the sovereignty of nations

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The Sovereignty of Nations

by V S Rama Rao on February 1, 2010

No company, domestic or international, large or small can conduct business without consideringthe influence of the political environment within which it will operate !ne of the most

undeniable and crucial realities of international business is that both host and home governments

are integral partners " government reacts to its environment by initiating and pursuing policiesdeemed necessary to solve the problems created by its particular circumstances Reflected in its

policies and attitudes towards business are a government#s ideas of how best to promote the

national interest, considering its own resources and political philosophy " government controlsand restricts a company#s activities by encouraging and offering support or by discouraging and

banning or restricting its activities $ depending on the pleasure of the government

%nternational law recogni&es the sovereign right of a nation to grant or withhold permission to do

business within its political boundaries and to control where its citi&ens conduct business 'husthe political environment of countries is a critical concern for the international mar(eter

%n the conte)t of international law, sovereign state is independent ad free from all e)ternal

control, en*oys full legal e+uality with other states governs its own territory selects its own

political, economic and social stems and has the power to enter into agreements with othernations Sovereignty refers to both the powers e)ercised by state in relation to other countries

and the supreme powers e)ercised over its own members " state sets re+uirements for

citi&enship, defines geographical boundaries and controls trade and the movement of people andgoods across its borders "dditionally a citi&en is sub*ect to the state#s laws even when beyond

national borders %t is with the e)tension of national laws beyond a country#s borders that much

of the conflict in international business arises 'his is especially true when another countryconsiders its own sovereignty to be compromised

Nations can and do abridge specific aspects of their sovereign rights in order to coe)ist with

other nations 'he -uropean .nion, North "merica Free 'rade "greement /N"F'", North

"tlantic 'reaty !rgani&ation /N"'! and '! represent e)amples of nations voluntarily

agreeing to give up some of their sovereign rights in order to participate with member nations for a common, mutually beneficial "s indicated, the .S, involvement in international political

affiliations is surprisingly low /ie it is largely sovereign %ndeed, when it comes to participation

in international treaty regimes the .S is ran(ed near the bottom of the 2 countries included inthe Foreign 3olicy maga&ine ran(ings tied with 'hailand, %ndonesia and %ran /at 45th and ahead

of only 6alaysia and 'aiwan 6ost notably the 7yoto 3rotocol on global climate change and the%nternational 8riminal 8ourt were re*ected by the 9ush administration, long with lesser (nowntreaties such as the 9asel 8onvention on the control of 'rans:boundary movement of ;a&ardous

astes 'his apparent lac( of international political engagement is particularly hard to

understand given the wide acceptance that such agreements lead to peace and mutualunderstanding

http://www.citeman.com/author/v-s-rama-rao/http://www.citeman.com/author/v-s-rama-rao/


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8ountries that agree to relin+uish some of their sovereignty often are sub*ect to a nagging fear

that too much has been given away For e)ample, the '! is considered by some as the biggest

threat so far to national sovereignty "dherence to the '! inevitably means loss of somedegrees of national sovereignty because the member nations have pledged to abide by

international covenants and arbitrations procedures that can over ride national laws and have far

reaching ramifications for citi&ens Sovereignty was one of the issues at the heart of the spat between the .nited States and the -uropean .nion over -urope#s refusal to lower tariffs and

+uotas on bananas and critics of the free trade agreement with 8entral "merican countries

/8"F'" claim "merica#s sacrifice of sovereignty is too great

Sovereignty

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Sovereign" redirects here. For other uses, see Sovereign (disambiguation).

This article may contain original research. lease improve it by verifying

the claims made and adding references. Statements consisting only of original

research may be removed. !ore details may be available on the talk page.(January 2011)

The frontispiece of Thomas obbes# Leviathan, depicting the Sovereign as a

massive body $ielding a s$ord and cro%ier and composed of many individual

people.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereign_(disambiguation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sovereignty&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Sovereigntyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Hobbeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leviathan_(book)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crozierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leviathan_gr.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leviathan_gr.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereign_(disambiguation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sovereignty&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Sovereigntyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Hobbeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leviathan_(book)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crozier


