the solid that looks like liquid

7/28/2019 The Solid That Looks Like Liquid

1/11

The Solid That Looks Like LiquidAmorphous solids seem to be defying scientific principles.By Marijo Gonzalez

Fact Bytes

An amorphous substance has the characteristics of both solid and liquid.

Glass, candies, and soft glasses are examples of amorphous solids.

Wax candle is an amorphous solid. It melts right back into its original state, and can

be resolidified.

A glass-like amorphous solid is cooled rapidly to lower the movement of atom and

molecules.

In a crystal, the atoms are packed and form a cubic lattice. On the other hand, an

amorphous solids atoms are scattered randomly.

Fast Facts

Glass is often referred as a super-cooled liquid. Silicon, widely used as a semiconductor, is an amorphous solid. It is the second

most abundant element in earths crust. It is also the principal component of glass,cement, ceramics, and silicones.

Vocabulary Booster

Dielectric- nonconducting substance like insulators

Polyethylene-a polymer made up of long chains of monomer ethylene

Polymerization- the process by which monomers are put together

Tensile strength- the maximum strength of a metal to resist a force which tends to

tear it apart

Have you ever wondered if a substance was solid or liquid? Take for instancechocolate mousse or hair gel. They seem to be both firm and gooey. They are not veryhard, so you can dip your hands in them. You can even hold them in your palm. Mousseand gel are examples ofamorphous solids.

There are two types of solids: crystalline and amorphous. A crystalline solid has arigid structure-its, atoms, ions or molecules are arranged in orderly patterns in a three-dimensional grid, which provides solid its basic properties such as hardness and definite

shape.

On the other hand, an amorphous solid does not have a crystalline structure. Itsatomic or molecular structure does not repeat periodically-the pattern is random like thatof liquid. Hence, an amorphous substance has the characteristics of both solid andliquid. Like solid, it can be whole and stand on its own. Like liquid, it can flow and takethe shape of a container. At certain temperatures, it remains steady, unless allowed toflow by force. Amorphous solid can exist in two distinct states: the rubbery state and the


2/11

glassy state. There are many amorphous solids around us, many of which seemunlikely.

GlassMan-made glass is the most common example of an amorphous solid. It is an

inorganic amorphous material that is derived from heating silica, soda and lime to 982degrees Celsius, hot enough to liquefy the ingredients. The liquid is then cooled to allowsolidification. Glass retains its liquid properties even in the solid state-it can be reheatedto become liquid again.

CandyLike glass, hard candies such as lollipops and candy canes, are amorphous solids,

except that they are organic. Since their atoms are disorderly patterned, the candiesbreak easily when you bite into them. If their atoms were structured like a crystalline,you would not be able to sink your teeth into the candy at all. Interestingly, the lollipoprecipe-hardened sugar syrup-has been used to make fake glass bottles and windows in

old Hollywood films. When they break, they shatter like glass, but dont hurt the actors.Aside from hard candy, cotton candy is amorphous, too.

PolyethylenePolyethylene (PE) is another example of an organic amorphous solid. It is a

thermoplastic material. Depending on its density, PE can be used for a variety ofmaterials including shopping bags, containers, cling wraps, toys, wire and cableinsulations, bullet-proof vest, and hip and knee replacements. Polyethylene is madethrough the polymerization of ethylene.

Soft glasses

Soft glasses are a category of amorphous materials which, according to a new studyby scientists from Bordeaux, Lyon in France, deform and flow through a collectivemovement of their particles. Soft glasses include emulsions, colloids, and moussessuch as mayonnaise, catsup, mousse cakes, and beauty products like gels and creams.Note that some of these products look like semisolid blobs, but have the ability to flow ifthey are forced, such as when you squeeze them out of a bottle.

Amorphous MetalsAmorphous metals are a relatively new type of amorphous material. Also known as

metallic glasses, they are mostly alloys that have high viscosity prevents the atoms fromforming an orderly lattice. Amorphous alloys are strong enough for use in sportsequipment, medical devices, and as bags for electronic equipment. An example isVitreloy, which has double the tensile strength of high-grade titanium.

