the socrates project

The Socrates Project

Poisonous Plants in Virginia

i

The Socrates Project - Poisonous Plants in Virginia.

2nd Edition, Revised and Expanded.

Compiled by: The Socrates Project Authors, Virginia Master Naturalist Program

Virginia Master Naturalist programs and employment are open to all, regardless of age, color, disability, gender, gender identity, gender expression, national origin, political affiliation, race, religion, sexual orientation, genetic information, veteran status, or any other basis protected by law. An equal opportunity/affirmative action employer.

Project Leader: Alfred Goossens

Editor: Margaret Clifton

Published December 2020

Published by the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia

ii

© December 2020, The Socrates Project Authors, All Rights Reserved This publication is available for non-commercial public use, reprint, or citation without further permission, provided the use includes credit to The Socrates Project.

Cover Art: Trish Crowe

Published: December 2020

Published and printed by: The University of Virginia Printing & Copying Services

-iii-

Table of Contents

Introduction and Acknowledgements iv

American False-hellebore 2

Climbing Nightshade 4

Common Pokeweed 6

Cow Parsnip 8

Eastern Black Nightshade 10

Elderberry 12

Foxglove 14

Giant Hogweed 16

Horse-nettle 18

Jack-in-the-pulpit 20

Jimson-weed 22

Lily-of-the-valley 24

Mayapple 26

Monkshood 28

Mountain Laurel 30

Poison Hemlock 32

Poison Ivy 34

Poison Oak 36

Poison Sumac 38

Rhododendron and Azalea 40

Virginia-creeper 44

Water-hemlock 46

White Baneberry 48

White Snakeroot 50

Wild Parsnip 52

Glossary 54

Bibliographic References 61

-iv-

Introduction and Acknowledgements The Socrates Project – Poisonous Plants in Virginia

This project was initiated in 2013 when members of the Old Rag Chapter of the Virginia Master Naturalist program discovered that tens of thousands of human exposures to poisonous plants are reported annually to poison control centers throughout the United States, and hundreds of such incidents are reported annually to the University of Virginia Health’s Blue Ridge Poison Center in Charlottesville, Virginia. These numbers may be shocking, yet the number of actual cases of exposure to poisonous plants are much higher due to the fact that many cases are never reported to poison centers. Further, since the COVID-19 pandemic hit Virginia, people are spending more time at home and out in nature. There has also been an increased interest in foraging for wild foods. Consequently, there has been an increase in accidental poisonings.

Moreover, asking even well-informed gardeners and hikers about wild poisonous plants here in Virginia demonstrated how little gardeners, and the general public as a whole, know about poisonous plants in the environment. These concerns, coupled with the large number of human exposures to poisonous plants, led to the creation of this publication. Our research revealed a huge gap in basic plant knowledge relative to poisonous plants and made it clear that there was a need for educational outreach on this issue, especially to children and foragers who could easily encounter these plants in nature.

This publication deals with poisonous plants and the dangers involved with them. However, the fact that a plant is poisonous does not mean that it should be destroyed. Many of these plants have a strong ecological value. These plants are often used by wildlife such as birds, mammals, and insects.

The 1st Edition of this project was published in 2018 with support from the Virginia Master Naturalist program and the Virginia Cooperative Extension. The publication covered 11 common poisonous plants growing in the wild in the Piedmont region of Virginia. Because it was very well received by the press and public, we were encouraged to immediately start working on an expanded edition. At the same time, the cooperation that had developed with the University of Virginia grew into a valued partnership during the development and publication of the 2nd Edition. This edition includes the 11 original plants plus 14 additional poisonous plants that grow in the wild and even in some gardens, in Virginia.

We would like to acknowledge the support by the Division of Medical Toxicology - Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Virginia School of Medicine and the University of Virginia Health’s Blue Ridge Poison Center. Particularly we would like to acknowledge Dr. Chris Holstege, Dr. Heather Borek, Dr. Marissa Kopatic, and Dr. Jennifer Ross for their guidance and assistance with the review of this publication, and Heather Collier for her valuable administrative support.

The team of Virginia Master Naturalist volunteers who have contributed as authors of this edition are: William Birkhofer, Margaret Clifton, Kathy Fell, Charles Fortuna, Victoria Fortuna, Alfred Goossens, Don Hearl, Roberta Jalbert and Lizz Stanley. The editor was Margaret Clifton, and the IT manager Bonnie Beers.

-v-

We owe an enormous debt of gratitude to Trish Crowe of the Firnew Farm Artists’ Circle in Madison County, for designing the cover for the 2nd Edition of The Socrates Project. This beautiful original artwork is a watercolor rendition of the parts of several poisonous plants that grow in the wild in Virginia and which are included in the publication.

We would also like to thank the many photographers who have given us permission to use their photos in this publication. Their names and affiliations are given with each photo credit.

Peer review of this publication was conducted by:

* Christopher P. Holstege, MD, Chief, Division of Medical Toxicology, Professor, Emergency Medicine and Pediatrics, University of Virginia School of Medicine * Ronald S. Hughes, Lands and Access Manager, Virginia Department of Wildlife Resources * Michelle D. Prysby, Virginia Master Naturalist Program Director and Extension Associate, Virginia Tech Department of Forest Resources and Environmental Conservation * John F. Townsend, Staff Botanist, Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation, Division of Natural Heritage We are extremely grateful for their time, expertise, and input to this publication. This publication is available on the following website: The University of Virginia Health’s Blue Ridge Poison Center: https://med.virginia.edu/brpc/socrates Find information about the Virginia Master Naturalist program at the following: www.virginiamasternaturalists.org

For any suggestions and comments please contact [email protected]

Alfred E. Goossens Project Leader The Socrates Project - Poisonous Plants in Virginia

http://www.virginiamasternaturalists.org/

http://www.oldragmasternaturalists.org/

The Socrates Project

Poisonous Plants in Virginia

2nd edition

-2-

AmericanFalse-helleboreVeratrumviride

PlantDescriptionAmerican False-hellebore (also calledWhite Hellebore, Green Hellebore, andIndianPoke)isnativetoVirginia,grows2to7 feet tall,withasolidgreenstemwithribbed leaves that clasp the stem. Leavesare alternate, 4 to 14 inches long, 2 to 8inches wide, elliptical and pointed, andheavily ribbedwithhairyundersides.Theplant produces numerous flowers in July-August, ona largebranch,1 to2 feet tall.The flowers of the American False-hellebore are yellowish green with sixpetals. Each flower consists of six yellow-green balls, which actually are calledanthers,thepollen-producingstructuresoftheflower.

WhereitmaybeFoundAmericanFalse-hellebore isaplantnativetoVirginiaandgrows inwet soils in low-lyingmeadows,streambanks,openforests,swamps, seeps, andbogs. It is frequent inthemountains,butrare in thecentralandnorthernPiedmont,CoastalPlain, and theNorthernNeck.

WhatPart(s)ofthePlantareToxicAll parts of the plant are poisonous andcontaintoxicsteroidalalkaloidcompounds.The entire plant is highly toxic andpotentiallyfatalwheningestedbyhumansor by livestock. The plant should not betouchedorhandledasthetoxiccompoundscanbeabsorbedthroughtheskin.

Photocredit:RichardStrombergVMNShenandoahChapter

Photocredit:GaryFleming,DCR,VA

Contactwithpoisonousplantscanbedangerous.Forappropriatemedicaladvicecallyourlocalpoisoncenterat1-800-222-1222.

-3-

CommonSymptomsWhen American False-hellebore isingested, it can cause nausea, vomiting,abdominal pain, dizziness, seizures,decreased blood pressure, slowed heartrate, heart arrhythmia, coma, andpotentiallydeath.

Look-alikesThese plants are commonly mistaken forsome wild edibles, including Pokeweed(also described in this publication), andedible Leeks (also known as Ramps). Allthese plants grow in similar or adjacentenvironmentsasAmericanFalse-hellebore.Sincemorepeoplehavemoretimeathomerecently due to the COVID-19 pandemic,there has been an increased interest inforagingwildfoods,andasaresultofthat,anincreaseinaccidentalpoisonings.

NotesTheplantwasconsideredtohavemagicalpropertiesbymanyNativeAmericantribes.Historically, this plant was used inmedicineintothe1960s.Itsvaluewasasapain reliever and a heart sedative. It wasevenusedinpharmaceuticaldrugstoslowheart rate and lower blood pressure. Thedriedandcrushedplanthasalsobeenusedas a sneezing powder or snuff. Americanfalse-hellebore is not, and should not, beusedmedicinally.

Additionalinformationmaybefoundinthe bibliography at the end of thispublication; refer to the followingnumberedsources:48,51.


Photocredit:GaryFlemingDCR,VA

-4-

ClimbingNightshadeSolanumdulcamara

PlantDescription.Climbing Nightshade, also calledBittersweet, is a perennial woody vinegrowingupto10feetinlength.Thisnon-native Eurasian plant has becomenaturalizedintheU.S.Thespearhead-likeleavesarealternatewithdeeplobestwiceaslongaswide.Purpletobluestar-shapedflowers grow on an open-branchedcluster.Thefivepetalsoftheflowercurvebacktorevealayellowanther,resemblinga shooting star. The small, egg-shapedgreen berries turn yellow, then orange,andfinallyripentoabrightredandhaveapungentodor.Theberriesareproducedinconstantsuccessionthroughsummerandearly autumn and many remain on theplant long after the leaves have fallen. Ithasarhizomatousrootsystem.

WhereitmaybeFoundClimbing Nightshade can be foundfrequentlyintheunderstoryofdisturbedforests,forestedgesandwet,richsoilsofVirginia’smountains.ItisinfrequentinthePiedmont and is considered rare in thecoastalareas.

WhatPart(s)ofthePlantareToxicAllpartsoftheplantaretoxictomammals,including humans, yet white-tailed deerhave been known to eat the ripe fruitwithout harm. If handled, the plant maycause skin irritation, particularly if itcontactsbrokenskin.Themosttoxicpartof the plant is the unripe fruit (berries),which become less toxic as they ripen.Foliageisbitterandunpalatable.


Photocredit:AnaKa'ahanuiVMNFairfaxChapter


-5-

CommonSymptomsNausea, vomiting, and diarrhea are themost common symptoms reportedfollowingaccidentalingestion.Theplantisalso known to cause excessiveperspiration and increased urination.Other symptoms can include enlargedpupils, slowed heart rate, difficultybreathing,reducedbodytemperature,lossof sensation, vertigo, delirium,convulsions,paralysis,shock,andpossiblydeath. Children may be more likely todevelopsymptomsafterexposure.

Look-alikesThisplant isoftenconfusedwithEasternBlack Nightshade (also described in thispublication), a native annual and similarspecies,withverysimilartoxicity.EasternBlackNightshade,however, isnotavine.Bothoftheseplantscanbeproblematicforhorses,cattle,goats,andsheepbecauseoftheirtoxicitytolivestock.

NotesClimbingNightshadeisinthesamefamilythat includes tomatoes, potatoes, andeggplant.Extractfromthebark,stems,androotshas been usedmedicinally for pain reliefofmanyailments.

Additionalinformationmaybefoundinthebibliographyattheendofthispublication;refer to the following numbered sources:16,48,51,53.

Photocredit:BrendaClementsJonesVMNOldRagChapter

Photocredit:BrentFurbee,MDIndianaUniversity

-6-

CommonPokeweedPhytolaccaamericana

PlantDescriptionPokeweedisalargeperennialplant,3to10feettall,risingfromalargerootstock.Theroot-crown is where the annual growthbegins.Stemsarethick,hollow,erect,andbranched, often reddish or purplish incolor.Leavesaresimple,ovalinshape,withsmooth edges and are alternate inarrangement on the stem. Flowers aregreenishwhite,withpetal-likesepals,andgrow in loose clusters. Bloom period isfromJunethroughSeptember.Berriesthatappearindroopingclustersaregreenwhenimmatureandturnadeeppurpletoblackatmaturity.Approximatelynineseedsarecontainedineachberry.

WhereitmaybeFoundPokeweed is found throughout Virginiagrowing in open fields, along fencerows,roadsides, crop fields, and sunny forestedges.

WhatPart(s)ofthePlantareToxicAll parts of the plant are poisonous andcontain saponinglycosides that can causeseriouspoisoning.Contactwithplantpartsandbareskinshouldbeavoidedsincethejuiceofpokeweedcanbeabsorbedthroughtheskin.

.


Photocredit:DonHearlVMNOldRagChapter


-7-

CommonSymptomsSymptoms of ingestion include nausea,severe vomiting, abdominal cramps,diarrhea, and a burning sensation in themouth.Therecanbevisualimpairmentandweakened respiration and pulse. Moreserious illness can develop fromsubsequent dehydration. Convulsions anddeath may follow. Plant juice may causeirritationoftheskinthatcancauseanitchyorpainfulrash.

Look-alikesPokeweedrootissimilarinappearancetosomeedibletubersandmaybemistakenasedible by foragers. To a child, Pokeweedberrieslooklikegrapes;clustersofpurpleberrieshangfromstems,usuallyatachild'slevel. Adults can easily tell pokeberriesfromgrapesbytheirredstems,whichdon'tlooklikewoodygrapevinesatall.

NotesThe name Pokeweed is derived from“puccoon,” an Algonquin name meaningmourning doves, and many mammalsconsumetheberriesandspreadtheseeds.Earlyspringshootsareeateninthesouth,e.g., “poke salad.” The spring greens arecooked intwochangesofwater toreducethe toxin concentration. The berrieswereusedforanaturaldye,inkandfoodcolor.ThepracticeofusingpartsofthePokeweedplant as a food ingredient is seriouslyquestionedbecauseoftheseverepoisoningthat has often resulted. This plant shouldnotbeeatenandcareshouldbeusedwhenhandlingittoavoiddirectskincontact.

