of 'nglish co!!*nitarianis!5 theori-ed by the #*ssian prince PWtr .le>seeviXHropot>inC5 respectf*l of the s*pre!acy of the pater familias and with rigid ascetic !orals and a

spartan wor> ethic5 fight for an e=*al land distrib*tion5 co!!*nistic social refor! anddecentrali-ation of the state in favo*r of !any s!all5 lin>ed co!!*nities6

So!e #enaissance h*!anists5 inspired by literary and religio*s analogies and by the new traveltales fro! the e:plorers of .!erica5 prod*ce several versions of the ideal state5 both serio*s andsatirical6 The literary creations ai!ed at depicting i!aginary %better& worlds are however not onlycreated by the ed*cated and scholarly classes6 So!e anthropologists *nderline the fact that thescientific co!!*nity fails to pay ade=*ate attention to the different for!s of rebellion of the lowerclasses and th*s fail to reach a clear interpretation and e:pression of a %c*lt*re of the oppressed &6D0

Gac=*es errida5 in his Della grammatologia declares that over the years5 scholars gave greaterspace to an acade!ic vision than to contrib*tions fro! the lower classes6 D1 .ccording to #obert

Schehr the >nowledge of the s*bordinate classes is a situated 4nowledgeD2

5 which Michel o*ca*ltidentifies as being >nowledge which is fir!ly anchored in ti!e and space and perceived5 lived ande:perienced by the >nower in a direct way5 !ainly thro*gh felt e:perience6

$n the 14th cent*ry5 the !asses create their own version of the olden .ge5 which differs fro! thero!antic version of the poets and fro! the a*stere and pio*s one depicted by the clergy6D7 The poe!'&e 0and of $o!4aigne dates bac> to this ti!e and is probably the best >nown representation of aUtopian vision before the p*blication of Tho!as MoreJs wor>6

The poe!5 as reported by ,eville(Sington and SingtonD4 is as follows"

The land of coc>aigneD8

There are rivers bro*ght and fineOf oil5 !il>5 honey and wine;@ater serveth there no thing

)*t for sight and for washing6There is a !ighty fine .bbey5

Thronged with !on>s both white and grey5.h5 those cha!bers and those halls

.ll of pasties stand the walls5Of fish and flesh and all rich !eat5

The tastiest that !en can eat6@heaten ca>es the shingles all5

Of ch*rch5 of cloister5 bower and hall6The pinnacles are fat p*ddings5ood for princes and for >ings6'very !an ta>e what he will5

D0 #obert6 +6 Schehr5 1FF5 Milano5 1F9F6D2 #obert +6 Schehr5 i+id" p6 1986D7 #obert6 +6 Schehr5 i+id5 p6 1786

D4 Pa!ela ,eville(Sington and avid Sington5 in #obert6 +6 Schehr5 i+id" p6 1796D8 %+oc>aigne& was translated fro! the er!an 4a4an5 ca>e6

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.s of right to eat his fill6.ll is co!!on to yo*ng and old5

To sto*t and strong5 to !ee> and bold6'very!an !ay drin> his fill

.nd neednt sweat to pay the bill6

The daily hardships s*ffered by the lower classes ca*se the i!agination to see> a fantasy placewhere only the needs and wishes of the co!!on people are satisfied6 $n p*tting forward a criticis!of the op*lent !on>s and their e:aggerated wealth5 they depict instead a land of e:travagance5e:*berance and e:cesses available to those who *s*ally are e:cl*ded fro! s*ch pleas*res6/ere ab*ndance and freedo! fro! wor> are the !ain the!es and everything desirable is accessibleand available to be f*lly en?oyed6 #obert Schehr re!ar>s that what began as a literary genre whichgave clear e:pression to a >ind of co*nter(hege!onic hedonis!5 later gives rise to pop*lar festivalscelebrating freedo! fro! r*les6 /ere5 the #o!an Saturnalia !*st be !entioned5 the !edievalfestivals of fools Bfestum fatuorum5 festum stultuorumm5 festum &ypodia!onorum5 or fte de fous)

celebrated !ainly in rance5 b*t also in Spain5 er!any5 'ngland and Scotland; and also5 +arnivalin the +hristian @est6 They were ti!es of social licence5 depart*re fro! !orality and alsos*spension of legal reg*lations B%partially a period of lawlessness& according to Gean +arbonnierD9C6