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Sovereignty is the +uality of having supreme, independent authority over a geographic area,

such as a territorysovereignty>, historically, from Socrates to 'homas ;obbes, has always necessitated a moral

imperative on the entity e)ercising it

'he .nited Nations currently only re+uires that a sovereign state has an effective and

independent government within a defined territory "ccording to current international law norms,states are only re+uired to have an effective and independent system of government pursuant to a

community within a defined territory


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Contents

hide

• * istory

o *.* &lassical

o *.+ !edieval

o *. -eformation

o *. /ge of 0nlightenment

• + 1e2nition and types

o +.* /bsoluteness

o +.+ 03clusivity

o +. 1e 'ure and de facto

o +. 4nternal

o +.5 03ternal

o +.6 Shared

o +.7 Tribal

o +.8 9ation:states

o +.; Federations

• /cie$s on

• 6 -elation to rule of la$

• 7 Sovereign as a title

• 8 See also

• ; -eferences

• *? Further reading

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereigntyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#Classicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#Medievalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#Reformationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#Age_of_Enlightenmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#Definition_and_typeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#Absolutenesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#Exclusivityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#De_jure_and_de_factohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#Internalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#Externalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#Sharedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#Tribalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#Nation-stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#Federationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#Acquisitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#Justificationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#Views_onhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#Relation_to_rule_of_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#Sovereign_as_a_titlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#Further_readinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereigntyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#Classicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#Medievalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#Reformationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#Age_of_Enlightenmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#Definition_and_typeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#Absolutenesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#Exclusivityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#De_jure_and_de_factohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#Internalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#Externalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#Sharedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#Tribalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#Nation-stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#Federationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#Acquisitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#Justificationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#Views_onhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#Relation_to_rule_of_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#Sovereign_as_a_titlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereignty#Further_reading


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[ edit ] History

Eifferent cultures and governments have, understandably, had different ideas about sovereignty


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[edit] Reformation

Sovereignty reemerged as a concept in the late 1th century, a time when civil wars had created acraving for stronger central authority, when monarchs had begun to gather power into their own

hands at the e)pense of the nobility, and the modern nation state was emerging Iean 9odin,

partly in reaction to the chaos of the French wars of religion and 'homas ;obbes, partly inreaction to the -nglish 8ivil ar , both presented theories of sovereignty calling for strong

central authority in the form of absolute monarchy %n his 145 treatise Les Si Li!res de la

R"#ubli$ue />Si) 9oo(s of the Republic> 9odin argued that it is inherent in the nature of thestate that sovereignty must beD and submit to a

>Soveraigne that is able to compel them to act in the common good 'his

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sovereignty&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nation_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Bodinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Bodinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Bodinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_wars_of_religionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Hobbeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Hobbeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Civil_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_monarchyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_monarchyhttp://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_Six_Livres_de_la_R%C3%A9publiquehttp://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_Six_Livres_de_la_R%C3%A9publiquehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_(politics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magistratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estates_of_the_realmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divine_right_of_kingshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sovereignty&action=edit&section=5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leviathan_(book)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sichttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sovereignty&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nation_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Bodinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_wars_of_religionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Hobbeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Civil_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_monarchyhttp://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_Six_Livres_de_la_R%C3%A9publiquehttp://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_Six_Livres_de_la_R%C3%A9publiquehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_(politics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magistratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estates_of_the_realmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divine_right_of_kingshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sovereignty&action=edit&section=5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leviathan_(book)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sic


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e)pediency argument attracted many of the early proponents of sovereignty ;obbes deduced

from the definition of sovereignty that it must beDa collective being ofwonder> /9oo( %%, 8hapter % resulting from >the general will> of the people, and that >what any

man, whoever he may be, orders on his own, is not a law> /9oo( %%, 8hapter V% $ and

furthermore predicated on the assumption that the people have an unbiased means by which to

ascertain the general will 'hus the legal ma)im, >there is no law without a sovereign>


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8arl Schmitt /1CCC$1MC4 defined sovereignty as >the power to decide the state of e)ception>, in

an attempt, argues Giorgio "gamben, to counter alter 9en*amins theory of violence as

radically dis*oint from law Georges 9atailles heterodo) conception of sovereignty, which may be said to be an >anti:sovereignty>, also inspired many thin(ers, such as Iac+ues Eerrida,

"gamben or Iean:Kuc Nancy


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and security and ability to carry out various functions of state all represent measures of de facto

sovereignty hen control is practiced predominately by military or police force it is considered

coerci!e so!ereignty

%t is generally held that sovereignty re+uires not only the legal right to e)ercise power, but the

actual e)ercise of such power 'hus, de (ure sovereignty without de facto sovereignty has limitedrecognition


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individual was that sovereignty would therefore be indivisible it would be e)pressed in a single

voice that could claim final authority "n e)ample of an internal sovereign or monarch is Kouis