Additionalinformationmaybefoundinthe bibliography at the end of thispublication; refer to the followingnumberedsources:38,41,48,51.


Photocredit:AlfredGoossensVMNOldRagChapter

-8-

CowParsnipHeracleummaximum

PlantDescriptionCow-parsniporCommonCow-parsnipisatall, foul-smelling, non-woody nativeperennialreaching7feetinheight.Itcanbe a biennial or perennial,meaning thattheplantgenerallylivesfortwoyearsandthendiesafterfloweringandsettingseedinthesecondyear.Thestemsarehollow,ridgedorgrooved,andcoveredwithsmallhairs. The leaves are deeply divided, theleaf margins (edges) are serrated, or“toothed,” and they are arrangedalternatelyon the stem.Leaves resemblethose of Giant Hogweed (which is in thesame family and genus) but are not aslobed and serrated. The small, whiteflowers are grouped in a cluster in anumbrella-like flower head, called anumbel;similartotheumbelsofthecarrot,which is also in the same family. Theumbelsmaybeupto8inchesacross.Theouter flowersof theumbelmaybemuchlarger than the inner flowers. The plantflowersfromMaytoAugust.

WhereitmaybefoundAlong roadsides, clearings and forestopenings, mostly at middle to higherelevations in themountains.Frequentonthe Northern Blue Ridge and infrequentelsewherethroughwesternmountains.

Whatpart(s)oftheplantaretoxicAllpartsof theplantaretoxic to theskin.LikeGiantHogweed, the sap of this plantcontains furocoumarins, chemicalcompoundswhich inhumansarestronglyphototoxic.Thismeansthatwhenthesapisexposedtosunlight itundergoeschemicalchangesthatproducetoxinsthatinjuretheskin.DONOTTOUCHthisplant!




-9-

CommonSymptomsA painful, blistering rash occurs on theskin when exposed to sunlight. In somecases, blistering may be severe(resemblingaburn)andrequireadvancedmedical care. The rash and blisters mayappear on the day of contact with thisplant, or several days after contact, andmaylast forupto2weeks.Scars formedmay persist indefinitely. Ingestion maycause irritation of the gastrointestinaltractleadingtonauseaandvomiting.

Look-alikesCow-parsniphasvariouslook-alikes.ThemostobviousisGiantHogweed,whichismuchlargerinsizeandhaspurplespotsonthestem.GiantHogweedphototoxicityis worse and more dangerous than Cow-parsnip. Other look-alikes includePoisonHemlock,Water-hemlockandWildParsnip,each of which are toxic (and are alsodescribed in this publication). QueenAnne’sLaceisalsoalook-alikebutitcanbedifferentiated fromtheothersbythedarkpurplespotinthemiddleofitsflowerhead.

NotesNative Americans had a variety of uses forCow-parsnip, from medicine to food, andevenasdrinkingstrawsandflutes,however,usingthegreenstemsforstrawsorfluteshasled to serious injury and is stronglydiscouraged.

Additionalinformationmaybeobtainedfromthesereferences,listedinthebibliographyattheendofthepublication:numbers25,32,48,51



-10-

EasternBlackNightshadeSolanumptychanthum

PlantDescriptionA native annual growing 1 to 3 feet tall,with egg-shaped to triangular medium-greenleaveswithbluntteethontheedges.The undersides of the leaves cansometimes be purplish.White to purple-tinged, star-shaped flowers grow inpanicles, a loose branching cluster offlowers,of5 to7pergroup.Each flowerhasfivepetalswhichcurvebackwardstoreveal a yellow anther (the flower partthat contains the pollen), similar toClimbing Nightshade (Solanumdulcamara), also discussed in thispublication. Flowers appear in latesummerandbloomthroughearlyautumn.Berriesaresmall,startingoutgreen,thenripeningtoaglossyblack.Theplanthasafibroustaproot.

WhereitmaybeFoundA variety of dry open areas, or in over-grazed fields or weedy waste places.Commonlygrowsingardensamongcropsof related species such as potatoes andtomatoes. It is abundant and commonlyfoundthroughoutVirginia.

WhatPart(s)ofthePlantareToxicLike some other plants of this genus(Solanum),allpartsoftheplantaretoxictomammals, including humans, but theberriesbecomelesstoxicastheymature.The leaves, stems, and seeds areparticularlytoxic.Thefoliageisbitterandsoavoidedbydeerandotherherbivores.Theberriesarenot toxic tobirds --wildturkeys, eastern meadowlarks, graycatbirds, and swamp sparrows all findthemtastyandareimportantindispersingseeds.

Photocredit:LynnSosnoskieUniversityofGA,Bugwood

Photocredit:GaryFleming,DCRVA


-11-

CommonSymptomsEatingtheberriesorotherplantpartsmaycause gastrointestinal distress includingnausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominalcramping, and excess salivation. Lesscommon symptoms that have beenreported with larger ingestions includehallucinations, paralysis, and rarely,death.

Look-alikesThisplantisoftenconfusedwithClimbingNightshade,aperennialwoodyvine(alsodescribedinthispublication).

NotesLike some other plants in this genus(Solanum), EasternBlackNightshade canbe a problem plant for people keepinghorses, cattle, sheep, and goats. FarmersarediscouragedfromhayingfieldsthatareovergrownwithEasternBlackNightshadebecauseitistoxictolivestock.

Additionalinformationmaybefoundinthe bibliography at the end of thispublication; refer to the followingnumberedsources:15,48,51.

Photocredit:RebekahD.WallaceUniversityofGA,Bugwood

Photocredit:BruceAckleyOhioStateUniversity,Bugwood

-12-

CommonElderberrySambucuscanadensisRedElderberrySambucusracemosavar.pubens

PlantDescriptionBoth the CommonElderberry and theRedElderberry are native shrubs ranging inheightfrom2to20feettall.Flowersofbothplants are very small and grow in umbels.Flowers of the Common Elderberry aretypically white, creamy, or yellow whenopen;thefruits(smallberries)areblackorpurple when ripe. Flowers of the RedElderberryaretypicallywhitebutthefruits,also small berries, are red. Both speciesflower between May and September andfruitbetweenJulyandOctober.TheleavesofbothElderberryspeciesarecompoundandhave a skunk-like odor. The bark of bothspecies is gray/brown, but the CommonElderberrybarkisdottedwithsmallbrownbumps.

WhereitmaybeFoundCommonElderberryiscommonthroughoutall parts of Virginia except at the highestelevationsinthemountains.Itprefersmoistsunnylocations.RedElderberryiscommoninmid-tohigh-elevationsinthemountainsand prefers rocky andwell-drained, sunnytopartly-shadedareas.

WhatPart(s)ofthePlantareToxicAllpartsofbothspecies,includingtheroots,are poisonous and contain cyanide-producingtoxins.Ripeberries(deeppurple-maroon to almost black) of the CommonElderberry are edible when cooked. Eventhe edible Elderberry should be usedwithcautioninpeopleoncertainmedicationsorwithotherhealth conditions.The ripeRedElderberry fruits are mildly toxic wheningestedandthereforeshouldnotbeeatenunlessfirstcooked.




-13-

Look-alikesDuetothecompoundleafstructureofbothspecies, they can be mistaken for manyother young trees and shrubswith similarcompound leaves, including Poison Sumac(described elsewhere in this publication).Common Elderberry is distinguished fromPokeweed (also described in thispublication), by the berries, which inPokeweedgrowinloose,drooping,clustersand are smaller. Further, Elderberry fruitsripen in early to mid-summer whereasPokeweedberriesripeninlatesummerandearly fall. Pokeweed berries are larger,dented,andgrowinlonger,thinnerclusters.Elderberry has compound leaves withnumerous leaflets, Pokeweed does not.Pokeweedstemsarefleshyandnon-woodyand sometimes reddish in color, whereasCommonElderberrystemsarewoodywithbumpyflecks.

CommonSymptomsIngestion of significant amounts ofelderberry will cause nausea, vomiting,diarrhea, weakness, numbness, headaches,and dizziness. Contact with the skin maycause a rash. There are reported cases ofmental impairment requiringhospitalization, but most people fullyrecoverquickly.

NotesCommon Elderberry’s woody stems andtwigs have been used for arrow shafts,flutes, whistles, and spiles for collectingmaple sap.Theberriesofbothspecies canbeusedasdyesandthoseofRedElderberryare used for some medicinal purposes,though this is highly discouraged, asaccidental poisonings can occur. Readersare reminded that all plant parts,with theexception of ripe berries of the CommonElderberry,andcookedorprocessedberriesoftheRedElderberry,aretoxic.



Additional informationmaybe found inthe bibliography at the end of thispublication; refer to the followingnumberedsources:10,14,51.

-14-

FoxgloveDigitalispurpurea

PlantDescriptionFoxglove (Foxglove, Common Foxglove,PurpleFoxgloveorLady'sGlove)isanon-native biennial plant with soft, hairy,toothed, egg- and lance-shaped leaves.Leaves are gray-green in color, 4 to 12inches wide, with a distinctive veinstructure. The plant’s first year growthconsistsofjustabasalrosetteofleaves,andin its second year it produces floweringstems, 3 to 6 feet tall. The flowers arepurple towhite,spotted, thimble-like, lastaboutsixdays,anddroopfromspikesnearthetopofthefloweringstem.

WhereitmaybeFoundFoxglove was originally imported fromEurope as an ornamental plant and hasescapedcultivationinplaces.InVirginia,itgrowsinaverage,well-drainedsoilinpartshade. It prefers moist, organically rich,acidicsoilsbutwillalsogrowinsparsesoilsuchas rockcrevasses,dryhillypastures,roadsides, logged-off areas, and rockyplaces. Foxglove may be found in thePiedmontandtheCoastalPlain.

WhatPart(s)ofthePlantareToxicAllpartsoftheplant,includingtheleaves,flowers,stemsandseeds,arehighlytoxic,withupperleavesofthestembeingmoretoxic than the lower leaves. The primarytoxinsaretheplantsteroidsdigitoxinanddigoxin, both of which affect the humanheart.Eatingthisplantcanbefatalatanytime,however, it ismost toxic justbeforethe seeds ripen. Although two to threedriedleavesmaybefatalifingested,deathisrareduetothebittertasteoftheleaves,which usually deters people fromconsumingit.However,somepeoplehavemistaken it for other plants (seeLook-alikes),andinadvertentlyusedittomake

Photocredit:AlfredGoossensVMNOldRagChapter


Contactwithpoisonousplantscanbedangerous.Forappropriatemedicaladvicecallyourlocalpoisoncenterat1-800-222-1222

-15-

teaorsalads.Anyingestedamountshouldbeconsidereddangerous.

CommonSymptomsIngestionofthisplanthassignificanteffectson theheart andcancausepulse changesand irregular heart rhythms, potentiallyleading todeath.Othersymptoms includenausea, vomiting, diarrhea, headache,weakness, drowsiness, hallucinations, andconfusion. Repeated ingestion is reportedto cause loss of appetite and changes insight, including visions of flashing lights,halos,andunusualcolors.

Look-alikesInthefirstyearofgrowth,duringthebasalstage,Foxglovemaybe confusedwith theBorage (Borago officinalis) plant, alsoknown as Starflower, an annual herbtypicallyusedinsalads.Foxglovemayalsobe confused with Comfrey (Symphytumofficinale), a common herb used inmedicinalteas.

NotesThisplantistermedawaif,oranon-nativeplant that has difficulty surviving on itsown outside of cultivation, and whichoccurs infrequently in the state. Manyspread from cultivation but there isinsufficient evidence that they are clearlynaturalized and persistent. The earliestknown form of the word Foxglove is theAnglo-Saxon"foxesglofa"(thegloveofthefox). The name derives from the flowers,whichresemblethefingersofaglove,andpossibly fromanOldWorld legendwhichsays thatbad fairiesgave theblossoms tothefoxtoputonhistoessothathemightsoftenhisstepwhilehehuntedforprey.AFoxglove extract is used to make themedicine Digoxin, still used today as atreatmentforsomecardiacdisorders.

Photocredit:RichardStrombergVMN,ShenandoahChapter

Photocredit:JoAnnDalleyVMN,RivannaChapter


-16-

GiantHogweedHeracleummantegazzianum

PlantDescriptionThisplantisnotnativetotheUnitedStates.ItoriginatedinSouthwestAsia,fromwhereit was imported as an ornamental gardenplanttoEuropeinthe19thcentury.ItwasfirstrecordedintheUnitedStatesin1917inanornamental garden inNewYork. It is abiennial plant but is known to remain formultiple years in the rosette stage. Whentheplantdevelops sufficient root reservestheplant initiates flower formation. In thefirstyeartheplantwillgrowalowrosetteofleaves,atabout1to2feet.Inthesecond,orsometimesthethirdyear,itwilldevelopfully with large, thick stems and flowerheads reaching a total of 15 to 18 feet inheight. The plant flowers June to August.Theflowersaresmallandwhite,growinginanumbrella-shapedumbel,andresemblingthe flowers of Carrot or Parsley, but aremuch larger, from1 to 2½ feetwide. Theleaves have an alternate arrangement onthestem,aredeeplylobed,andcanbeupto5feetindiameterwithaprominentsheathat the base of the stalk. The stems arehollow, 2 to 4 inches in diameter, withdistinctive purple-red blotches andprominent white hair. The stems have athick circle of hair at the base of the leafstalkaroundthesheath.