$n the opinion of #obert Schehr5 considering the innovations !ade by the legislator and ?*ristSolone B97D ( 88D )+C in .thens d*ring the seventh and si:th cent*ry )+ and by the !ythologicalfig*re of Lyc*rg*s of Sparta BFth(Dth cent*ry )+C on one hand5 and on the other5 the passionate andpop*lar representation of the $o!4aigne5 it is possible to grasp the *nderlying reasons for theUtopian drea! as it appears in the 20 th cent*ry6 /owever5 the a*thor holds that between thesei!portant historical !o!ents and the 20th cent*ry5 there is a literary c*rrent which changes thef*t*re of the Utopian drea!6

Several wor>s of Utopian pers*asion appeared d*ring the #enaissance5 partly inspired by the greatdiscoveries of the ti!e in vario*s fields6 The real t*rning point5 however5 is the wor> of thestates!an Tho!as More" altho*gh his description of an i!aginary Utopia scarcely differs fro!those of the #enaissance h*!anist tradition5 his co!parison of Utopia with the 'nglish reality ofhis ti!e is a new depart*re6More5 who develops his story in two parts5 is inspired by the e:plorations of his conte!poraries andespecially .!erigo esp*cciJs travel tales of the ,ew @orld6Dnown waters5discovers Utopia6 Hrishnan H*!arDF holds that if the second part5 which was written first5 is aplayf*l and intelligent portrayal of the political5 econo!ical and c*lt*ral relationships on the island5in the first part5 More develops a criticis! of the T*dor !iddle classes of his ti!e6 $n this way5More depicts the i!aginary =*alities of the island of Utopia where property is held in co!!on5ed*cation is e:tended to all !en and wo!en and where freedo! of religion prevails6 More th*soffers a criticis! of the social relations of his ti!e5 which were characteri-ed by widespread

D9 Gean +arbonnier5 1FF


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develop and beco!e concrete in the 1Fth cent*ry5 also thro*gh the wor>s of socialist intellect*alsBs*ch as Saint(Si!on5 1e the .nabaptists5 placed their confidence in thepower of &uman agen!y to create the perfect society6 'specially for #obert Owen5 +harles o*rierand the other conte!porary Utopian socialists and philosophers5 Utopia is an alternative anddeli!ited social pro?ect5 Bo*rierJs alansterio5 odinJs a!ilisterioC co!pared to ind*strialrelationships based on wage(earning wor>6 @hereas *ntil that ti!e5 Utopia was seen as ani!aginary and ideal rep*blic5 diffic*lt if not i!possible to achieve5 riedrich 'ngels B1D20(1DF8C5in his Utopian So!ialism and s!ientifi! so!ialism5 gives a !*ch broader !eaning to the concept of

F2 .lberto Magnaghi5 Il progetto lo!ale" )ollati )oringhieri5 Torno5 20006F7 $f we ta>e as a !odern pheno!enon a belief in an ob?ective fo*ndation for the influential narrations of the @estern

tradition Bli>e classical science5 a certain type of progress5 of develop!ent5 of e!ancipation666C5 then post!odernis!is instead characteri-ed by disbelief5 or rather5 by a the relativi-ation of every >ind of !eta(narration6 The post(!odern attit*de does not ai! to create new e:planatory theories in s*bstit*tion of the e:isting ones; on the contrary5it !anifests as scepticis! and wor>s thro*gh prag!atic practice and research6 .!ong others5 see ary Minda5 ?ostmodern legal movements: law and >urispruden!e at !enturys end5 ,ew 3or> University Press5 London A ,ew3or>5 1FF86

F4 Harl Mannhei!5 Ideologia e utopia" $l M*lino5 )ologna5 1FFF6F8 ,6 +ohn5 '&e pursuit of t&e millennium5 O:ford University Press5 ,ew 3or>5 1F


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Utopia5 which incl*des5 as well as the inevitable class str*ggle and social revol*tion5 all those socialpro?ects which re?ect the division of society into classes6F9 This Mar:ist definition of Utopia willlater beco!e widely acceptedF


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1.2. The postmodern version of the intentional community: cohousingcommunities and ecovillages.