Producing Amorphous SolidsAmorphous solids are prepared in a number of ways. One is by heating the materials,

and when they reach the molten state, they cooled rapidly. The quick cool is necessaryto lower the movement of atoms and molecules before they reach crystallization orsolidification.


3/11

Instead of heat, amorphous solids can be made by applying additives that preventsolidification of a primary component. For instance, to produce window glass, sodiumcarbonate is added to silicon dioxide.

Scientists remain fascinated with nature of amorphous solids, and are trying to findout how these can be of further use to industries.

Solid Facts on the SupersolidsBy Dexter Osorio

Early 2004, two physicists from Pennsylvania State University announced theirdiscovery of the first solid Bose-Einstein condensate, or BEC. BEC is a supersolidfrom helium-4 with the extraordinary frictionless-flow properties of a superfluid. Thediscovery was announced in the January 15, 2004 issue journal, Nature.

For more than 30 years, theorists have predicted supersolidity, but its physicalexistence has not yet been proven in the laboratory. Building on a previous approach,team leader Moses H. W. Chan and his colleague, Eun-Seong Kim, used a devicecalled torsional oscillator, a squat, cylindrical bob suspended from a hollow copper tubethat slowly gyrates back and forth. To explore the behavior of solid helium, theresearchers placed inside the oscillators bob a sponge-like porous glass disk about thesize of a small coin. Then they filled the disks pores with liquid helium and froze thehelium under pressure at temperatures near absolute zero.

The porous glass was inside a leak-tight capsule, and the helium gas became solid

when the pressure inside the capsule reached 40 times the normal atmosphericpressure. Chan and Kim continued to increase the pressure to 62 atmospheres. Theyalso rotated the experimental capsule back and forth, monitoring the capsules rate ofoscillation while cooling it to the lowest temperature.

When the temperature dropped to one-tenth of a degree above absolute zero, theoscillation rate suddenly became slightly more rapid, as if some of the helium haddisappeared. However, Chan and Kim were able to confirm that the helium atoms hadnot leaked out of the experimental capsule because its rate of oscillation returned tonormal after they warmed the capsule above one-tenth of a degree above absolutezero. So they concluded that the solid helium-4 probably had acquired the properties of

a superfluid when the conditions were more extreme.

To understand the results of Chan and Kims experiment, imagine that you arepushing a child on a swing. The friction of the childs weight couples him to the seat ofthe swing and he swings back to you at a certain rate, which is determined partly by thecombined weight of the child and the seat. But if the child suddenly becomes able tohover above the swing instead of being directly connected to it, the overall weight of theswings seat would become lighter and it would fly back to you at a faster rate. Chan


4/11

and Kim concluded that what happened inside their experimental capsule is that thetightly packed helium-4 particles became so slippery that they were no longer coupledto the walls of the glass sponges microspores. In other words, it became a superfluidsolid or supersolid.

Its Solid, It FlowsSuperfuids have the unique characteristic of frictionless flow. One way of imaginingthe phenomenon of superfluidity is to imagine each of its particles as a person crammedinside an MRT during rush hour. When the door opens and some of the people get off,the people who want to stay inside are also swept along because they are packed sotight together-there is a lot of friction between them. But if the packed MRT commuterssomehow became unbelievably slippery, they would flow like a superfluid, with eachmoving person gliding easily past those who are standing still.

A supersolid, being a special type of superfluid, exhibits frictionless flow while stillmaintaining its solid crystal structure.

To understand how a supersolid could exist, you have to imagine the realm ofquantum mechanics, the modern theory that explains many of the properties of matter.In quantum mechanics, there are different rules for the two categories of particles:fermions and bosons. Fermions include particles like electrons and atoms with an oddmass number, like helium-3. Bosons include atoms with an even mass number, likehelium-4. The quantum-mechanical rule for fermions is that they cannot share aquantum state with other particles of their kind, but for bosons, there is no limit to thenumber that can be in the identical quantum state.