WhereitmaybeFoundThe plant grows in rich,moist soils alongroadsides, stream banks, vacant farmland,andinareasthatarenotdisturbed,suchasfence and tree lines. After a recentlyconfirmed identification by the MasseyHerbariumatVirginiaTech,GiantHogweedwas documented growing at severallocations in Virginia although it doesn’tseemtobewidelydistributed.Alsowemaycome across this plant in certain gardenswhereitwasplantedbecauseit

Photocredit:NewYorkStateDepartmentofEnvironmentalConservation

Photocredit:NewYorkStateDepartmentofEnvironmental

Conservation

Contactwithpoisonousplantscanbedangerous. For appropriatemedicaladvicecallyourlocalpoisoncenterat1-800-222-1222.

-17-

looksso“giant”notrealizingthedangerousaspects of this plant. It is also officiallyreported to grow in neighboring states,including Maryland, North Carolina, andWashington,D.C.

WhichPart(s)ofthePlantareToxicThisplant, althoughVERYDANGEROUS tohumans, is not poisonous the way wecommonly think. The sap of this plantcontainsfurocoumarin,whichinhumansisstrongly phototoxic.Therefore this plantshouldnotbetouched!GiantHogweedisontheFederalNoxiousWeedslistoftheU.S.Dept.ofAgriculture.

CommonSymptomsThe juice or sap of this plant is stronglyphototoxic, resulting in serious skinreactionsafterexposuretosunlight.First,askin rash may occur that may worsen toblisters, which can look like severe burnwounds. Red-purple scarringmay developthatcanlastforyears.Exposureoftheeyestotheplant’sjuicemayleadtoblindness.

Look-alikesTherearevariouslook-alikeplantsofGiantHogweedinVirginia,suchasCow-Parsnip,Poison Hemlock and Wild Parsnip (alldescribed in this publication). They maylooklikeGiantHogweed,particularlyCow-parsnip; however, none reach the size ofGiantHogweed,andallofthemlackthered-purpleblotcheswiththewhitehaironthestem.

Additionalinformationmaybefoundinthebibliographyat theendof thispublication;refer to the following numbered sources:20,21,22,24.

Photocredit:NewYorkStateDepartmentofEnvironmentalConservation

Day3

Day5

Photocredit:ZamarraKok,TheNetherlands

-18-

Horse-nettleCarolinaHorse-nettleSolanumcarolinensePlantDescriptionTheHorse-nettle isnota truenettlebutamember of the Nightshade (Solanaceae)family.Horse-nettleleavesare2½inchesto4½ inches long, lobed, and covered withfinehairsandspines.Theplantstemsareangled at the nodes (the part of the stemfromwhichleavesemerge),becomewoodywithage,andhavepricklesandstar-shapedhairs.Theleaves,whencrushed,smelllikepotatoes.Horse-nettlecangrowto3feetinheightbutisusuallyshorter.Flowershavefivepetalsandareusuallywhiteorpurplewith yellow centers, although there is ablue variant that resembles the tomatoflower. Horse-nettle blooms throughoutthe summer fromApril toOctober. Fruitsareapproximately½inchindiameterandresemble small tomatoes. The immaturefruitisdarkgreenwithlightgreenstripes,turningyellowandwrinkled,asitmatures.Each fruit contains approximately 60seeds.WhereitmaybeFoundItisaperennialherbaceousplantnativetothe southeastern United States that hasspread widely throughout much oftemperateNorthAmerica.Horse-nettlecanbe found throughout Virginia, growing inpastures,roadsides,andindisturbedareasandwaste ground. It prefers sun but cantoleratebothwetanddryconditions.

PhotoCredit:RichardStromberg

VMNShenandoahChapter PhotoCredit:DonHearlVMNOldRagChapter


-19-

WhichPart(s)ofthePlantareToxicAll parts of the plant are poisonous andcontain the toxic chemical solanine. Themajority of reports of human toxicity isfrom the ingestion of the fruits. Unripeberries are more toxic than ripe berries.Berriesaremoretoxicthanleaveswhich,inturn, aremore toxic than stems or roots.Planttoxicityisoftenstrongerinautumnasthepoisonsaremoreconcentrated.CommonSymptomsIngestingthefruitwillirritatethestomachand intestines, causing nausea, stomachcramps, and diarrhea. Other symptomsinclude excessive salivation, vomiting,drowsiness, weakness, and respiratorydistress. Horse-nettle poisoning is rarelyfatal; the fatalities thatdooccuraremoreoften found in children, and then, onlywhenlargerquantitiesareeaten.Look-alikesBuffalo-bur (Solanum rostratum) is alsohairyandhasprickles,but it is anannualthat has leaves with much deeper lobesthan Horse-nettle, bright yellow flowers,and brown spiny berries. PerennialGroundcherries (Physalis species) aresimilar to Horse-nettle in appearance,except they lack prickles, have yellowflowers, and form berries enclosed inpaperypods.NotesThereisdocumentedusebytheCherokeepeopleasasedativeandaidinteethingpainin infants; there is also evidence thatAfrican-Americans in the southern U.S.usedittotreatseizures.Horse-nettleisnotcommonlyusedmedicinallytoday.Additionalinformationmaybefoundinthe bibliography at the end of thispublication; refer to the followingnumberedsources:39,43,51.

PhotoCredit:DonHearlVMNOldRagChapter


-20-

Jack-in-the-pulpit ArisaematriphyllumPlantDescriptionJack-in-the-pulpit is a native perennialthat grows from a short, solid, verticalundergroundstemcalledacorm. Jack-in-the-pulpitgrowsfrom12to26inchestall.It has one or two large, three-partedleaves,eachonaseparatestalk.Eachleafpart,orleaflet,isellipticaltobroadlyoval.Theuniquefloweremergesinspringandearly summer on a separate stalkemergingbetweenorneartheleafstalks.The flower, which consists of a brownspadix or spike, referred to as the ‘Jack,’measures2to3incheslong,andiscoveredwith tiny male and female flowers. Thespadix is enveloped by, or sits within, agreen and brown or purple-streaked (orspeckled)fleshyspathe,referredtoasthe‘pulpit,’withanelevated liporhoodthatarchesoverthespadix.Brightredberriesappear along the spadix in late summerandearlyfall. WhereitmaybeFoundJack-in-the-pulpit is common throughoutVirginia and can be found on swamphummocks, floodplain forests and moistuplandwoodedareas. WhatPart(s)ofthePlantareToxic?Allpartsoftheplantaretoxic.Jack-in-the-Pulpit contains insoluble calcium oxalateintheformofcrystals.Thesemicroscopic,sharpcrystals,knownasraphides,createsmall lesionsor cuts in skinandmucousmembranes resulting in pain,inflammation,andswellingoncontact.


Photocredit:KathyFellVMNSouthernPiedmontChapter


-21-

CommonSymptomsSymptoms of insoluble calcium oxalatepoisoning include irritation, drooling,swelling,andblisteringofthemouth,lips,tongue, and throat. In severe exposures,thismay progress to difficulty breathingand/orspeakingduetoexcessiveswellingofthethroatandairways.NotesAtleastoneNativeAmericantribewouldputfinelychoppedJack-in-the-Pulpitrootintomeatandleaveitfortheirenemiestofind.Afewhoursaftereatingthepoisonedmeat, their enemieswould be in terriblepainandpossiblydie.Thestarchycormofthisplantwasknowntobeeatenbynativepeoples. After thorough drying of thecorm,itwaspoundedintoflourandused.It ishighly recommended thatnopartofJack-in-the-Pulpitbeingestedinanyway.Additionalinformationmaybefoundinthe bibliography at the end of thispublication; refer to the followingnumberedsources:30,31,49,51,56.



-22-

Jimson-weedDaturastramonium

PlantDescriptionAn upright, branching annual plant in thenightshade family (Solanaceae) reaching5to6feettall,withcoarsetexturedandfoul-smellingfoliage.Leavesarealternate,ovate,and irregularly toothed,3 to8 inches longand green, but sometimes purple-tingedandthestemsaregreentopurpleincolor.The flowersare largeand trumpet-shapedrangingfromwhitetolavender/lightpurplein color. Flowers appear July throughOctoberandaregenerallynight-blooming.Each flower lasts only one day. Fruits arehard, spiny capsules with four chambersthat contain an abundance of flat dark-browntoblackseeds,whichdispersewhenthematureseedcapsulessplit.

WhereitmaybeFoundJimson-weed is considered a non-nativeplant, presumably introduced to NorthAmericanfromMexicoorCentralAmerica.It is common throughout Virginia inpastures, fields, waste areas, and in sandand gravel bars in and around streams. Itprefersrichsoils,butcanbefoundinwidelyvariedconditions.

WhichPart(s)ofthePlantareToxicAllpartsoftheJimson-weedarepoisonous.Jimson-weed is at times used deliberatelythrough the direct ingestion of seeds, thebrewing of tea from plant parts, or byingestionoftheleaves,oftenwithmarkedlyadverse neurologic effects that requirehospitalization. Jimson-weed has ahistoryofusebyshamansandotherfolkmedicinepractitionersbecauseitishallucinogenicinsmall doses. The toxicity is caused bytropane alkaloids found throughout theplant. Jimson-weed is extremely toxic andshouldalwaysbeavoided.


PhotoCredit:BrentFurbee,MDIndianaUniversity

Contactwithpoisonousplantscanbedangerous. For appropriatemedicaladvicecallyourlocalpoisoncenterat1-800-222-1222.

-23-

CommonSymptomsEffects of ingestion include headaches,hallucinations,delirium,agitation,enlargedpupils, constipation, urinary retention,elevatedpulse,hypertension,andfever.NotesThe common name of Jimson-weed wasoriginally“JamestownWeed,”theresultofadocumentedoccurrenceofmasspoisoningof British soldiers in Jamestown in 1676.Theplantwasboiledforuseinasaladthatthesoldiersate.Overthecourseofthenexttendays(accordingtoreports),thesoldiersexhibited the hallucinogenic effects of theplant and had to be confined to preventthemfromhurtingthemselves.Additionalinformationmaybefoundinthe bibliography at the end of thispublication; refer to the followingnumberedsources:51.

Photocredit:PatTemplesVMNOldRagChapter


-24-

Lily-of-the-valleyEuropeanLily-of-the-valleyConvallariamajalisAmericanLily-of-the-valleyConvallariapseudomajalisPlantDescriptionLily-of-the-valley species are perennialplantswith two species found in Virginia.The European Lily-of-the-valley is anescapedcultivaroriginatinginEuropethatgrows in dense colonies. Its stems growfrom6to10inchestall,withoneortwoovaltoelliptic-shapedleaves,4to10incheslong.Flowering plants typically have two basal,oblong, smooth leaves. Flower stalks aresingle and have between 5 to 15 flowersgrowinginarownearthetopofthestalk.American Lily-of-the-valley is native,similar in appearance to the Europeancultivar,butwithlargerandlongerleaves.Itdoes not grow in dense colonies. Flowerstalks are similar to European Lily-of-the-valley.Bothspeciesbloominspringtoearlysummerandhavesmall,bell-shaped,whiteflowers that have a very sweet fragrance.Thefruitofbothspeciesaresmallorange-red berries approximately¼ to⅓ inch indiameterwhichcontainafewlargewhitishto brownish colored seeds. When dried,these seeds become translucent ⅛ inchroundbeads.WhereitmaybeFoundEuropean Lily-of-the-valleyprefers partialshadeandwarmsummers.Itgrowswellinsilty or sandy soils, acidic to moderatelyalkaline, which contain a high amount oforganic material. It is infrequentthroughoutthestateandtypicallyfoundinthickets, roadsides, woods, and aroundabandoned homesites. American Lily-of-the-valley is common in themountains ofsouthernandcentralVirginia,andrareinthesouthwesternPiedmont.Itprefers

Photocredit:BrendaClementsJonesVMNOldRagChapterPhotocredit:BrendaClementsJonesVMNOldRagChapterContactwithpoisonousplantscanbedangerous. For appropriatemedicaladvicecallyourlocalpoisoncenterat1-800-222-1222.

-25-

moderately moist mountain forests with acidic, nutrient-poor soils. What Part(s) of the Plant are Toxic All parts of the plant are potentially toxic, however, unless mistaken for another plant (see Look-alikes), it is rarely associated with morbidity or mortality. Children may be especially susceptible to its dangerous effects. Common Symptoms If ingested, these plants can cause significant heart problems including pulse rate changes and irregular heart rhythms that can result in death. Other symptoms include burning of the mouth and throat, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, dilated pupils, headache, and confusion. Look-alikes Lily-of-the-valley is similar in appearance to a species of Wild Onion (Allium tricoccum) also known as Wild Leeks or Ramps. Both are found in the western mountains of Virginia. Wild Leeks have a strong onion odor while Lily-of-the-valley does not. Notes In folk medicine, European Lily-of-the-valley has been used since ancient Greece for treating heart disease, edema (swelling in hands and ankles), and as a laxative. Herbalists in Europe still advocate its use. Children are attracted to the red berries and have died drinking water from a vase containing the flowers. The cardioactive constituents (heart toxins) in Lily-of-the-valley are similar to digitalis (found in Foxglove, also described in this publication), which is used medicinally to treat congestive heart failure. The use of either species for such medicinal purposes is highly discouraged.

Photo credit: Brenda Clements Jones VMN Old Rag Chapter

Photo credit: Ansel Oommen, Bugwood.Org

Additional information may be found in the bibliography at the end of this publication; refer to the following numbered sources: 7, 51.