1.2.1. Cohousing communities

Over the last few years5 since its fo*ndation in the year 20005 the coho*sing of M*n>sgYrd hasbeen pop*lated by children5 ad*lts5 yo*ng and elderly people in accordance with the livingarrange!ents established by the first gro*p of pro?ect creators6 ive gro*ps of ho*ses5 for a total ofone h*ndred apart!ents5 are a !i: of privately and co!!*nally owned properties providingho*sing for appro:i!ately 228 people6 The elderly and yo*ng people Bthe *nder 71sC5 d*e to theirpartic*lar ho*sing needs5 each lived in given gro*p of ho*ses A the other three gro*ps of ho*seswere occ*pied in different ways by ad*lts and fa!ilies6

$n a g*ided to*r5 /elle100 showed !e and the friend acco!panying !e all the energy(savingtechnical feat*res6 /o*ses b*ilt of wood5 eco(co!patible paints5 a *rine collection syste! designedto irrigate the s*rro*nding 24 hectares of organic far!land and a rain(water collection syste! tos*pply water to the la*ndries located in the five co!!on ho*ses666 are ?*st so!e of the innovationswhich !a>e M*n>sgYrd the biggest eco(co!patible b*ilding pro?ect in en!ar>5 as well as thefirst !ainstrea! eco(co!patible pro?ect. $n M*n>sgYrd5 residentsJ associations ta>e on the role of!anaging the vario*s tas>s concerning recreation5 !aintenance5 organi-ation and so on of theco!!*nity6 The vario*s co!!on ho*ses A one of which is b*ilt with straw bales by the inhabitantsthe!selves ( are *sed for collective activities and sharing of !eals one5 two or !ore ti!es a wee>6

$n 1F9Js !ost i!portant newspapers s*ggesting that it isfar better for children to grow *p in an %e:tended& fa!ily as opposed to growing *p within the!odern !odel of the Bn*clearC individ*al fa!ily ho*sehold61015102 The following year5 Gan *d!and(/yer5 inspired by his architect*ral st*dies at /arvard and by hisenco*nters with so!e of the %Utopias& in the ,ew @orld Ba!ongst others5 Twin Oa>s co!!*ne inirginia ( www6twinoa>s6orgC5 p*blishes the article Det manglende led mellem utopi og detforaeldede en familie&us The !issing lin> between Utopia and the o*tdated single fa!ily ho*se5

100 #eal na!es have been s*bstit*ted to respect privacy6101 Gan Martin )ang Peter )a>>er5 $ntentional co!!*nities in Scandinavia and the ,etherlands5 in H6

+hristensen and 6 Levinson5 et6 al6 BedsC5 '&e %n!y!lopedia of $ommunity: *rom t&e 7illage to t&e 7irtualWorld5 Tho*sand Oa>s5 US." Sage5 20075 pp6


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contrib*ting to the beginning of this pheno!enon in en!ar>1076 $n 1F9ing for alternatives to the isolation associated with

conventional single(fa!ily ho*ses located in s*bdivisions and *rban areas6 Z People

believe that their personal lives will be !ore econo!ical5 practical5 convenient5 and f*n

in coho*sing than they wo*ld be if they chose a single(fa!ily ho*se or other

individ*ali-ed arrange!ent6&( +harles *rret5 $o&ousing5 in H6 +hristensen and 6 Levinson5 et6 al6 BedsC5 op. !it.5p6 1F< (

The advantages of a co!!*nity lifestyle in a anish +ofoelles4a+er" as in the *tch !entraalwonen or Swedish 4olle4tiv&user" were soon recogni-ed in the three ,ordic co*ntries5 so !*ch sothat the develop!ent of this option soon appeared to the collective i!agination as feasiblealternative for the entire pop*lation6 $n 1FF25 the architect Hatrin Pal! Lind[n s*ggests thaten!ar>5 with appro:i!ately fifty tho*sand of its pop*lation residing in over a h*ndred and fiftydifferent pro?ects5 holds the world record for co!!*nity living pro?ects6

$n a coho*sing pro?ect5 each person can *s*ally choose the e:tent of to which they participate inco!!*nity life5 sharing so!e co!!on areas5 as well as e=*ip!ent and facilities Bla*ndry5 carsharing etc6C5 ta>ing part in !anage!ent activities5 periodical decision(!a>ing asse!blies5 whilestill !aintaining e:ternal social contacts and participating in the !ar>et econo!y in =*ite aconventional way6 @illia! Metcalf writes"

%+oho*sing is a recent style of intentional co!!*nity5 atte!pting to en?oy the

econo!ic5 environ!ental5 social and c*lt*ral advantages of co!!*nal living5 while

!aintaining separate fa!ily dwellings5 with !e!bers wor>ing and participating within