Bosons ability to be in the same quantum state-in effect acting like a single atom-

leads to the remarkable properties that Chan and Kim discovered in supercooledhelium-4.

In a supersolid of helium-4, its identical helium-4 atoms are flowing around withoutany friction, rapidly changing places-but because all its particles are in the samequantum state, it remains a solid even though its component particles are continuallyflowing.

If Chan and Kims experiment is replicated, it would confirm that all three states ofmatter can enter into the super state of Bose-Einstein condensation, in which all theparticles have condensed into the same quantum-mechanical state. The existence ofsuperfluids and supervapor had previously proven, but theorists had continued todebate about whether a supersolid was even possible.

State of Matter

States of matterare the distinct forms that different phases ofmattertakeon. Solid, liquid and gas are the most common states of matter on Earth. However,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_(matter)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_(matter)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas


5/11

much of the baryonic matterof the universe is in the form of hot plasma, both asrarefied interstellar medium and as dense stars.

Historically, the distinction is made based on qualitative differences in bulk properties.Solid is the state in which matter maintains a fixed volume and shape; liquid is the state

in which matter maintains a fixed volume but adapts to the shape of its container; andgas is the state in which matter expands to occupy whatever volume is available.

The state orphase of a given set of matter can change dependingon pressure and temperature conditions, transitioning to other phases as theseconditions change to favor their existence; for example, solid transitions to liquid with anincrease in temperature.

States of matter may also be defined in terms ofphase transitions. A phase transitionindicates a change in structure and can be recognized by an abrupt change inproperties. By this definition, a distinct state of matter is any set ofstates distinguished

from any other set of states by a phase transition. Water can be said to have severaldistinct solid states. The appearance of superconductivity is associated with a phasetransition, so there are superconductive states. Likewise, ferromagnetic states aredemarcated by phase transitions and have distinctive properties. When the change ofstate occurs in stages the intermediate steps are called mesophases. Such phaseshave been exploited by the introduction of liquid crystal technology.

More recently, distinctions between states have been based on differences inmolecular interrelationships. Solid is the state in which intermolecular attractions keepthe molecules in fixed spatial relationships. Liquid is the state in which intermolecularattractions keep molecules in proximity, but do not keep the molecules in fixed

relationships. Gas is that state in which the molecules are comparatively separated andintermolecular attractions have relatively little effect on their respectivemotions. Plasma is a highly ionized gas that occurs at high temperatures. Theintermolecular forces created by ionic attractions and repulsions give thesecompositions distinct properties, for which reason plasma is described as a fourth stateof matter.

Forms of matter that are not composed of molecules and are organized by differentforces can also be considered different states of matter. Superfluids (like Fermioniccondensate) and the quarkgluon plasma are examples.

The Three Classical StatesEach of the classical states of matter, unlike plasma for example, can transitiondirectly into any of the other classical states.

SolidThe particles (ions, atoms or molecules) are packed closely together. The forces

between particles are strong enough so that the particles cannot move freely but can
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baryonic_matterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstellar_mediumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_diagramhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamic_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_diagramhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superconductivityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferromagnetismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesophasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_crystalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_(physics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superfluidshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermionic_condensatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermionic_condensatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quark%E2%80%93gluon_plasmahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonding_in_solidshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonding_in_solidshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baryonic_matterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstellar_mediumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_diagramhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamic_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_diagramhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superconductivityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferromagnetismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesophasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_crystalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_(physics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superfluidshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermionic_condensatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermionic_condensatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quark%E2%80%93gluon_plasmahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonding_in_solidshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonding_in_solids


6/11

only vibrate. As a result, a solid has a stable, definite shape, and a definite volume.Solids can only change their shape by force, as when broken or cut.