-26-

MayapplePodophyllumpeltatumPlantDescriptionMayappleisanunusualandshowyplantinthe Barberry (Berberidaceae) family. Oneoftheearliestplantstoemergeinspring,itdies back by summer. It has one to twolarge umbrella-like leaves which openbefore the flower appears.The leaves aredeeplydividedand6to8inchesacross.TheMayapple will grow 12 to 18 inches inheight.Theflowerscanbeupto2inchesindiameter and droop in a bell-like fashion.They are primarily white, but can bepinkish, rose, or pale purple. Flowers areproduced on the plants with two leaves;they are located under the large leaves,emergingintheforkoftheleafstems,andmay not be immediately apparent to theviewer. They have prominent yellowstamensand6to9waxypetals.Thefruitisapproximately 2 inches in diameter androundish, resembling a small apple. Thegreen fruit turns creamy yellow in colorwhenmature.WhereitmaybeFoundMayapple is native to Virginia, andcommonly found throughout forests inhumus-rich,slightlyacidictoneutralsoils.Mayappleisgenerallyfoundinmoistareasbutcantoleratedrier,sunnyareasaswell.Thisplantcanformdensecolonies.WhatPart(s)ofthePlantareToxicLeaves,roots,stems,seeds,andunripefruitarealltoxicwheningestedandcontainthetoxinpodophyllin,aclassof



agents thatareusedtotreatcorns,warts,andcertainotherskindiseases.


-27-

CommonSymptomsEffects when ingested include nausea,vomiting, severe diarrhea, and abdominalpain, followed by multi-system organfailure, coma, and potentially death, dayslater.Look-alikesMayappleisquitedistinctiveinappearanceand most people would easily identify itand not mistake it for another species;however,inthesouthernBlueRidgethereisaplantthatissimilarinappearanceandhabitatcalledtheUmbrella-leaf(Diphylleiacymosa). The leaves of Umbrella-leaf arenotasdeeplylobed/dividedlikeMayappleandtheleafmarginsonUmbrella-leafhaveteeth that are sharper. The leaves of theUmbrella-leafaretypically largerthanthelargestMayappleleaf.ThesingleMayappleflowergrowsundertheleaves,attachedtothemainstemwhereastheflowerclusterofthe Umbrella-leaf rises above the leavesandoriginateson the rootstockat groundlevel. The fruit of a Mayapple is singlewhereas Umbrella-leaf produces a clusterofsmalldarkblueberriesonredstems.NotesNative Americans ate the ripe fruit ofMayappleanditistodaystilladvocatedbyforagers and herbalists. However, errorshavebeenmadewhenthefruitisnotquiteripe, with resultant toxicity. The plant isknowntobeusedforitspotentialmedicinalvalue, such as the topical treatment ofcertaincancersandwarts,andhistoricallyfor the treatment of a variety of otherailments. It is sometimes referred to asMandrake or American Mandrake; analternate common name, Wild Mandrake(Mandragoraofficinarum),actuallybelongstoanunrelatedplantwithasimilarroot.


Photocredit:ChrisHolstege,MDUVAAdditionalinformationmaybefoundinthe bibliography at the end of thispublication; refer to the followingnumberedsources:31,33,51,59..

-28-

Monkshood

BlueMonkshoodAconitumuncinatumWhiteMonkshoodAconitumreclinatum

PlantDescriptionThesenativeperennialplantsgrowfrom2to5feetinheight,oftensupportedbyotherplants,orsprawlingacrosstheground.Theleaves are alternate, palmately-lobed ordivided,andcanbeupto6incheslong.Theflowers,whichappearat theupperpartofthevine,areshowyandhood-shaped,withthe tipof theupper flowerpart extendingforward and down into a short beak. TheplantflowersfromJunethroughSeptember.The seeds are wrinkly and are the mostpoisonous part of the plant. The tuberousroots renew each year with the new rootseparatedfromtheoldbyaslenderstalk.

WhereitmaybeFoundTheBlueMonkshoodmaybefoundinwell-drained floodplain forests, along streambanksandinswamps.Itisfrequentlyfoundat middle to lower elevations in thesouthern and central mountains (rarelyhigherand/oronmountaintops)andinthecentralandsouthernPiedmontbutisrareinthe Coastal Plain and northern Virginia.White Monkshood is less common, onlyknownfrom50populationsinVirginia,andis normally found in themiddle to higherelevationsofthemountains.

WhatPart(s)ofthePlantareToxicAllpartsoftheseplantsareextremelytoxicwhen ingested, particularly the seeds andthe roots. Some cases reported thattouching the plants can cause mildpoisoningeffects.Thetoxinsresponsible

Photocredit:ClaiLangeVMNRivannaChapterPhotocredit:BillCourVMNBansheeReeksChapterContactwithpoisonousplantscanbedangerous. For appropriatemedicaladvicecallyourlocalpoisoncenterat1-800-222-1222.

-29-

are alkaloids including aconitine,mesaconitine,andhypaconitine.

CommonSymptomsBoth Blue and White Monkshood areextremely toxic, causing effects on thegastrointestinal, nervous, and cardiacsystems. Thepoison is fast-acting and cancause nausea, vomiting, weakness orinability to move, numbness, sweating,breathing problems, heart arrhythmias,convulsions, and death within hours.Poisoningcanoccurwithingestionofevensmall amounts of any part of the plant.Poisoninganddeathcanoccurfromrubbingtinctures of Monkshood on the skin,especially if the skin isnot intact (suchaswith burns or rashes), and thereforeMonkshood should not be used as amedicinal remedy. Avoid touching theseplants if possible, wear gloves whengardening, and always wash your handsafter handling them. Although otherMonkshoodspecieshavebeencultivatedasgardenplants,itisinadvisabletogrowthisplant when children or curious pets cancome in contact with it. However,Monkshood has been safely cultivated bygardenersforhundredsofyears.NotesAlso known as Wolfsbane because itspoisonissotoxicthatitwasreputedlyonceused to kill werewolves, and even realwolves, Monkshood has an extensivefolklore of uses as a deadly plant. Otherstories cite use by ancient warriors topoison the water of their enemies. Anumber of cultures around the globeused species ofMonkshood to poison thetipsofdarts,arrows,andspearsforhuntingpurposes and for warfare. The rootcontinuestobeusedasanherbalremedyinAsia and Eastern Europe and is likelyresponsible for many fatal “accidents.”Documented cases of murder using theplantmaybefoundintheliterature.

Photocredit:BillCourVMNBansheeReeksChapterPhotocredit:BarbaraSouthworth©2020Additionalinformationmaybefoundinthe bibliography at the end of thispublication; refer to the followingnumberedsources:2,13,17,40,48,51.

-30-

MountainLaurelKalmialatifoliaPlantDescriptionMountainLaurelisamemberoftheHeathfamily(Ericaceae),andisnativetoVirginia.Thespeciesgrowsintheformofashruborsmalltree,frequentlyfoundindensestandsandthickets,andrangesinheightfrom7tonearly30feettall.Flowershavefivepetalsthatarefusedtogetherandsaucer-shaped,andaretypicallyinwhiteorpinkclustersorheadsandhaveapleasantscent.FloweringandfruitingoccursbetweenMarchandJuly.WhereItmayBeFoundMountain Laurel is common throughoutVirginia (Note: Sheep Laurel and CarolinaLaurelarerarelyfoundinVirginia,andthusarenotcoveredhere).WhatPart(s)ofthePlantAreToxicAll plant parts, including leaves, stems,flowers,fruits,roots,andnectararetoxictohumans.Incidentsofpoisoningcanincludeingestion of honey made from MountainLaurelflowernectar.Itisalsopossiblethatpoisoning fromconsumptionofmeat fromgame animals ingesting plant parts couldoccur.

Photocredit:JoAnnDalleyVMNRivannaChapter

Photocredit:JoAnnDalleyVMNRivannaChapter


-31-

CommonSymptomsFollowing ingestion, watery eyes, runnynose,salivation,nauseaandvomitinghavebeenreported.Inseverecases,slowpulse,heart arrhythmias, seizures, coma anddeathhaveoccurred.

Look-alikesMountain Laurel can be mistaken forRhododendron species, as both aremembers of the Heath family, and theirhabitats in the eastern United States,includingVirginia,mayoverlap.FlowersoftheMountainLaurel,however,aresmallerandcupped(½to1-inch insize), typicallyblooming in May and June, whereasRhododendron species bloom in June andJuly,typicallyinclustersofmultipleflowersabout1½incheswide.LeavesofMountainLaurel are elliptical, with pointed tips,yellow-green todarkgreen in color,whileleaves of Rhododendron species are darkgreen, leathery,oblong-shapedandfrom4to 14 inches long. Mountain LaurelseedlingscanlookverysimilartoTeaberry/American Wintergreen (Gaultheriaprocombens)whichcangrowinandaroundLaurelthickets..NotesWhileplantpartswereused formedicinalpurposes and utensils by NativeAmericans(hencethealternatename‘spoonwood’), and by others for wreaths,furniture,pipebowls,andotheritems,thesepractices are strongly discouraged topreventaccidentalpoisonings.Careshouldalso be taken when foraging for andidentifyingotherediblenativeplants,suchasAmericanWintergreen,whichmaygrowinproximitytotheLaurels.

Photocredit:MichellePrysbyVirginiaMasterNaturalist

Photocredit:JoAnnDalleyRivannaChapterAdditionalinformationmaybefoundinthe bibliography at the end of thispublication; refer to the followingnumberedsources:6,37,51.

-32-

PoisonHemlock Coniummaculatum

PlantDescriptionPoison Hemlock is a biennial plant in theCarrot family (Umbelliferae). It grows6 to10feetinheight,withasmoothgreenstemoftenspottedorstreakedwithredorpurple.Theleavesarecompound,finelydivided(3-to4-pinnately)andlacy,upto20incheslongby16incheswide.Ithaswhiteflowersthatgrowinsmallerectclusters,orumbels,andbloom in late spring.Each flowerdevelopsinto a green, deeply ridged fruit thatcontains several seeds which resembleAnise,Fennel,orCarawayseeds.Allpartsofthisplanthaveanunpleasantodor.Thoughusually biennial, in favorable locations, itmay persist as a perennial. The mostimportant identification features are thestemsandstalks; theyarehairless,hollow,and almost always have purplish-redsplotchingor streaking, especially towardsthebaseoftheplant.WhereitmaybeFoundPoison Hemlock is an invasive non-nativethatisverycommoninVirginiaandacrossthe United States. It grows along fences,ditches,wetroadsides,andmeadows.WhatPart(s)ofthePlantareToxicAll parts are extremely poisonous andcontainaneurotoxin.PoisoningoftenoccurswhenthevictimconfusesitsrootwithWildParsnip(alsodescribedinthispublication),its leaves with Parsley, or its seeds withAnise. Whistles made from hollow stemshave been reported to be toxic and causedeathinchildren.Evensmallinternaldosescancauserespiratorycollapseanddeath.Itcanalsocauseasevereskinreactionsimilartoaburnwhentouched.

Photocredit:ChrisHolstege,MDUniversityofVirginiaPhotocredit:BrentFurbeeMDIndianaUniversity

Contactwithpoisonousplantscanbedangerous. For appropriate medicaladvicecallyour localpoison centerat1-800-222-1222.

-33-

CommonSymptomsSymptoms following ingestion includenausea,vomiting,diarrhea,abdominalpain,coughing, wheezing, tearing, salivation,sweating, difficulty seeing, weakness,dizziness, trembling, seizures, paralysis,pulse change (rapid and slow), coma, andpotentiallydeath.Look-alikesAdditionallook-alikesincludeQueen-Anne’sLace (Daucus carota), Yarrow (Achilleamillefolium), Wild Fennel (Foeniculumvulgare), and Elderflower (the flower ofElderberry(Sambucusnigra--alsodescribedinthispublication),someofwhichareedibleandusefultoforagersasfoodandmedicine.Ifforaging,PoisonHemlockisanimportantplanttoknowtostayawayfrom,andwhenin doubt, do not pick it. Its roots smelldisgusting,whileQueen-Anne’sLacesmellsjustlikeaCarrot.Theflowersonbothareinwhite clusters and grouped in umbels, buton Poison Hemlock the flowers arecompletelywhiteandtheflowerheaditselfisrounded.Queen-Anne’sLaceflowerheadsare flat with a dark blackish spot in thecenterofeachflowerhead.RootsofPoisonHemlock may easily be mistaken forWildParsnips, but do not smell like parsnips.Again,whenindoubt,leaveitalone.NotesThisplantisontheFederalNoxiousWeedslistof theUSDAandhasbeen identifiedallover Virginia. This is the plant that wasreportedly used to kill Socrates, the greatphilosopherofAncientGreece,in399BC.Additional informationmaybe found inthe bibliography at the end of thispublication; refer to the followingnumberedsources:35,44,48,51.



-34-

PoisonIvyToxicodendronradicans

Poisonivycangrowasasinglesmallplant,amassofgroundcover,asmallbush,oraclimbingvinereachingmanyfeetupatreeor building. Leaves are alternate andcompound,withthreeegg-shapedleaflets(leavesofthree),withleafedgesthatvaryfrom smooth to sparsely toothed. Inmature specimens, Poison Ivy vines arecoveredwithmanyaerialroots,appearingas‘hairyropes,”upto4inchesindiameter,attached to and climbing up trees andothervines.PoisonIvyproducesclustersofsmallwhiteflowersinthespringthatinlate summer yield small white berrieslovedbybirds.