!ainstrea! society6&

( @illia! Metcalf5 $ommunity living5 indhorn Press5 orres5 UH5 20045 p6 eep a ?ob o*tside the coho*sing5benefiting at the sa!e ti!e fro! shared facilities in a non(hierarchical str*ct*re which aspires to aparticipatory !ode6 ar fro! the for!s of shared econo!y which characteri-e other types ofintentional co!!*nities5 in a coho*sing pro?ect5 there is often a liberal and diversified %*rban&c*lt*re which e!erges fro! the !i:t*re of people fro! different bac>gro*nds6 So!eti!es theenviron!ental ethic is !*ch less evident5 being replaced to a certain e:tent by socially inspired

107 Gan *d!and(/yer5 et !anglende led !elle! *topi og det foraeldede en fa!ilieh*s65 Information5 29th G*ne1F9D6

104 Hathryn Mc+a!ant and +harles *rrett5 $o&ousing" a !ontemporary approa!& to &ousing ourselves5 /abitatPress5 )er>eley5 1FDD6

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!otivations6$n this ho*sing option5 co!pared to the traditional concept of !ommune" individ*al needs on thewhole ta>e priority over collective needs6 .s @illia! Metcalf points o*t5 in this day and age5 !ostpeople wo*ld not live in an intentional co!!*nity if this !eant having to give *p a certain degree

of individ*alis!6

raha! Melt-er5 a scholar of the coho*sing pheno!enon5 states"

%+oho*sing is a !ainstrea! option and intentionally so6 $t is not an alternativelifestyle b*t one dee!ed appropriate for the broad !a?ority of people6&

.ccording to @illia! Metcalf5 in the United States and +anada %!any coho*sing gro*ps arespringing *p5 and this is certainly a >ey part of the f*t*re of the ,orth .!erican intentionalco!!*nity !ove!ent6&108 . few pro?ects are to be fo*nd in ,ew Realand5 .*stralia and Gapan5while Stro*d has recently hosted the first e:peri!ent of this >ind in the United Hingdo!1096

$n the year 2000 the definition of the ter! !o&ousing appears in the meri!an 2eritage Di!tionaryof t&e %nglis& 0anguage ( /o*ghton Mifflin5 )oston5 forth edition ).

$o&ousing" a !ontemporary approa!& to &ousing ourselves by HathrynMc+a!ant and +harles *rret introd*ces the s*b?ect in the UnitedStates6 $n the first !onth following its p*blication5 7000 copies are soldand five s*ccessive editions are printed *ntil 20026 The first coho*singin the United States is Muir $ommons ( http"IIwww6!*irco!!ons6orgI ( Bavis5 +aliforniaC5 personally planned by Mc+a!ant and *rret; the

first inhabitants !oved in in 1FF16

$n the United States5 the first people to adopt this lifestyle are+a*casians belonging to the *pper(!iddle classes6 Today there is awider range of social bac>gro*nds6 Most of the coho*sing participantsco!e fro! single(fa!ily ho!es and this is certainly why they prefer tochoose coho*sing rather than !ore co!!*nal types of intentionalco!!*nity6

People who choose coho*sing5 as well as finding a ho!e5 are certainlyloo>ing to ta>e part5 on so!e level5 in co!!*nal life6

The ele!ents which constit*te a coho*sing are si:10es the f*t*re residents feel involved;

• architect*ral sol*tions which facilitate on the one hand the need

108 @illia! Metcalf5 ivi5 p6 716

109 Gonathan awson5 %!ovillages. New *rontiers for sustaina+ility5 reen )oo>s5 )ristol5 20095 p6 27610< +harles *rret5 +oho*sing5 in H6 +hristensen and 6 Levinson5 et6 al6 BedsC5 op. !it.5 pp6 1F4(1FD6

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for co!!*nity and on the other5 the need for inti!acy6 So!e ofthe architect*ral sol*tions planned to create a good !i: andsatisfy the different desires of the inhabitants as regards relatingwith each other are" car par> at a distance fro! the ho*ses and

reached by a ro*te which is ad?acent to co!!*nal living areas;private ho*se >itchens and respective wor> places Beg sin>Cfacing co!!*nal areas whilst the living roo!s are relegated to!ore private areas; the co!!*nal ho*se visible fro! all theother ho*ses5 etc6