In crystalline solids, the particles (atoms, molecules, or ions) are packed in a regularlyordered, repeating pattern. There are many different crystal structures, and the same

substance can have more than one structure (or solid phase). For example, iron hasa body-centred cubic structure at temperatures below 912 C, and a face-centredcubic structure between 912 and 1394 C. Ice has fifteen known crystal structures, orfifteen solid phases which exist at various temperatures and pressures.

Glasses and other non-crystalline, amorphous solids without long-range orderare notthermal equilibrium ground states; therefore they are described below as nonclassicalstates of matter.

Solids can be transformed into liquids by melting, and liquids can be transformed intosolids by freezing. Solids can also change directly into gases through the process

ofsublimation.

LiquidA liquid is a nearly incompressible fluid which is able to conform to the shape of its

container but retains a (nearly) constant volume independent of pressure. The volume isdefinite if the temperature and pressure are constant. When a solid is heated aboveits melting point, it becomes liquid, given that the pressure is higher than the triplepoint of the substance. Intermolecular (or interatomic or interionic) forces are stillimportant, but the molecules have enough energy to move relative to each other andthe structure is mobile. This means that the shape of a liquid is not definite but isdetermined by its container. The volume is usually greater than that of the

corresponding solid, the most well-known exception being water, H 2O. The highesttemperature at which a given liquid can exist is its critical temperature.

GasA gas is a compressible fluid. Not only will a gas conform to the shape of its container

but it will also expand to fill the container.

In a gas, the molecules have enough kinetic energy so that the effect of intermolecularforces is small (or zero for an ideal gas), and the typical distance between neighboringmolecules is much greater than the molecular size. A gas has no definite shape orvolume, but occupies the entire container in which it is confined. A liquid may beconverted to a gas by heating at constant pressure to the boiling point, or else byreducing the pressure at constant temperature.

At temperatures below its critical temperature, a gas is also called a vapor, and canbe liquefied by compression alone without cooling. A vapor can exist in equilibrium witha liquid (or solid), in which case the gas pressure equals the vapor pressure of the liquid(or solid).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ironhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_crystal_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_crystal_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_crystal_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorphous_solidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_and_disorder_(physics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sublimation_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melting_pointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple_pointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple_pointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinetic_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideal_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiling_pointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaporhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vapor_pressurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ironhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_crystal_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_crystal_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_crystal_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorphous_solidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_and_disorder_(physics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sublimation_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melting_pointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple_pointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple_pointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinetic_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideal_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiling_pointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaporhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vapor_pressure


7/11

A supercritical fluid (SCF) is a gas whose temperature and pressure are above thecritical temperature and critical pressure respectively. In this state, the distinctionbetween liquid and gas disappears. A supercritical fluid has the physical properties of agas, but its high density confers solvent properties in some cases which lead to usefulapplications. For example, supercritical carbon dioxide is used to extractcaffeine in the

manufacture ofdecaffeinated coffee.

Non Classical States

Glass Glass is a non-crystalline oramorphous solid material that exhibits a glasstransition when heated towards the liquid state. Glasses can be made of quite differentclasses of materials: inorganic networks (such as window glass, made ofsilicate plusadditives), metallic alloys, ionic melts, aqueous solutions, molecular liquids, andpolymers. Thermodynamically, a glass is in a metastable state with respect to itscrystalline counterpart. The conversion rate, however, is practically zero.

Crystals with some degree of disorderA plastic crystal is a molecular solid with long-range positional order but with

constituent molecules retaining rotational freedom; in an orientational glass this degreeof freedom is frozen in a quenched disordered state.

Similarly, in a spin glass magnetic disorder is frozen.

Liquid crystal statesLiquid crystal states have properties intermediate between mobile liquids and ordered

solids. Generally, they are able to flow like a liquid but exhibiting long-range order. For

example, the nematic phase consists of long rod-like molecules such aspara-azoxyanisole, which is nematic in the temperature range 118136 C. In this state themolecules flow as in a liquid, but they all point in the same direction (within eachdomain) and cannot rotate freely.