WhereitmaybeFoundPoison Ivy is native to Virginia and is acommon plant that grows on a widevariety of sites. It can be found alongforestedgesinpartialshadeandadequatesoilmoisturebutalsogrowsinfullshade,fullsun,andondrysites.Inotherwords,it’snotverypicky!WhatPart(s)ofthePlantareToxicEverypartoftheplantcontainsurushiol,atoxic, oily compound with allergenicproperties.Contactwithleavesorleaflets,roots,stemsorvines,berries–anyandallpartsoftheplantatanytimeoftheyear--cancauseanallergicreaction.Burningthisplantcanalsobedangerousasthesmokemaycauseeyeandlungirritation.


Photocredit:RichardStromberg

VMNShenandoahChapter


.

-35-

CommonSymptomsWithina fewhoursofcontact, thosewhoaresensitivetourushiolmaynoticepartsoftheirskinitchingandburning.Arashislikelytofollowwithredness,swelling,andsmallblisters.Somereactionscanbequitesevereandrequiremedicaltreatment.Look-alikesOtherplantsthathaveleavesthatlooklikePoison Ivy include Boxelder (Acernegundo) and Virginia-creeper(Parthenocissus quinquefolia) (alsodescribedinthispublication).BoxelderisaspeciesofMapletree,andisnotavine.Virginia-creeper is a vine in the Grapefamily (Vitaceae), and typically has fiveleaflets, compared to the three leafletsfound on Poison Ivy. In Virginia’sPiedmont, Poison Ivy is sometimesmistakenly called Poison Oak(Toxicodendron pubescens). Poison Oakhasthreetosevenleaflets,oftenlobedlikeanoakleaf. PoisonOak’srangeislimitedmostly to easternVirginia, ondry, sandysites.NotesPoison Ivy is a native plant and veryvaluabletowildlife. Itevenhasahistoryof ornamental use for its showy whiteflowersandbrightredfallcolor.“Leavesof three, let it be” is the helpful way toremember Poison Ivy and preventtouchingit.Inactualitythethree“leaves”areleafletsofthecompoundleaf,butthatdoesn’trhymequiteaswell!Additionalinformationmaybefoundinthe bibliography at the end of thispublication; refer to the followingnumberedsources:29,46,48,51.

Photocredit:RichardStrombergVMNShenandoahChapterPhotocredit:RichardStrombergVMNShenandoahChapter

-36-

Poison Oak Toxicodendron pubescens Plant Description Poison Oak is a native perennial shrub that generally grows to less than 3 feet in height. It is a relative of Poison Ivy but usually differs in growth form, and the stems, leaf stems, and flower petals of Poison Oak have a velvety covering. It may also be seen as single stalks close to the ground. Poison Oak leaves are compound with three leaflets that are deeply toothed or lobed with wavy or serrated edges. By contrast, Poison Ivy leaves have smooth or slightly toothed edges and the plant usually grows as a vine. Poison Oak produces small white flowers in loose clusters in early summer and later produces gray or tan berries which grow along the stems and have a velvety covering. Like Poison Ivy, autumn color is brilliant orange-red. Where it may be Found Poison Oak prefers dry habitats, particularly in rocky and sandy forests. It is infrequent throughout Virginia, but common locally in the Coastal Plain of Virginia. What Part(s) of the Plant are Toxic Every part of the plant is toxic. Like Poison Ivy, Poison Oak contains urushiol, an oily sap/resin that can cause a painful, itchy rash on the skin. Burning the plant can be dangerous, as the smoke containing urushiol may cause eye and/or serious lung injury. Sensitivity to urushiol can vary

Photo credit: Gary Fleming, DCR, VA

Photo credit: Gary Fleming, DCR, VA

Contact with poisonous plants can be dangerous. For appropriate medical advice call your local poison center at 1-800-222-1222

-37-

among people; ranging from little or no symptoms for some, to very severe reactions for others. Do not touch or handle any part of this plant as the sap may be transmitted on various items, such as clothing, tools, or pets, and persist on those items for days to weeks. Common Symptoms Within a few hours of contact with any part of this plant, those sensitive to urushiol will notice itching and burning of their skin at the site of contact. A rash is likely to follow with redness, swelling and blisters. The rash may not appear for 1-2 days after exposure, and often lasts for 2-3 weeks. The rash is very itchy and scarring can occur, especially in lesions that are scratched resulting in further skin damage. Look-alikes Poison Oak may be confused with Poison Ivy because of its “leaves of three” Also,. because of its three-leaflet configuration it may also be confused with Blackberry (Rubus species), the important difference being that Blackberry has thorns. Notes Poison Oak is a valuable plant for wildlife: White-tailed deer, raccoons, and black bears are all able to browse on this plant, eating the leaves, fruit, and even the stems. As a ground cover or shrub it can provide cover for small animals, and it can act as a path to climb up and down trees for small mammals and lizards. Additional information may be found in the bibliography at the end of this publication; refer to the following numbered sources: 5, 18, 19, 48, 51.

Photo credit: Richard Stromberg VMN Shenandoah Chapter

Photo credit: Karan A. Rawlins University of Georgia, Bugwood

-38-

PoisonSumacToxicodendronvernix

PlantDescriptionPoison Sumac is a native plant, and isrelatedtoPoisonIvyandPoisonOak,butnot to other Sumacs. It grows as adeciduousshruborsmalltree,commonly5 to 20 feet tall, but may grow taller.Poison Sumac has a leaf structureresembling a feather, with a main leafshaft,orpetiole,and leafletsarrangedoneither side of an extension of the petiolecalledarachis.Eachrachishasbetween6and12parallelrowsofovalleaflets,plusan additional single leaf at the end; allleaflets are generally 2 to 4 inches longwith smooth edges. The petioles areusuallystrikinglyredorpinkatanytimeof the growing season. Young stems aretypicallyredorred-brown,butmayfadetobrownorgreyastheplantages.Leavesonyoung plants point upwards and as theyopen in the spring they can be brightorange,changingtogreen,andthentoredin the fall. In early summer it producesclustersofsmallwhiteflowerswhichthenbecome green berries that fade towhiteduring thewinter.Theberriesmake thisplant an important food source forwildlife.

WhereitmaybeFoundInfrequent in the Coastal Plain areas ofsoutheast Virginia, and rare in thePiedmont and mountains. It grows inacidicswamps,bogs,andmoistclearings.

Photocredit:Alison SowarVMNNorthern NeckChapter

Photocredit:Alison SowarVMNNorthern NeckChapter


-39-

WhatPart(s)ofthePlantareToxicAllpartsofthisplantaretoxic.LikePoisonIvy and PoisonOak (also described in thispublication), Poison Sumac contains thetoxic oily resin urushiol that can cause apainfulskinrash.Evendry,fallenleavesaswellasstems,branches,andtwigs,cancauseanirritatingrashiftouched.AndlikePoisonIvyandOak,burningofanypartofthisplantisdangerous,asthesmokecancauseseveresymptomsanddamagetoeyesandlungs.

CommonSymptomsA painful, itchy rash may appear on theskinatthesiteofcontactafewhoursaftertouching the plant (see Poison Oak orPoisonIvyformoredetailsonsymptoms).Washing theexposed skinwithsoapandwater as soon as possible may helpremovethetoxicresin.

Look-alikesSuperficially, Poison Sumac resemblesTree-of-Heaven (Ailanthus altissima) orevenBlackWalnut (Juglansnigra),whichgrowindrieruplandsites,andaremuchmore common in areas where PoisonSumac does not grow. True Sumacs(shrubs of the genus Rhus), such asStaghornSumac,SmoothSumac,AromaticSumac, and Winged Sumac resemblePoison Sumac,however, the trueSumacsare mostly upland shrubs, and are nottoxictohumanswhenhandledoringested.

NotesPoisonIvy,PoisonOak,andPoisonSumacareallmembersof thesameplant family(the Cashew family: Anacardiaceae) andgenus;however,PoisonSumaclooksverydifferent.Lookforasmall,openshrub,inwet areas of low land.Though theotherSumacsdonot containurushiol,when indoubt,don’ttouch,pick,orattempttoeatthe fruit, until you are sure which isnontoxic.




-40-

RhododendronandAzaleaRhododendronspeciesPlantDescriptionsThe Flora of Virginia lists nine differentspecies of Rhododendrons and Azaleas,found in Virginia, all of which arepoisonous. Both Rhododendrons andAzaleasaremembersof theheath family(Ericaceae). There are two basiccategories of plants in this group, thelarge-leaf evergreen Rhododendrons andthe deciduous native Azaleas.Rhododendronshavelarge,leatherydarkgreen leaves and when in bloom arecoveredwithball trussesof flowers, thatis,ballsoftubularflowerswithpetalsthatflare out, and long showy stamens. ThenativeAzaleasaredeciduousandproducetheir showy flowersbefore leafingout inthe spring, and so have a very differentlook fromtheevergreenRhododendrons.ThenonnativeevergreenAzaleasfoundincultivationthroughouttheeasternU.S.arenot covered here. All the nativeRhododendrons and Azaleas are shrubs,withsomegrowingtoheightofsmalltrees,andareveryshade-tolerant.SweetAzalea,SmoothAzaleaRhododendronarborescensAlarge,rounded, loosely-branchedshrub5to10feettall,and4to8feetwide.Thisdeciduous native Azalea has glossy ovalleaves2to4incheslong.ItflowersMaytoJulyandhasfragrant(vanillaandjasmine)white-torose-coloredflowersmadeupof1½inch-longtubeswithshowyredstylesandfilaments.Thisspeciesisveryrare.

RhododendrumcatawbiensePhotocredit:Dr.EricJonesVMNHeadwatersChapter

RhododendronarborescensPhotocredit:Fritz-Flor-Reynolds-CC-NC

Contactwithpoisonousplantscanbedangerous.Forappropriatemedicaladvicecallyourlocalpoisoncenterat1-800-222-1222

-41-

DwarfAzalea,CoastAzaleaRhododendronatlanticumA small compact shrub 1 to4 feet tall. Adeciduous native Azalea with elliptical,smooth,lightblue-greenleaves,¾to2½incheslong.ThisplantflowersfromApriltoMayandhaswhitetopinkflowerswithalightspicyfragrance.FlameAzaleaRhododendroncalendulaceumAtall,archingshrub8to15feettalland5to 8 feet wide. This deciduous nativeAzalea has 2- to 5-inch long, oval, light-greenleaves.FloweringfromMaytoJune,theflowersaretrumpet-like,2incheslongand2½incheswide,yellowtoapricot toorange-red, with no fragrance. It has aspectacularpresenceintheforestwheninbloom. CatawbaRhododendron,PinkLaurelRhododendroncatawbienseThisshruborsmalltreegrows4to10feettalland5to12feetwide.Ithasevergreen,lustrous,leatherydarkgreenleaves2to6inches long, oval to oblong in shape. ItsleavescanbedistinguishedfromtheotherevergreenRhododendroninthisgroupbyits rolled-under leaf margins. It flowersApril through June and is covered withrose-pinktolilac-coloredflowerballs. CumberlandAzaleaRhododendroncumberlandenseA similar plant to the Flame Azalea, thisshrubgrows3to5feettall,ingeneral,upto 9 feet tall, and 3 to 4 feet wide. Thisdeciduousplant’sleavesare1to2incheslong,egg-shapedandglossydarkgreen.Itflowers June through July, and hascrimson-redtoorange-redflowers,similartothoseoftheFlameAzalea.

RhododendronatlanticumPhotocredit:James Gaither CC-BY-NC-ND

RhododendroncalendulaceumPhotocredit:DonHearlVMNOldRagChapter

RhododendroncatawbiensePhotocredit:Dr.EricJonesVMNHeadwatersDistrict

RhododendroncumberlandensePhotocredit:Holly Taylor CC-BY-NC-ND

-42-

GreatRhododendron,GreatLaurelRhododendronmaximumThisshruborsmalltreegrows6to10feetcommonly, but can be up to 30 feet tall,and4to15feetwide.Itcaneasilyformthe“Rhododendron Hells” found in theAppalachian mountains -- dense andextensive thickets that provide greathabitat formany animals. The evergreenleaves are up to8 inches long, oblong toegg-shaped to elliptical, and flatter thanthe Catawba Rhododendron discussedabove.ThismagnificentplantbloomsJunetoAugustwith rose-pink towhite flowerballs made up of tubular flowers withflaredpetalsandshowystamens.

WildAzalea,PinxterAzaleaRhododendronpericlymenoidesAsmallshrubthatgrowsto6feettalland3 to 5 feet wide. This plant’s deciduousleavesare1to3 inches long,elliptical tooblong-ovate. It flowers from March toMay and has light to dark-pink to whiteflowers.Someplantshaveslightlyfragrantflowers,othershavenodiscerniblefragrance.