• presence of e=*ip!ent and services for co!!*nal *se6 Theprivate ho*ses !ay be !ade s!aller Bred*cing costsC beca*se alarge g*est roo!5 wor>shops5 childrenJs playroo!s5 la*ndryroo!s are all sit*ated in co!!*nal areas6 The ai! of sharedplanning is ?*st this" it !a>es so!e of the practical and socialaspects of life easier and cheaper;

• collective !anage!ent by the residents" !onthly !eetings*s*ally plan f*t*re develop!ents for the twenty to thirty gro*pswhich !a>e *p a coho*sing *nit6 . consens*s is so*ght andwhen necessary it is bac>ed *p by vote Bthe !ethod is decidedby those involvedC6

• . non(gerarchical str*ct*re6 Us*ally the sharing of internalchores and wor> is based on the specific inclinations of eachindivid*al5 whereas in the case of any so!e internal aspectsre=*iring a te!porary leader5 the entire co!!*nity shares theresponsibility of all the decisions !ade5 witho*t any one person

do!inating the process;• separate inco!es6 ,o type of shared econo!y ens*res the

econo!ic wellbeing of the residents and each n*cle*s isresponsible for itself6 The co!!*nity has a co!!*nal b*dget5financed by !onthly contrib*tions5 which ta>es care ofins*rances5 long and short(ter! !aintenance and occasionalcosts5 eg. childcare d*ring the collective !eetings6

.ccording to *rret5 the ideal n*!ber of ho*sing *nits is twenty totwenty(five6 This is so as to enable a har!oni-ing of co!!*nal costs5 toen?oy a s*fficient diversity of people and to allow a s*ccessf*l collective

!anage!ent practice6

1.2.2. Ecovillages

.ccording to .lbert H6 )ates5 e:(president of the lobal 'covillage ,etwor> and a per!ac*lt*re

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and appropriate technology teacher living at '&e *arm in Tennessee10D5 there are few things whichare !ore attractive and interesting5 not to !ention !ore diffic*lt to p*t into practice5 than the ideaof living in har!ony with the nat*ral environ!ent and oneJs neighbo*r10F6 .nd yet5 it is thischallenge which for!s the basis for the birth and establish!ent of those partic*lar for!s of

intentional co!!*nity which fro! the !id(e to define the!selves as e!ovillages6The ter! was coined in 1Fs to an active gro*p of internal !idwives6

10F .lbert H6 )ates5 %'covillages& in H6 +hristensen and 6 Levinston Beds6C5 '&e en!y!lopaedia of !ommunity: fromt&e village to t&e virtual world" Sage5 Tho*sand Oa>s5 US.5 20075 p6 4276

110 $n er!any the environ!entalist iss*e ca!e to the p*blic attention only at the end of the \90s6 )efore this period5any disc*ssion on nat*re5 har!ony or holis! was considered to be politically s*spect as these topics has beencentral to the ,a-i and ,ationalist credo6 or the role of the forests in ,a-i !ythology5 see S6 Scha!a5 0ands!apeand memory5 /arper +ollins5 London5 1FF86

111 Since then g*ides to intentional co!!*nities and ecovillages have !*ltiplied" @illia! Metcalf5 in his $ommunityliving5 indhorn Press5 orres5 UH5 20045 records thirteen5 !ost of which are constantly *pdated6

112 $n the article %@hat is an ecovillage]& present in the portal of the .a! Terran*ova !aga-ine

Bwww6aa!terran*ova6itC5 /ild*r Gac>son re!e!bers how at a conference held in indhorn in 1FF85 an i!portantevent in the establish!ent of the lobal 'covillage ,etwor>5 the general idea concerning the si-e of a co!!*nity

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!ain aspects of h*!an e:istence are envisaged and present in a balanced !anner Bho!e5 foods*pplies5 wor>ing activities5 ed*cation5 health and care5 recreational activities5 social life666C. Theprefi: %eco(& in the ter! %ecovillage& indicates the =*ality of the relationship between h*!anbeings and other for!s of life" the h*!an being intends to !ove away fro! a position of do!inance

and try instead to *nderstand and find his proper5 specific and partic*lar place in the networ> of life6$n this first definition of an ecovillage5 there are echoes of the concepts and nor!ative orientationcharacteristic of another5 earlier ter!5 %s*stainable develop!ent&5 an e:pression already in *se atan international level by 1FD dedicated to pro!oting s*stainable develop!ent fro! the botto! *p6.ccording to Gonathan awson5 for!er president of the lobal 'covillage ,etwor>5 the !ain thr*stof the research wor> consists of the atte!pt to e:trapolate fro! the e:perience of these realities6Th*s we co*ld have an overview of those topics and characteristics which are co!!on to the typeof co!!*nity which co*ld act as a pioneer in the transition towards a tr*ly s*stainable h*!ansociety6 The doc*!ent does not s*ggest so!e idealistic ret*rn to the past5 b*t analyses the potentiali!prove!ent of s>ills and practices for a %light footprint& on the 'arth6119