Other types of liquid crystals are described in the main article on these states. Severaltypes have technological importance, for example, in liquid crystal displays.

Magnetically ordered Transition metal atoms often have magnetic moments due to the net spin of electronswhich remain unpaired and do not form chemical bonds. In some solids the magnetic

moments on different atoms are ordered and can form a ferromagnet, anantiferromagnet or a ferrimagnet.

In a ferromagnetfor instance, solid ironthe magnetic moment on each atom isaligned in the same direction (within a magnetic domain). If the domains are alsoaligned, the solid is a permanent magnet, which is magnetic even in the absence of anexternal magnetic field. The magnetization disappears when the magnet is heated tothe Curie point, which for iron is 768 C.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercritical_fluidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercritical_carbon_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercritical_fluid_extractionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caffeinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decaffeinationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorphous_solidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_transitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_transitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metastable_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_crystalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orientational_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_and_disorder_(physics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_crystal#Nematic_phasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Para-azoxyanisolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Para-azoxyanisolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_crystal_displayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transition_metalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_momenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin_(physics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferromagnetismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ironhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_domainshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curie_pointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercritical_fluidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercritical_carbon_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercritical_fluid_extractionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caffeinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decaffeinationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorphous_solidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_transitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_transitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metastable_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_crystalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orientational_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_and_disorder_(physics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_crystal#Nematic_phasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Para-azoxyanisolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Para-azoxyanisolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_crystal_displayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transition_metalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_momenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin_(physics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferromagnetismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ironhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_domainshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curie_point


8/11

An antiferromagnet has two networks of equal and opposite magnetic moments whichcancel each other out, so that the net magnetization is zero. For example, in nickel (II)oxide (NiO), half the nickel atoms have moments aligned in one direction and half in theopposite direction.

In a ferrimagnet, the two networks of magnetic moments are opposite but unequal, sothat cancellation is incomplete and there is a non-zero net magnetization. An exampleis magnetite (Fe3O4), which contains Fe

2+ and Fe3+ ions with different magneticmoments.

Microphase-separated Copolymers can undergo microphase separation to form a diverse array of periodicnanostructures, as shown in the example of the styrene-butadiene-styrene blockcopolymershown at right. Microphase separation can be understood by analogy to thephase separation between oil and water. Due to chemical incompatibility between the

blocks, block copolymers undergo a similar phase separation. However, because theblocks are covalently bonded to each other, they cannot demix macroscopically aswater and oil can, and so instead the blocks form nanometer-sized structures.Depending on the relative lengths of each block and the overall block topology of thepolymer, many morphologies can be obtained, each its own phase of matter.

Low-temperature States

Superfluids

Close to absolute zero, some liquids form a second liquid state describedas superfluid because it has zero viscosity (or infinite fluidity; i.e., flowing withoutfriction). This was discovered in 1937 forhelium which forms a superfluid belowthe lambda temperature of 2.17 K. In this state it will attempt to "climb" out of itscontainer. It also has infinite thermal conductivity so that no temperature gradient canform in a superfluid. Placing a super fluid in a spinning container will result in quantizedvortices.

These properties are explained by the theory that the common isotope helium-4 formsa BoseEinstein condensate (see next section) in the superfluid state. Morerecently, Fermionic condensate superfluids have been formed at even lowertemperatures by the rare isotope helium-3 and by lithium-6.

Bose-Einstein condensatesIn 1924,Albert Einstein and Satyendra Nath Bose predicted the "Bose-Einstein

condensate," (BEC) sometimes referred to as the fifth state of matter. In a BEC, matterstops behaving as independent particles, and collapses into a single quantum state thatcan be described with a single, uniform wave function.