EarlyAzalea,RoseAzaleaRhododendronprinophyllumAsmallshrub,usually7to8feettallwithanequalspread,butmaybeupto15feettallinshadierconditions.ThesedeciduousAzaleas have 1 to 3 inch medium greenleaves that are elliptic to oblong to egg-shaped. Flowering fromMay to June, theflowersarebrightpinktowhiteandhaveafainthoneysuckleorclovefragrance.SwampAzaleaRhododendronviscosumAshrubbyplantrangingfrom1to15feettall,butgenerallyfrom4to10feet,and3to 5 feet wide. This plant’s deciduousleavesare1to3incheslong,glossygreen,

RhododendronmaximumPhotocredit:Dr.EricJonesVMNHeadwatersDistrict

RhododendronpericlymenoidesPhotocredit:PatTemplesVMNOldRagChapterRhododendronprinophyllumPhotocredit:WillPollardCC-BY-ND

-43-

andelliptictooblonginshape.Floweringfrom May to June the white (or rarely,pink) blossoms have an intensehoneysuckle-clovefragrance.WhereTheymaybeFoundThe Sweet or Smooth Azalea is foundthroughout themountains andPiedmontofVirginia,inrockyforestareasandalongstreambanks.TheDwarforCoastAzaleais found in dry to damp acidic forests,pineywoodlandsandclearings,especiallythe Pine Barrens of coastal Virginia. TheFlame Azalea is found in a variety ofhabitats,mostoften inacidic,oak forestsandislimitedtothesouthernandcentralmountainsofVirginia.ThePinkLaurelorCatawba Rhododendron is found in dry,acidic forests on sheltered slopes, rockyridges, cliffs and balds, and acidic coveforests in the central and southern BlueRidge mountains of Virginia. TheCumberland Azalea grows in mountainforests andwoodlands in theBlueRidgeand Piedmont. It is restricted to the 5counties at Virginia's southwest tip only.TheGreatLaurelorGreatRhododendronis found in acidic dry forests, swamps,rocky stream bottoms throughout themountains of Virginia, but morecommonlyinthesouthernBlueRidgeandsouthern Piedmont. The Wild Azalea orPinxter Azalea is found in moist to dryacidic forests and streambanksthroughout Virginia. The Early Azalea orRoseAzaleagrowsindrymountainforestsand woodlands, especially oak forests inthecentralBlueRidgeandPiedmont,mostoften atmiddle to higher elevations. TheSwamp Azalea is found in swamps andbogsandwetflatlandforests,mostlyintheCoastalPlainsofVirginia.

RhododendronviscosumPhotocredit:Fritz-Flohr-ReynoldsCC-NC

WhatPart(s)ofthePlant(s)areToxicEating any part of the plant, the leaves,flowers,stems,orevenhoneymadefromthenectar,istoxic.Peoplemaymistakethenative deciduousAzalea for the commonnonnative Honeysuckle (Loniceracaprifolium) and eat the nectar,inadvertentlypoisoningthemselvesduetomisidentification. Grayanotoxin is theactive component and grayanotoxin-containinghoney,called“madhoney,”cancausenegativeeffectswheneaten.CommonSymptomsGrayanotoxin’smostsevereeffects resultin heart and nervous systemcomplications. Ifsmallamountsofanyoftheseplantsareingested,mouthirritation,salivation,nausea,vomiting,anddiarrheacan result. Ingestion of greater amounts,especiallyofhoneymadefromthenectar,can cause confusion, muscle weakness,low blood pressure, lowered heart rate,seizures,andanirregularheartbeat,whichcanbelife-threatening.Look-alikesSome of the deciduous azaleas might bemistaken for the common Honeysuckleduringthebloomperiod.Additionalinformationmaybefoundinthe bibliography at the end of thispublication; refer to the followingnumberedsources:3,8,23,28,51.

-44-

Virginia-creeper Parthenocissus quinquefolia

PlantDescriptionA vigorous perennial, woody, deciduousvine with palmately-compound leavesmadeupoffiveelliptical,toothedleaflets.Leaves are found alternately on the vineandgenerallyare4to8inchesacross.Thematureleavesaredarkgreenincolorwithaglaucousunderside,thatis,coveredwitha bluish-green waxy or powdery bloom.The vine may grow prostrate on theground, or vertically on trees or otherplants and structuresusing tendrilswithstickytips.Thevinesmaygrowquitelong,from50to100feet.Stemsareroundandlight brown with a white pith. Flowersappearinthelatespringtoearlysummer,but are small, green, and inconspicuous.Berries,maturinginthelatesummerandfall, are dark purple to black and aregenerallynoticeableonlyafter the leavesdrop.WhereitmaybeFoundVirginia-creeperisacommonnativeplantwhich grows abundantly throughoutVirginia in forests, forestedgesandopenland,inbothwetanddrysoils,andinrockcrevices.Itisverytolerantofavarietyofenvironmental conditions; although it islesscommonathigherelevations.WhichPart(s)ofthePlantareToxicAllpartsoftheplantaretoxictohumansandothermammals.Boththeberriesandleavescontainasignificantconcentrationof calcium oxalate crystals (raphides)which damage soft tissue and in somepeoplethecrystalsmayirritateskin.




-45-

CommonSymptomsClinicaleffectsofingestionincludeintensemouth pain, nausea, diarrhea, vomiting,andabdominalpain.Swellingofthemouthandthroatmaycauseairwayclosureandasphyxiation. Dermatitis may form on aperson’s skin similar to a mild case ofPoisonIvy,Look-alikesOtherplantsthathaveleavesthatlooklikeVirginia-creeper include Poison Ivy(Toxicodendron radicans) and Boxelder(Acernegundo).PoisonIvy,whichisalsoavineandwhichisdiscussedseparatelyinthis publication, typically has 3 leaflets("Leaves of three, let it be!"), whereasVirginia-creeper has 5 leaflets. YoungseedlingsoftheBoxeldertreesuperficiallyresemble Virginia-creeper (and PoisonIvy). Boxelder seedlings grow to becomelargetreeswithgreentwigsandoppositecompound leaves with three to sevenleaflets.NotesVirginia-creeper is a hardy, attractive,nativeplantproviding landscape interestin three seasons: in spring, when leavesemergered;insummerwhenleavesturnalustrousdarkgreen;andespeciallyinthefall when foliage turns a brilliant red.Virginia-creepermaybeapreferredplantfor climbing architectural surfacesbecause it climbs using adhesive tips,rather than by rootlets like other vinesthatcandamagebuildingsurfaces.Theberriesareahighlyprizedfoodforbirds,especiallyspeciesresidentinwinter. It isalso the host plant to a number ofimportant sphinx moths, including thebeautifulVirginia-creepersphinxmoth.Additional information may be found in the bibliography at the end of this publication; refer to the following numbered sources: 31, 51, 55.



-46-

Water-hemlockCicutamaculataPlantDescriptionWater-hemlock, also known as SpottedWater-hemlock or Spotted Cowbane, is anattractive perennial herbaceous plant. It issaid to be among the most toxic plantsgrowinginVirginia.Leavesaretwo-orthree-pinnately compound. The stem is tinged,mottled,orstreakedwithpurple,andisstoutandsmooth.Thisplantcangrowfrom2to9feet in height. Flowers are umbrella-likeclusters (umbels) that grow 2 to 6 incheswide. Individual flowers are tiny andwhite.Water-hemlock blooms in summer and fall,JunethroughSeptember.Athigherelevationsflowersappearearlier,inJune,orJuly.WhereitmaybeFoundWater-hemlock is a native plant commonthroughoutVirginia.Itcanbefoundnearwater;streambanks,ponds,swampsandwetseepageareasofmeadowsandpastures.WhatPart(s)ofthePlantareToxicWater-hemlock is considered one of NorthAmerica’s most toxic plants, being highlypoisonoustohumans.Allpartsoftheplantarepoisonous, though the roots are particularlypoisonous.Cicutoxin,aclearbrownishresin,is the lethal toxin found inthisplant.Donothandlethisplant.

Photocredit:GaryFleming,DCRVAPhotocredit:DeeDeeLyonVMNOldRagChapter


-47-

CommonSymptomsReported symptoms include severestomach pain, pupil dilation, nausea,vomiting, diarrhea, difficulty breathing,violent convulsions, and frothing of themouth. Seizures not responsive tomedicationcanbeginsoonafteringestion.Death can occur within 15 minutes to 8hoursafteringestion.Poisonedpersonscanasphyxiate on their own vomit and shredtheir tongue with their teeth since theycannotopentheirjaws.Look-alikesWater-hemlock is even more dangerousbecause of the fact that there are severalpoisonous “look alike” species, such asPoisonHemlockandWildParsnip(bothofwhich are described elsewhere in thispublication), as well as non-poisonousplants including Carrot, Parsley andParsnips.NotesSome Native American tribes are said tohaveusedWater-hemlocktopoisontipsofarrowsforhuntingpurposes.Additionalinformationmaybefoundinthe bibliography at the end of thispublication; refer to the followingnumberedsources:26,48,51.51.

Photocredit:JohnHiltiIllinoisWildflowers.org

Photocredit:JohnHiltiIllinoisWildflowers.org

-48-

WhiteBaneberryActaeapachypodaPlantDescriptionThisnative,perennial,herbaceousplanthaserect stems growing from 1 to 3 feet tall,with 2 to 3 compound leaves that havedeeply lobed and sharply-toothed edgedleaflets.Theflowerstalkextendsabovethefoliageandistippedwithadenseclusterofsmallwhite flowers thatbloom fromAprilto June. The flowers produce a cluster ofsmall,white,orrarelyred,berriesinthelatesummerandfall.Whenfruitsaremature,aprominent, dark spot (the stigma scar) isverynoticeableontheberry.Thestemsofthefruitbecomethickandturnbrightred.Thisplantissometimescalled“Dolls’-Eyes”because the shiny white berries with thedark stigma scar resemble the eyes onceusedinChinadolls.WhereitmaybeFoundWhiteBaneberrycommonlygrowsinshadyoak or oak/hickory forests and low-lyingwet,shadyareas.Itisacommonplantofthemountains,butrareinthePiedmontandtheCoastalPlain.WhatPart(s)ofthePlantareToxicAllpartsoftheplantsaretoxicifingested,but most human toxicity has beenassociated with ingestion of the berries,which are themost poisonous part of theplant. The berries contain cardiogenictoxinsthatcanhaveanimmediatesedativeeffectonthehumanheart.




-49-

CommonSymptomsSymptoms include burning of the mouthand throat, salivation, severe stomachcramps, headache, diarrhea, dizziness andhallucinations. Contact with the plant cancausearash,pain,andblisteringoftheskinand mucous membranes when ingested.Whentheberrieshaveanalmostimmediatesedativeeffectonthehumanheartandcanlead to cardiac arrest if enough areconsumed. The bitter taste and irritatingpropertiesoftheplantoftenlimithowmuchis ingested. There have been no reporteddeathsfromWhiteBaneberryingestion.Notes:Children should be closely monitoredaround White Baneberry as they may beattracted to the pretty berries. Whitebaneberryisoftengrownasanornamentalbecause of its bushy habit and attractivefruit.Birdsareimmunetothetoxinsotheyareabletoeattheberries.Smallmammalswilleat theseeds,butnot thepulp.NativeAmericans used it medicinally fornumerous ailments and were reported tohaveusedthejuiceoftheberriesonarrowtips as a way of incapacitating theirenemies.Additionalinformationmaybefoundinthe bibliography at the end of thispublication; refer to the followingnumberedsources:31,34,51.

Photocredit:PatTemplesVMNOldRagChapterPhotocredit:NickyStantonNativePlantNaturalist

-50-

WhiteSnakerootAgeratinaaltissimaPlantDescriptionWhiteSnakerootisaherbaceousperennialthat isnative toVirginia.WhiteSnakerootgrows to a height of 18 to 48 inches. Theleaves are opposite and pointed-oval totriangular-oval in shape,with toothed leafedges (margins). Leaves can be up to 5incheslongand3½inchesacross,becomingsmallernearthetopofthestem.Theleavesare darker green on the tops and lightergreen on the undersides.Many tinywhiteflowers, in rounded, compound clusters,bloomnearthetopofthestalkfromAugustthroughOctober.Theflowerclusterscanbeupto6inchesacross. WhereitmaybeFoundWhite Snakeroot can be found in uplandforests, forest edges, thickets, and open,disturbed areas. White Snakeroot prefersmoistsoilsinpartialsuntolightshade.Itiscommoninthemountains, frequent in thePiedmont, infrequent in the inner CoastalPlain,andrareintheouterCoastalPlain.WhatPart(s)ofthePlantareToxic?All parts of the plant are toxic. WhiteSnakerootcontainsatoxincalledtremetol,which causes “trembles” in livestock and“milksickness”inhumans.Therearecasesof toxicity in humanswho drank themilkfrom cows that had consumed largequantitiesofWhiteSnakeroot.




-51-

CommonSymptomsSymptomsoftremetolpoisoningbeginwithloss of appetite, nausea, vomiting and/ordiarrhea.Itcausesabuild-upofacidsintheblood, which can result in lethargy, coma,dysfunctionofmultiple organs, and death.Muscle weakness, incoordination, andtremorscanalsooccur.NotesTherewasanepidemicof“milksickness”inthe 1800swhich occurred in settlerswhoatemeat or dairy products from livestockthathadeatentheplant.AbrahamLincoln’smotherreputedlydiedof“milksickness,”inOctober1818,at theageof34, twoweeksafter becoming sick. Frontier doctor AnnaPierce Hobbs Bixby consulted with aShawneewomaninthemid-1830stolearnthecauseofthedisease.Sheconfirmedthetransmission of the toxin from plant tolivestocktohumans.Additionalinformationmaybefoundinthe bibliography at the end of thispublication; refer to the followingnumberedsources:9,27,31,45,50,51.