$n 1FF75 a s!all gro*p of anish intentional co!!*nities fo*nded the anish networ> ofecovillages5 0andsforeningen for 4osamfund ((0S)" the first networ> of its >ind and a !odel forthe larger networ> and !ove!ent which wo*ld e!erge a few years later6$n 1FF45 at '&e *arm in Tennessee5 the first %!ovillage 'raining $enter was established ( which inthe sa!e year presented itself at an international level5 as well as in a virt*al for!atBwww6ecovillage6orgC6 Meetings and national and international conferences have followed5 givinggreater i!portance and consistency to the increasing awareness both o*tside and inside the!ove!ent6$n 1FF95 at the 2a+itat $onferen!e of the United ,ations held in $stanb*l5 the Blo+al %!ovillage

Networ4 was presented as %a global confederation of people and co!!*nities that !eet and sharetheir ideas5 e:change technologies5 develop c*lt*ral and ed*cational e:changes5 directories andnewsletters5 and are dedicated to restoring the land and living s*stainable pl*s lives by p*tting

was that it sho*ld be of appro:i!ately 800 !e!bers6 $n fact there has never been a disposition given fro! %onhigh& with regards to the de!ographic and social si-e of ecovillages5 which have developed and been established!ore than anything else on the basis of internal dyna!ics6

117 6 /6 )r*ntland Aur $ommon *uture" O:ford University Press5 1FDwith Silas5 %nvironmental law" Sweet Ma:well5 London5 20045 pp6 897(8946118 The ter! movement is *sed here !ainly Band above allC beca*se this is how their followers define5 describe and

recognise the!6119 Gonathan awson5 20095 p6 176

.t Mercatale di ernio5 in the s*!!er of 20085 representatives of the $talian ecovillages held a conference which5significantly5 was called %'covillages" the ecological footprint of he who treads lightly&6

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!ore bac> into the environ!ent than we ta>e o*t3EE6 . The 6'6,6 is dedicated to pro!oting theevol*tion of s*stainable settle!ents all over the world6 This is done thro*gh internal and e:ternalorientation services and the facilitation of the flow and e:change of infor!ation on the s*b?ect ofecovillages and ill*strative sites6 They also networ> to co(ordinate different fields of interest

pertaining to s*stainable settle!ents thro*gh co(operation and international partnership" above allwith the United ,ations6 The ', A officially registered in er!any as a ,O (5 gains therecognition of !onsultative status at the United ,ations in 1FFD6The en('*rope Bwhich also incl*des the .frican regionsC5 the 'covillage ,etwor> of the .!ericasB',.C and the en Oceania and .sia have all been established6$n 1FF of ecovillages was fo*nded5 whilst in .*stralia5 internationalco!!*nities which had already !ade per!ac*lt*re a f*nda!ental pre!ise for their e:istence anddevelop!ent beco!e pioneers of lifestyles based on ecological awareness6 .t the recent

International $limate $&ange $onferen!e held in +openhagen in ece!ber 200F5 the indhorno*ndation and the ', are officially represented5 in the for*! intended for %!ain tal>s& B)ella+entreC5 at the Hli!a or*! intended for the e:pression of civil society5 and at the ottom Meeting

set *p by the anish vol*nteers belonging to or close to the ',6The '*ropean networ> of ecovillages Ben('*ropeC organi-ed several conferences which saw theparticipation of co!!*nities and ecovillages fro! different co*ntries and !any national networ>se!erged as a conse=*ence6 This was the case of the $talian networ>5 fo*nded in .lessano BLecceC inece!ber 1FF95 at the ti!e of the conference entitled %'covillages5 a sol*tion for the f*t*re of o*rplanet&5 organi-ed by the local a*thorities together with the +^s!os +entre for St*dies in Milan6The res*lting doc*!ent entitled Un mondo migliore possi+ile B. better world is possibleC reads asfollows"