In the gas phase, the Bose-Einstein condensate remained an unverified theoreticalprediction for many years. In 1995 the research groups ofEric Cornell and Carl
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiferromagnetismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel(II)_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel(II)_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrimagnetismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copolymershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kraton_(polymer)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kraton_(polymer)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covalent_bondhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanometerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viscosityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambda_pointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_conductivityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperature_gradienthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_vortexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_vortexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein_condensatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermionic_condensatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotopes_of_lithiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einsteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satyendra_Nath_Bosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Cornellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Wiemanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiferromagnetismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel(II)_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel(II)_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrimagnetismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copolymershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kraton_(polymer)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kraton_(polymer)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covalent_bondhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanometerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viscosityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambda_pointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_conductivityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperature_gradienthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_vortexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_vortexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein_condensatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermionic_condensatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotopes_of_lithiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einsteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satyendra_Nath_Bosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Cornellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Wieman


9/11

Wieman, ofJILA at the University of Colorado at Boulder, produced the first suchcondensate experimentally. A Bose-Einstein condensate is "colder" than a solid. It mayoccur when atoms have very similar (or the same) quantum levels, at temperatures veryclose to absolute zero (273.15 C).

Fermionic condensatesA fermionic condensate is similar to the Bose-Einstein condensate but composed

offermions. The Pauli Exclusion Principle prevents fermions from entering the samequantum state, but a pair of fermions can behave as a boson, and multiple such pairscan then enter the same quantum state without restriction.

Rydberg moleculesOne of the metastable states of strongly non-ideal plasma is Rydberg matter, which

forms upon condensation ofexcited atoms. These atoms can also turninto ions and electrons if they reach a certain temperature. In April2009, Nature reported the creation of Rydberg molecules from a Rydberg atom and

a ground state atom, confirming that such a state of matter could exist. The experimentwas performed using ultracold rubidium atoms.

Quantum Hall statesA Quantum Hall State gives rise to quantized Hall voltage measured in the direction

perpendicular to the current flow. A quantum spin Hall state is a theoretical phase thatmay pave the way for the development of electronic devices that dissipate less energyand generate less heat. This is a derivation of the Quantum Hall state of matter.

Strange matterStrange matter is a type ofquark matterthat may exist inside some neutron stars close

to the TolmanOppenheimerVolkoff limit (approximately 23 solar masses). May bestable at lower energy states once formed.

High-energy States

Plasma (ionized gas)Plasmas or ionized gases can exist at temperatures starting at several thousand

degrees Celsius, where they consist of free charged particles, usually in equalnumbers, such as ions and electrons. Plasma, like gas, is a state of matter thatdoes not have definite shape or volume. Unlike gases, plasmas may self-generate magnetic fields and electric currents, and respond strongly and

collectively to electromagnetic forces. The particles that make up plasmas haveelectric charges, so plasma can conduct electricity. Two examples of plasma arethe charged air produced bylightning, and astarsuch as our ownsun.

As a gas is heated, electrons begin to leave the atoms, resulting in the presence offree electrons, which are not bound to nuclei, and ions, which are chemical species thatcontain unequal number of electrons and protons, and therefore possess an electrical
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Wiemanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JILAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Colorado_at_Boulderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_levelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_zerohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauli_exclusion_principlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metastable_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rydberg_matterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excited_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(journal)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubidiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hall_voltagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_spin_Hall_effecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quark_matterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tolman%E2%80%93Oppenheimer%E2%80%93Volkoff_limithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_masshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_specieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Wiemanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JILAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Colorado_at_Boulderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_levelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_zerohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauli_exclusion_principlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metastable_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rydberg_matterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excited_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(journal)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubidiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hall_voltagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_spin_Hall_effecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quark_matterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tolman%E2%80%93Oppenheimer%E2%80%93Volkoff_limithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_masshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_species


10/11

charge. The free electric charges make the plasma electrically conductive so that itresponds strongly to electromagnetic fields. At very high temperatures, such as thosepresent in stars, it is assumed that essentially all electrons are "free," and that veryhigh-energy plasma is essentially bare nuclei swimming in a sea of electrons. Plasma isthe most common state of non-dark matterin the universe.