-52-

WildParsnipPastinacasativaPlantDescriptionWildParsnipisanonnativebiennialplant:In its firstyearthisplanthasarosetteofleaves that are alternate, compound, andbranched,with jagged teeth. Leaflets areyellowish-green, shiny, oblong, coarsely-toothed, and diamond-shaped. In itssecondseasontheplantproducesastemthatcanreachaheightof4feet.Stemsareerect, thick, hollow, and ribbed, andtopped by an umbel, a flat or curvedcluster of small yellow flowers whichconsist of several short flower stalksspreading out from a common point,somewhat like umbrella ribs. It flowersfromMay to June but only in the secondseason. Seeds are pale brown, flat, andwinged. The taproot is fleshy or fibrous.Plants die after producing seeds in theirsecondyear.WhereitmaybeFoundThis plant grows mainly in sunny areasand has a preference for dry soils. It iscommonly found along roadsides,pastures, and in abandoned fields. WildParsnip is common in the mountains,infrequentinthePiedmont,andrareintheCoastalPlain.WhatPart(s)ofthePlantareToxicThoughtherootofWildParsnipisediblein its first year, the leavesand the stemsarenot.Thesapoftheleavesandthestemsof this plant contain chemicals that inhumans can be phototoxic,meaning thathandling the stems and the foliage cancause a skin rash after exposure tosunlight. The skin rash is similar to thatcaused by Poison Ivy. Wear gloves, longsleeves,andlongpantswhenhandlingthisplant.Peopleshouldbeverycarefulwhilehandlingthisplant--oravoiditaltogether.

Photocredit:GaryFleming

DCR,VAPhotocredit:BrentFurbee,MD

IndianaUniversity

Contactwith poisonous plantscan be dangerous. Forappropriatemedicaladvicecallyourlocalpoisoncenterat1-800-222-1222.

-53-

CommonSymptomsSymptoms of phytophotodermatitis onskinthathasbeenincontactwiththeplantincluderedness,burning,andblisters.Thesymptoms reported have mostly beenmild tomoderate, compared forexampletoGiantHogweed (also discussed in thispublication) and other phototoxic plants.However, afflicted skin areas can remaindiscolored for up to two years. Thesymptoms can be more severe whenexposedtotheplant’ssaponasunnyday.Look-alikesPoison Hemlock and Water-hemlock areclose in appearance and are oftenconfusedwithWildParsnip.BothHemlockplantsarehighlytoxic(andbotharealsodiscussedinthispublication).ThefoliageofPoisonHemlockhasamouse-likeodorwhile the foliage of Wild Parsnip has aParsnip-likeodor.Water-hemlockpreferswethabitatswhereasWildParsnipprefersdriersoils.NotesWild Parsnip is the wild state of thecultivatedParsnip,andinitsfirstyearthetaprootcanbeeaten.However,becauseofpossible confusion with highly toxicPoisonHemlockandWater-hemlock,oneshould be extremely cautious handlingoreatinganypartofthisplant.Additionalinformationmaybefoundinthe bibliography at the end of thispublication; refer to the followingnumberedsources:36,51,57.

Photocredit:PatrickJ.AlexanderHostedbyUSDA-NRCSPlantsDatabasePhotocredit:NewYorkStateDepartmentofEnvironmentalConservation(NYSDEC)

-54-

GlossaryAlkaloids

A class of naturally occurring organic compounds that are especially common incertain familiesofplants.Theyhavepronouncedphysiological actionsonhumansandincludemanydrugs(morphine,quinine)andpoisons(atropine,strychnine).

Allergenic Causingallergicsensitization;causinganallergicreaction.AlternateLeaf

Inanalternateleafarrangement,thereisoneleafperplantnodeandtheyalternatesides.Theoppositeleafletsformtheentiretrueleaf,whichalternatesonthestem.

Anther

Thepartofthestamenwherepollenisproduced.Arrhythmia Aconditioninwhichtheheartbeatswithanirregularorabnormalrhythm.Basal

Anarrangementof leavesradiating fromashortstemat thegroundsurface.Mostbiennialplantshavearosetteformduringtheirfirstgrowingseason.

Biennial

Afloweringplantthattakestwoyearstocompleteitsbiologicallifecycle.Inthefirstyear,theplantgrowsleaves,stems,androots(vegetativestructures),thenitentersaperiod of dormancy over the colder months. It emerges in the second year andproduces a flower stalk,where theplantundergoes the reproductive process andproducesseeds.

Calciumoxalate

A common biomineral (mineral produced by living things) in some plants whichoccursascrystalsofvariousshapesthatcauseirritationofsofttissuesinhumans.Itcanbefoundinanytissueororganinsomeplants.Kidneystonesinhumansaremadeofcalciumoxalatecrystals.

Cardioactive

Of,orrelatingto,adrugorothersubstanceaffectingthefunctionoftheheart.Cicutoxin

A naturally-occurring poisonous chemical compound produced by several plantsfromthefamilyApiaceaeincludingwaterhemlock(Cicutaspecies)

-55-

CompoundleafA leaf divided into two ormore distinct leaflets. A compound leaf may be eitherpinnatelycompoundorpalmatelycompound.

Coniine

A neurotoxin that causes death bymuscular paralysis and asphyxiation; found inPoisonHemlock.

Corm

Ashort,vertical,swollenundergroundplantstemthatservesasastorageorganthatsome plants use to survive winter or other adverse conditions such as summerdroughtandheat.

Corolla

Collectively,allofthepetalsofaflower.Cultivar Aplantproducedbyselectivebreeding.Deciduous

Thewordmeans"fallingoffatmaturity"and"tendingtofalloff,"inreferencetotreesandshrubsthatseasonallyshedleaves,usuallyintheautumn.

Diaphoretic Amedicineorotheragentthatproducesperspiration.Digitalis

The genus of about 20 species of herbaceous perennials, biennials, and shrubscommonly called Foxgloves. A marketed drug prepared from the dried leaves ofFoxgloveandcontainingcardiacglycosidesthatstimulatetheheartmuscle.SimilartoDigoxin,butdiffersintreatmentandeffects.

Digitoxin

AtypeofcardiacglycosidefoundintheFoxglove.Similartotheeffectsofdigoxin(seebelow),digitoxinwasnotaseffectiveintreatingheartailmentsandisrarelyusedinWesternmedicine.

Digoxin

Atypeofcardiacglycosidefoundinsomeplants,particularlyFoxglove.Itwasusedasadrugtotreat irregularheartbeatandsometypesofheart failure. It isalsobeingstudied in the treatment of some types of cancer. Digoxin helps the heart worknormallybycontrollingtheamountofcalciumthatgoesintotheheartmuscle.Italsomaykillcancercellsandmakethemmoresensitivetoanticancerdrugs.Digoxinisalsothepropernameofthemarketeddrugthatcontainstheglycosidedigoxin.

-56-

Diuretic Amedicineorotheragentthatincreasestheflowofurine.Ellipticleaf

Asimpleleafshapedlikeanellipse.Asimpleleafisaleafthatisnotdividedintoparts. Ephemeral

Transitoryorquicklyfading.Anephemeralplantisonemarkedbyshortlifecycles.Filaments

Thestamenofaflower—thepartthatproducespollen—consistsofaslenderstalk,calledafilament,andananther.Thefilamentsupportstheanther,whichiswherepollendevelops.

Furocoumarins

Furocoumarins in the sap of a plant can cause a skin reaction calledphytophotodermatitis,whichcausestheskintobeverysensitivetoultravioletlight(sunlight).

Glaucous

Coveredwithabluish-greenwaxyorpowderybloomonthesurfacesofsomeplantsthatcanberubbedoff.

Glycosides

Acompoundformedfromasimplesugarandanothercompoundbyreplacementofahydroxylgroup(whichisahydrogenatombondedtoanoxygenatom)inthesugarmolecule.Manydrugsandpoisonsderivedfromplantsareglycosides.

GrandMalSeizure

Agrandmalseizurecausesalossofconsciousnessandviolentmusclecontractions:Amedicalemergency!

Grayanotoxin

AtoxinfoundinthenectarofsomespeciesofRhododendronandotherplantsofthefamilyEricaceaeandinfoodmadefromtheirnectar,suchasunpasteurizedhoney;itispoisonoustohumansandanimals.

Herbaceous

Plantsthathavenon-woodystems.Theirabove-groundgrowthlargelyortotallydiesback inwinter in thetemperatezone,but theymayhaveundergroundplantparts(roots,bulbs,etc.)thatsurvive.

Leaflet

Eachoftheleaflikestructuresthattogethermakeupacompoundleaf.

-57-

LobedleafAleafhavingdeeplyindentedmargins.

Neurotoxin

Apoisonthatactsonthenervoussystembydisruptingthenormalfunctionofnervecells

Node Theplaceonastemwherealeaforbranchis(orwas)attached.Ovateleaf

Anegg-shapedleafwiththebroaderendatthebase;asimpleleaforaleafthatisnotdividedintoparts.

Oxalicacid

Atoxinthatcausesirritation,swellingandblisteringofthemouth,lips,tongueandthroat,diarrhea,nauseaandvomiting,andslurredspeech.Itoccursnaturallyinmanyfoods, but excessive ingestion of oxalic acid or prolonged skin contact can bedangerous.Largedosescancausekidneydamage.

Palmateleaf

Having three or more veins, leaflets, or lobes radiating from one point; a leafresemblinganopenhand.

Panicle Aloosebranchingclusterofflowers.Perennial Aplantthatlivesmorethantwoyears.Petal

Eachofthesegmentsofthecorolla,orflower,whicharemodifiedleavesorsepalsandarecoloredorwhite.Together,allofthepetalsofaflowerarecalledacorolla.

Petiole Thestalkthatjoinsaleaftoastem;leafstalk.Phototoxic

The light-sensitizing characteristic of some botanical substances such asfurocoumarinsthatcausephytophotodermatitis.

Phytophotodermatitis

An inflammatory eruption (blisters) of the skin resulting from contact withphototoxicsubstances,thatreactwithlong-waveultravioletlight,e.g.sunlight.Theresulting condition is similar to a severe, painful sunburn. The effects may beintensifiedbywetskin,sweating,andheat.

-58-

PinnateThearrangementofleafletsgrowingonoppositesidesoftheleafstem,orrachis,ofacompoundleaf.

Podophyllin

One of a number of compounds found in the resin extracted from the roots ofMayapple (Podophyllum peltatum) and from which is derived the drugpodophyllotoxin.Podophyllinisinaclassofagentsthatareusedtotreatcorns,warts,andcertainotherskindiseases.

Rachis Astemofaplantbearingflowerstalksatshortintervals.Raphides

Aneedle-shapedcrystalofcalciumoxalateoccurringinclusterswithinthetissuesofcertainplants.

Rhizome

Amodifiedstemofaplantthatisusuallyfoundunderground,oftensendingoutrootsandshootsfromitsnodes.

Rhizomatous

Having,resembling,orbeingarhizome:Aplantwithrhizomes.RootCrown

Theplacewheretheplantstemmeetstheroots.Therootcrownismostlylocatedjustbelowthesoillevelbutissometimesalsofoundabovesoillevel.Therootcrownneedssufficientaccesstoairtobreathe.

Rosette

Acirculararrangementofleavesorotherplantparts,usuallynearthesoil.Sap

The fluid, chiefly water with dissolved sugars and mineral salts, that circulatesthroughaplant.

Saponinglycosides

Plantglycosidesthatpossessthedistinctpropertyofformingsoapylatherinwater.Sepals

Eachofthepartsofthecalyx,acup-likestructure,ofaflower,enclosingthepetalsandtypicallygreenandleaflike.

Simpleleaf

Asingleleafthatisneverdividedintosmallerleafletunits.

-59-

SolanineA poison found in species of the Nightshade family within the genus Solanum. Itoccursnaturallyinanypartoftheplant,includingtheleaves,fruit,andtubers.Largeamounts are toxic, but the amounts usually found in foods, such as potatoes,tomatoes,andeggplant,areinnocuous.Itispoorlyabsorbedbythebody,andrapidlyexcreted.

Spadix

Aspikeofminuteflowerscloselyarrangedaroundafleshyaxisandtypicallyenclosedina spathe, as in the flowerof the Jack-in-the-pulpit.Commonlyseen in theArumfamily,Araceae.

Spathe

Alargeleaf-likepartthatsurroundsaspadix.Stamen

Thepollenproducingpartofaflower,usuallywithaslenderfilamentsupportingtheanther.

Steroids

Abiologicallyactiveorganiccompound.Plantsteroidsconstituteadiversegroupofnaturalproducts;plantscontainingtoxicalkaloidsincludeAmericanFalseHellebore.

Styles

Astructurefoundwithintheflower.Itisalong,slenderstalkthatconnectsthestigmaandtheovary.Thestigma isat thetopof thestyleand isastickyplatformwherepollenisdeposited.

Taproot

Astraighttaperingrootgrowingverticallydownwardandformingthecenterfromwhichsubsidiaryrootletsspring.

Tendril

Aslenderthreadlikeappendageofaclimbingplant,oftengrowinginaspiralform,thatstretchesoutandtwinesaroundanysuitablesupport.

Toothedleaf

Aleafthathasanirregularlynotched,fringed,scalloped,ortoothededge,asthoughgnawed.

Toxin

Achemicalsubstancewhichdamagesanorganism.

-60-

TremetoneThemainconstituentintremetol,atoxinfoundinanumberofdifferentspeciesofthefamily Asteraceae, including Snakeroot (Ageratina altissima) that causes milksicknessinhumansandtremblesinlivestock.

TropaneAlkaloids

Aclassofalkaloidsthatconsistofaparticularstructurecalledtropane.ThesetropanealkaloidsoccurnaturallyinmanymembersoftheNightshadefamily,suchasClimbingNightshadeandEasternBlackNightshade,andtheDatura speciessuchas Jimson-weed.

Tuber

Aswollen,fleshy,usuallyundergroundoutgrowthofthestemorrhizomeofaplant,suchasthepotato,bearingbudsfromwhichnewplantshootsarise.

Umbel

A flat-toppedor convex clusterof flowers that consistsofshort flower stalks thatspread from a common point. This cluster resembles the ribs or spokes of anumbrella.Umbelscanbemadeupofcompoundorsimpleclusters.