%The p*rpose of the networ> it to p*blicise co!!*nity e:periences considered fertilesocial and econo!ic e:peri!ents5 where it is possible5 altho*gh on a s!all scale5 to

live the Utopian drea! of a society based on solidarity5 co(operation and ecology6The $talian ecovillage networ> have co!!*nity e:periences which differ widely fro!one another in ter!s of orientation5 philosophy and organi-ation5 b*t they are allinspired by a lifestyle which is s*stainable fro! an ecological5 spirit*al5 socio(c*lt*raland econo!ic point of view6 The ter! s*stainability is here ta>en to !ean the aptit*deof a gro*p of h*!an beings to satisfy its own needs witho*t di!inishing5 b*t ratheri!proving5 the prospects for f*t*re generations11D6 The co!!*nities adhering to #$' B ete Italiana 7illaggi %!ologi!i A $talian ,etwor>of 'cological illages ) are %open& ecovillages5 and can be visited if a ti!e and date isagreed *pon beforehand.3EEF

.ro*nd 18 co!!*nities !a>e *p the $talian networ> and they are5 as the e:tract above !a>es clear5

very different fro! one another6 So!e co!!*nities were established in the late \


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non(profit association6 .t the #$' !eeting5 which too> place in the 7alle degli %lfi in G*ly 200F120

at which abo*t five h*ndred people were present5 new pro?ects e!erged fro! !any different areas5ranging fro! Sicily to ri*li ene-ia i*lia; this last5 prono*nced by !any of those present to be avery concrete reality5 catalysed and attracted !*ch interest over the following !onths5 which were

dedicated to its design and reali-ation6

1.3. Key word: sustainability

%@e can never spea> abo*t nat*re witho*t5 atthe sa!e ti!e5 spea>ing abo*t o*rselves6&(rit?of +apra5 '&e 'ao of ?&ysi!s" Universityof +alifornia Press5 )er>eley5 1Fson5 %$ntegral societies" fro! !o&ousings to ecovillages&" in /ild*r Gac>son5 Haren Svensson BedsC5 %!ovillage 0iving. estoring t&e %art& and &er people5 reen )oo>s5 avon5 U>5 20025 p6 189(18D6

122 $ have personally visited5 and stayed for vario*s longer or shorter periods of ti!e5 in" 7alle degli %lfi BPTC5+a!panara B$C5 the .rche*s pro?ect B$C5 )agnaia BS$C5 $ cavalieri del sole BPC5 a!anh*r BTOC5 .!*saE*idesso BP#C5 ranara BP#C5 orteto B$C5 )asilico B$C and assisted in the wor> for creating Terrabase5 withregards to $taly; Svanhol!5 +hristiania5 M*n>sgYrd5 ri Og ro B%free and happy&; ecovillage started in 20085were the ho*ses have been b*ilt and will contin*e to be b*ilt !ainly fro! strawC and Thor*p in en!ar>;Hata?a!_>i5 He*r** and _in`l_ Btheosophical co!!*nityC in inland; indhorn in Scotland and +es in the Swiss

.lps6127 Presentation of the tool will be dealt with later6

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.n *nderstanding of the changes in the relationship between !an and nat*re thro*gh ti!e5 of thetransfor!ation of the concept of nat*re5 can help *s place in conte:t so!ething which5 as fro! thelate Si:ties5 goes by the na!e of s*stainable develop!ent5 environ!ental s*stainability andecological s*stainability124 and with the *nderstanding of its real life !eaning in an ecovillage6

1.3.1. On “natures”

@hat is %nat*re&] .ccording to Gohn Urry and Philip Macnagnten5 tal>ing abo*t nat*re !ay be!isleading if we want to *nderstand it6 $t wo*ld instead be !ore appropriate to tal> abo*t %nat*res&5or rather different concepts of nat*re which thro*gho*t history have contrib*ted towardsdeter!ining the h*!an approach to e:istence6128

@hat is the relationship between !anIthe c*lt*ral prod*ct and %nat*re&] $s it separation5 interaction5dependency5 do!ination5 progressive e!ancipation one fro! the other] %,at*re& has !anysignificances" both chains of necessity and a >ingdo! of freedo! and wild innocence; the fe!inineand disorder5 the *ncontrollable to be ta!ed; a boo> open to investigation; the prod*ct of divinewill with a precise place in the order of the *niverse; as well as the *lti!ate5 ceaseless !echanis!;an ine:ha*stible !aterial reso*rce at the co!plete disposal of h*!an needs and desires; bea*tygenerating feeling and an inspiring !*se; a place and a landscape for leis*re and pleas*re whichre=*ires protection and !*st be separated fro! ind*strial activities and h*!an interference; anenviron!ent; a living syste!5 a !other s*ffering fro! the lac> of har!ony ca*sed by h*!an actionand capable of revengeZ129