Plasma can be considered as a gas of highly ionized particles, but the powerfulinterionic forces lead to distinctly different properties, so that it is usually considered asa different phase or state of matter.

Quark-gluon plasmaQuark-gluon plasma is a phase in which quarks become free and able to move

independently (rather than being perpetually bound into particles) in a seaofgluons (subatomic particles that transmit the strong force that binds quarks together);this is similar to splitting molecules into atoms. This state may be briefly attainablein particle accelerators, and allows scientists to observe the properties of individual

quarks, and not just theorize. See also Strangeness production.

Weakly symmetric matter: for up to 1012 seconds after the Big Bang the strong, weakand electromagnetic forces were unified. Strongly symmetric matter: for up to1036 seconds after the Big Bang the energy density of the universe was so high thatthe four forces of nature strong, weak,electromagnetic, and gravitational arethought to have been unified into one single force. As the universe expanded, thetemperature and density dropped and the gravitational force separated, a processcalled symmetry breaking.

Quark-gluon plasma was discovered at CERN in 2000.

Very High Energy StatesThe gravitational singularity predicted by general relativity to exist at the center of

a black hole is nota phase of matter; it is not a material object at all (although themass-energy of matter contributed to its creation) but rather a property of space-time ata location.

Other Proposed States

Degenerate matter

Under extremely high pressure, ordinary matter undergoes a transition to a series ofexotic states of matter collectively known as degenerate matter. In these conditions, thestructure of matter is supported by the Pauli Exclusion Principle. These are of greatinterest to astrophysicists, because these high-pressure conditions are believed to existinside stars that have used up their fusion fuel", such as white dwarfs and neutronstars.

Electron-degenerate matteris found inside white dwarfstars. Electrons remain boundto atoms but are able to transfer to adjacent atoms. Neutron-degenerate matteris found
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_matterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quarkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gluonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strong_interactionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_acceleratorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strangeness_productionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strongly_symmetric_matterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Banghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_interactionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strong_interactionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weak_interactionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetry_breakinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CERNhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_singularityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_relativityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_holehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degenerate_matterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauli_exclusion_principlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrophysicistshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrophysicistshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_dwarfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_starhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_starhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degenerate_matterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_dwarfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degenerate_matterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_matterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quarkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gluonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strong_interactionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_acceleratorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strangeness_productionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strongly_symmetric_matterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Banghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_interactionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strong_interactionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weak_interactionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetry_breakinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CERNhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_singularityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_relativityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_holehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degenerate_matterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauli_exclusion_principlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrophysicistshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_dwarfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_starhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_starhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degenerate_matterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_dwarfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degenerate_matter


11/11

in neutron stars. Vast gravitational pressure compresses atoms so strongly that theelectrons are forced to combine with protons via inverse beta-decay, resulting in asuperdense conglomeration of neutrons. (Normally free neutrons outside an atomicnucleus will decay with a half-life of just under 15 minutes, but in a neutron star, as inthe nucleus of an atom, other effects stabilize the neutrons.)

SupersolidA supersolid is a spatially ordered material (that is, a solid or crystal) with superfluid

properties. Similar to a superfluid, a supersolid is able to move without friction but

retains a rigid shape. Although a supersolid is a solid, it exhibits so many characteristic

properties different from other solids that many argue it is another state of matter.

String-net liquidIn a string-net liquid, atoms have apparently unstable arrangement, like a liquid, but

are still consistent in overall pattern, like a solid. When in a normal solid state, the atoms

of matter align themselves in a grid pattern, so that the spin of any electron is theopposite of the spin of all electrons touching it. But in a string-net liquid, atoms are

arranged in some pattern which would require some electrons to have neighbors with

the same spin. This gives rise to curious properties, as well as supporting some unusual

proposals about the fundamental conditions of the universe itself.

SuperglassA superglass is a phase of matter which is characterized at the same time

by superfluidity and a frozen amorphous structure.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_starhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutronhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_decayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superfluidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_starhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutronhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_decayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superfluid

the solid that looks like liquid

Documents