Urushiol

Atoxic,oilysubstancefoundinPoisonIvy,PoisonOak,andPoisonSumac,whichistheactiveallergenintheseplants.DerivesfromtheJapanesewordforlacquer,urushi.

Waif

Anunusualspeciesfoundinthewildthatisnonnativeandiseitherunsuccessfulatreproductionwithouthuman intervention, oronly persists a few generations andthendisappears.

-61-

BibliographicReferencesIncludescitationsforeachplant,aswellasgeneralreferencesforadditionalinformation.PrintReferences1. BurrowsGE,TyrlRJ.ToxicplantsofNorthAmerica.2nded.Hoboken:Wiley-

Blackwell.2013.2. ChanTYK.AconitepoisoningfollowingthepercutaneousabsorptionofAconitum

alkaloids.ForensicScienceInternational2012;223:25-7.3. CullinaW.Nativetrees,shrubs,&vines.Boston:HoughtonMifflin.2002.4. FrohneD,PfänderHJ.Poisonousplants:ahandbookfordoctors,pharmacists,

toxicologists,biologists,andveterinarians.Alford,I,transl.London:MansonPub.,Ltd.2005.Transl.fromGerman.Includesglossary.Foxglove,p.350-2.

5. KimY,FlammA,ElSohlyM,et.al.PoisonIvy,Oak,andSumacDermatitis:WhatisKnownandWhatisNew?In:Dermatitis,2019;30(3):183-190.

6. MurrayV.Toxicplants.In:DescotesJ,ed.,HumanToxicology.1sted.Amsterdam:Elsevier;1996.

7. NelsonLS,ShihRD,BalickMJ.Handbookofpoisonousandinjuriousplants.2nded.NewYork:NewYorkBotanicalGarden&Springer.2007.Foxglove,p.161,Lily-of-the-valley,p.133-4.

8. OttesenC.Thenativeplantprimer.NewYork:HarmonyBooks.1995.9. SnivelyW,FurbeeL.DiscovereroftheCauseofMilkSickness.In:

JAMA,1966;196(12):1055-1060.10. UlbrichtC,BaschE,CheungL,GoldbergH,HammernessP,IsaacR,KhalsaKP,Romm

A,RychlikI,VargheseM,etal.AnEvidence-BasedSystematicReviewofElderberryandElderflower(Sambucusnigra)bytheNaturalStandardResearchCollaboration.JDietary.Suppl.2014;11(1):80-120.

11. WeakleyAS,ChristopherLJ,TownsendJF.Crowder,B,ed.FloraofVirginia.FortWorth:BotanicalInstituteofResearchPress.2012.

12. WestbrooksRG,PreacherJW.PoisonousplantsofeasternNorthAmerica.Columbia:Univ.ofSouthCarolinaPress.1986.

ElectronicReferences13. AmericanAssociationforClinicalChemistry.Monkshood.©2019American

AssociationforClinicalChemistry.https://www.aacc.org/community/divisions/tdm-and-toxicology/toxin-library/monkshood.[accessed2019June21].

14. AngiospermPhylogenyGroup.AnUpdateoftheAngiospermPhylogenyGroupclassificationforordersandfamiliesoffloweringplants:APGIII.BotanicalJoftheLinneanSociety.2009,161(2):105-121.https://academic.oup.com/botlinnean/article/161/2/105/2418337[accessed2020May2].

15. BebeauGD.FriendsoftheWildFlowerGarden,Inc.BlackNightshade,SolanumnigrumL.(SolanumptycanthumDunal).

-62-

https://www.friendsofeloisebutler.org/pages/plants/blacknightshade.html.[accessed2019June23].

16. BebeauGD.FriendsoftheWildFlowerGarden,Inc.ClimbingNightshade(BittersweetNightshade,WoodNightshade,Dulcamara,Felonwood).©2013.https://www.friendsofeloisebutler.org/pages/plants/bittersweetnightshade.html[accessed2019August19].

17. Botanical.com.AModernHerbalbyMrs.M.Grieve.Aconite.https://botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/a/aconi007.html.[accessed2019June21].

18. BoydJE,RuckerJ.NoIllNature:TheSurprisingHistoryandScienceofPoisonIvyandItsRelatives.ScienceHistoryInstitute.2013.https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/no-ill-nature-the-surprising-history-and-science-of-poison-ivy-and-its-relatives[accessed2020Feb3].

19. DunphyJ.PoisonIvy,Oak,andSumacInformationCenter-(www.poisonivy.us).©1999-2019.https://poisonivy.aesir.com/view[accessed2019June25].

20. GiantHogweed.NationalInvasiveSpeciesInformationCenter.USDA.[accessed2019Sept16].http://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/plants/hogweed.shtml

21. GiantHogweed-NYStateDept.ofEnvironmentalConservation.[accessed2019Sept16].http://www.dec.ny.gov/animals/39809.html

22. Gianthogweedidentificationandcontrol--Heracleummantegazzianum.[updated2018Sept18;accessed2019September16].www.kingcounty.gov/environment/animalsandplants/noxious-weeds/weed-identification/giant-hogweed.aspx

23. Henning'sRhododendron&AzaleaPages.ToxicityofRhododendronstoPeopleandAnimals.http://www.rhodyman.net/rhodyntox.php.[accessed2019June24].

24. HeracleummantegazzianumSommier&Levier--gianthogweed.[accessed2019Sept16].https://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=HEMA17

25. HiltyJ.Cowparsnip(Heracleummaximum).c2004-2017.WildflowersofIllinoisinWoodlands.https://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/woodland//plants/cow_parsnip.html.[updated2017Dec29;accessed2019Mar25].

26. HiltyJ.WaterHemlock(Cicutamaculata).©2002-2017.WetlandWildflowersofIllinois.https://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/wetland/plants/water_hemlock.htm[accessed2019Nov2].

27. HiltyJ.Whitesnakeroot(Ageratinaaltissima).IllinoisWildflowers.http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/woodland/plants/wh_snakeroot.htm.[accessed2019June25.]

28. JansenSA,KleerekooperI,HofmanZLM,KappenIFPM,Stary-WeinzingerA,vanderHeydenMAG.GrayanotoxinPoisoning:‘MadHoneyDisease’andBeyond.CardiovascToxic.2012;(12):208–215.https://doi.org/10.1007/s12012-012-9162-2[accessed2020May2].

-63-

29. JeleskoJ.TheITCHYProjectbyDr.JJ.©Facebook2019.https://www.facebook.com/theitchyproject[accessed2019Aug16].

30. KramerR,Kimonis,K.FieldBiologyElectronicFieldGuides,FallWildflowersofNewEngland.©2004.Waltham,MA:BrandeisUniv.http://www.bio.brandeis.edu/fieldbio/Wildflowers_Kimonis_Kramer/PAGES/JACKINTHEPULPIT_PAGE_FINAL.html[accessed2019August19].

31. LadyBirdJohnsonWildlifeCenter.©2019.Austin:Univ.ofTexasatAustin.http://www.wildflower.org.

32. LaFranceP.Hikersbeware:Cowparsnipcaninflictpainonthosewhodon’ttakeprecautions.AnchorageDailyNews.https://www.adn.com/adventure/outdoors/2016/06/16/hikers-beware-cow-parsnip-can-inflict-pain-on-those-who-dont-take-precautions/.[updated2016June30;accessed2019Feb28].

33. LobsteinMB.PrinceWilliamWildflowerSociety.MayapplePlantProfile.VirginiaNativePlantSociety.http://vnps.org/princewilliamwildflowersociety/botanizing-with-marion/mayapple-plant-profile/[accessed2019June17].

34. MahrS.MasterGardenerProgram,Univ.ofWisconsin-Madison,DivisionofExtension.Baneberry,Actaeaspp.16October2017.https://wimastergardener.org/article/baneberry-actaea-spp/[accessed7February2020].

35. NationalCapitalPoisonCenter.CanPoisonHemlockBeDeadly?https://www.poison.org/articles/can-poison-hemlock-be-deadly-184[accessed2019Sept16].

36. NewYorkInvasiveSpeciesInformation.Wildparsnip.©NewYorkInvasiveSpeciesInformation2019.http://nyis.info/invasive_species/wild-parsnip/[accessed2019Aug15].

37. njHiking.MountainLaurelvsRhododendron.https://www.njhiking.com/mountain-laurel-or-rhododendron/[accessed2019June25].

38. NorthCarolinaCooperativeExtension.Phytolaccaamericana,P.rigida.CommonName(s):InkberryPigeonberryPokePokeberryPokeweed.NorthCarolinaExtensionGardenerPlantToolbox.https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/phytolacca-americana-p-rigida/[accessed2019Aug16].

39. NorthCarolinaCooperativeExtension.Solanumcarolinense,CommonName(s):HorseNettleWildTomato.NorthCarolinaExtensionGardenerPlantToolbox.https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/all/solanum-carolinense/[accessed2019August17].

40. NorthCarolinaNativePlantSociety.PlantDetails,Aconitumuncinatum,SouthernBlueMonkshood,EasternBlueMonkshood,AppalachianBlueMonkshood.©2017NorthCarolinaNativePlantSociety.

-64-

https://www.ncwildflower.org/plant_galleries/details/aconitum-uncinatum[accessed2019Aug16].

41. OhioAgriculturalResearchandDevelopmentCenter.OhioPerennialandBiennialWeedGuide.CommonPokeweed(Phytolaccaamericana).©2019,TheOhioStateUniversity.https://www.oardc.ohio-state.edu/weedguide/single_weed.php?id=112[accessed2019Aug16].

42. ThePlantList(2013).Version1.1.PublishedontheInternet;http://www.theplantlist.org/[accessed2020June8].

43. ThePLANTSDatabase.2019.Greensboro(NC):USDA,NRCSNationalPlantDataTeam;http://plants.usda.gov[updated2019March25].

44. PoisonHemlock:HowtoIdentify,andPotentialLook-alikes.©2019GROWFORAGECOOKFERMENT(ColleenCodekas).OriginallypublishedonJune1,2018.https://www.growforagecookferment.com/poison-hemlock/[updated2019June27;accessed2020June12].

45. ScienceDirectTopics.Tremetone--anoverview.Copyright©2019.ElsevierB.V.https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/pharmacology-toxicology-and-pharmaceutical-science/tremetone[accessed2019Aug18].

46. SeilerJ,JensenE,NiemieraA,PetersonJ.VirginiaTechDendrologyFactSheet.Poison-ivyAnacardiaceaeToxicodendronradicans(L.)Kuntze.©2019VirginiaTechDept.ofForestResourcesandEnvironmentalConservation.http://dendro.cnre.vt.edu/dendrology/syllabus/factsheet.cfm?ID=128[accessed2019August16].

47. SmithJPJr.Poisonousvascularplants:Abibliographyofgeneralreferences.2017.Humboldt(CA):HumboldtStateUniv.,DigitalCommons,OpenEducationalResourcesandData,BotanicalStudies.digitalcommons.humboldt.edu/botany_jps/11[accessed2020June8].

48. USDA.NaturalResourcesConservationService.PlantsDatabase.https://plants.sc.egov.usda.gov/java/[accessed2019June12].

49. USNationalLibraryofMedicine.Jack-in-the-pulpitpoisoning.MedlinePlushttps://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002870.htm[accessed2019June24].

50. USNationalParkService.AbrahamLincolnBirthplaceNationalPark.MilkSickness.https://www.nps.gov/abli/planyourvisit/milksickness.htm[updated2015April14;accessed2019June25].

51. VirginiaBotanicalAssociates.DigitalAtlasoftheVirginiaFlora.©2020.Blacksburg,Virginiawww.vaplantatlas.org[accessed2020June8].

52. VirginiaNativePlantSociety.Boyce,VA.https://vnps.org/[accessed2020June8].53. VirginiaTech.CollegeofAgricultureandLifeSciences.Solanumdulcamara,

CommonName:BittersweetNightshade,OtherCommonNames:ClimbingNightshade.WeedIdentification,

-65-

https://weedid.cals.vt.edu/weedimg/208;jsessionid=CBA6D11D14FB6855A4F1F64687FD195F[accessed2019August19].

54. VirginiaTech.CollegeofAgricultureandLifeSciences.Easternblacknightshade.WeedIdentification,https://weedid.cals.vt.edu/[accessed2019June23].

55. VirginiaTech.Dendrology.VirginiacreeperVitaceaeParthenocissusquinquefolia(L.)Planch.©2019VirginiaTechDept.ofForestResourcesandEnvironmentalConservation.http://dendro.cnre.vt.edu/dendrology/syllabus/factsheet.cfm?ID=126[accessed2019Nov1].

56. TheVirtualBlueRidgeNetwork.Jack-in-the-pulpit.VirtualBlueRidge.©2019https://www.virtualblueridge.com/nature/jack-in-the-pulpit/[accessed2019June24].

57. WallingAL,WallingHW.Phytophotodermatitisinducedbywildparsnip.2018.DermatologyOnlineJournal,24(2),https://escholarship.org/uc/item/0rc4v2qz[accessed2019Aug15].

58. WeakleyAS.FloraoftheSouthernandMid-AtlanticStates.UniversityofNorthCarolinaatChapelHillHerbarium(NCU),NorthCarolinaBotanicalGarden,UniversityofNorthCarolinaatChapelHill.http://www.herbarium.unc.edu/flora.htm[updated2019June27;accessed2019August17].

59. WorldFloraOnlineConsortium.WorldFloraOnline.http://www.worldfloraonline.org/[accessed2020June8].

the socrates project

Documents