@ithin the @estern tradition5 the pre(Socratic ree>s were the first to see nat*re as a distinct andseparate5 abstract entity5 sing*lar co!pared to the !*ltiplicity of lived e:periences5 altho*gh they

held differing and so!eti!es opposing ideas abo*t nat*re5 society and the position of !an>ind inrelation to these6 ?&ysis is ta>en to !ean what nat*rally e:ists and grows independently accordingto an innate law5 a >ingdo! which is separate fro! nomos5 an artificial prod*ct of the h*!anconsorti*!5 th*s not nat*ral612 ofnat*re is regarded as open to investigation and is5 thro*gh an effort of the h*!an intellect5co!prehensible5 the instr*!ental *se of technology to force nat*re beyond itself is viewednegatively and considered destr*ctive612F Plato and .ristotle display concern regarding the attit*deof the ree> polis and partic*larly of .thens with regards to the s*rro*nding environ!ent6 Mansho*ld never set hi!self against nat*re6 .nswering the =*estion of whether !an sho*ld !oderate

124 The ecological highlight *nderlines a !ore critical approach co!pared to the type of develop!ent @estern society

tends to *se as a reference6 +f6 Hla*s )ossel!an5 op. !it.6 $n his te:t5 )ossel!an proposes %s*stainability& as af*nda!ental concept as indicative of civili-ation as ?*stice and e=*ality6128 P6 Macnaghten5 G6 Urry5 $ontested natures" Sage p*blication Ltd5 London5 1FFD6129 On the hypothesis of a vindictive planet 'arth5 p*t forward in the %aia teory&5 see Ga!es Loveloc>5 '&e revenge

of Baia: w&y t&e %art& is fig&ting +a!4 O and &ow we !an still save &umanity 5 .llen Lane5 Santa )arbaraB+aliforniaC5 20096

12< $n 1airPs" lma 7enus" Multitudo5 .ntonio ,egri clai!s the power of the multitudo against the predo!inance ofidealis! and trascendentalis!5 identifying !aterialis! as the irred*cible %other& as distinct fro! power5 for theconstit*tion of an ethical constit*tion6 See .ntonio ,egri5 1airPs" lma 7enus" Multitudo" Nove le#ioni impartitea me stesso" Manifestolibri srl5 #o!a5 20006

12D onald G6 /*ghes5 n environmental &istory of t&e world: &uman4indLs !&anging role in t&e !ommunity of lif e5#o*tledge5 London5 20015 p6 86

12F /aavio .ri5 %.pproaches to !ans relationship with nat*re6 Tracing the origins&5 in Breen Moves" politi!al

stalemates. So!iologi!al perspe!tives on t&e environment 5 edited by .nn!ari Honttinen5 T*r*n 3liopisto5 T*r>*51FF95 p6 106

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his wishes or increase prod*ction5 Plato *nhesitatingly *pholds the for!er option6 /e holds that thereasonable !an !oderates his wishes; he who wishes to live as a good far!er or a good philosophersho*ld not follow the e:a!ple of the r*de spec*lator who hoards wheat nor of the base co*rtier whotric>s the spec*lator who had hoards the wheat6170 .ccording to Plato5 and li>ewise the

Pythagoreans5 the cos!os is a living organis! of which all creat*res are a part and to which theyare5 by their very nat*re5 si!ilar6 The ethics which derive fro! these teachings prohibit in?*ring orda!aging any for! of life6 The Pythagoreans not only follow a vegetarian diet b*t also c*t o*tbeans and all seeds fro! their diet6171 Only once the !*ltiple variety of pheno!ena which s*rro*nd*s is concept*ali-ed and defined as p&ysis5 a separate entity5 abstract in its ob?ectification5 !aynat*re be personified6 $n @estern history5 nat*re is initially a goddess5 then a divine !other5 anabsol*te !onarch5 a !inister5 a constit*tional ?*rist5 an

the social construction of norm the experience of the valley of the elves and the proposal of the...

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