O%V of France during the seventeenth century Kouis O%V claimed that he was the state Iean:Iac+ues Rousseau re*ected monarchial rule in favor of the other type of authority within a

sovereign state, public sovereignty 3ublic Sovereignty is the belief that ultimate authority is

vested in the people themselves, e)pressed in the idea of the general will 'his means that the power is elected and supported by its members, the authority has a central goal of the good of the

people in mind 'he idea of public sovereignty has often been the basis for modern democratic

theory


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with the internal affairs of many -uropean states %t is a myth, however, that the 'reaties of

estphalia created a new -uropean order of e+ual sovereign states


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[edit] "hared

Iust as the office of head of state can be vested *ointly in several persons within a state, thesovereign *urisdiction over a single political territory can be shared *ointly by two or more

consenting powers, notably in the forms of a condominium or a co:principality /eg "ndorra


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"bsolute monarchies are typically based on concepts such as the divine right of (ings in -urope

or the mandate of ;eaven in 8hina

" republic is a form of government in which the people, or some significant portion of them,retain sovereignty over the government and where offices of state are not granted through

heritage


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[ edit ] Relation to rule o law

"nother topic is whether the law is held to be sovereign, that is, whether it is above political or

other interference Sovereign law constitutes a true state of law, meaning the letter of the law /if

constitutionally correct is applicable and enforceable, even when against the political will of the

nation, as long as not formally changed following the constitutional procedure Strictly spea(ing,any deviation from this principle constitutes a revolution or a coup dtat, regardless of the

intentionsSovereign of the Vatican 8ity

State> in respect to Vatican 8ity9y the Grace of God Great Sovereign TsarT'sarina and Grand 3rinceT3rincess, NN, of "ll Russia, "utocrat>

National sovereignty

From i(ipedia, the free encyclopedia

'his article does not cite any references or sources 3lease help improve this article by

adding citations to reliable sources .nsourced material may be challenged and removed34uly 56768

'his article needs additional citations for verification 3lease help improve this article

by adding reliable references .nsourced material may be challenged and removed 34uly56768

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sovereignty&action=edit&section=19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rule_of_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_of_the_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sovereignty&action=edit&section=20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_of_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_of_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_South_Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_of_the_Commonwealthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_realmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_realmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=National_sovereignty&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=National_sovereignty&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=National_sovereignty&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sovereignty&action=edit&section=19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rule_of_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_of_the_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sovereignty&action=edit&section=20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_of_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_South_Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_of_the_Commonwealthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_realmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=National_sovereignty&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=National_sovereignty&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence


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Eetail of the monument in 8Jdi& to the Spanish 8onstitution of 1C12, Spains first written

constitution, which established the principal of national sovereignty

National sovereignty is the doctrine that sovereignty belongs to and derives from the nation, an

abstract entity normally lin(ed to a physical territory and its past, present, and future citi&ens %t

is an ideological concept or doctrine derived from liberal political theory %t traces bac( to Iohn

Koc(e in late 15th century -ngland and to 6ontes+uieu in 1Cth century France, the latterespecially via -mmanuel:Ioseph SieyUs pamphlet What 9s the Third :state+

.nder the concept of national sovereignty, the nation is superior to the individuals of which it is

composed National sovereignty can be contrasted, on the one hand, to absolutism and to other

doctrines that see sovereignty as residing solely in a monarch, aristocracy, theocracy or othersmall elite, and on the other hand to popular sovereignty, which has more egalitarian

implications

'he relationship between the concepts of national sovereignty and citi&enship is mutual 8iti&ens Hwho are not necessarily the entire populace of a territoryHpossess rights and have a

relationship of e+uality to one another under the law 'hey are not mere sub*ects or vassals

whose rights are delegated by a higher authority, nor are they passive ob*ects of a political entity

%n classical political theory, national sovereignty translates into a representative constitutional system, because a nation cannot be governed by direct democracy, given the impossibility of

direct representation of its past and future citi&ens 'he simple ma*ority of the residents of the

territory of a nation, or even of its citi&ens, is not necessarily considered identical to the will ofthe nation

'he first clear application of the doctrine of national sovereignty was in the constitutions of the

French Revolution /15CM$15MM the .nited States, founded in 155 had relied more on the

theory of popular sovereignty and had been first a confederation and later a federation of thestates that retained certain aspects of sovereignty !is a !is the nation National sovereignty is

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A1dizhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Constitution_of_1812http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereigntyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lockehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lockehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lockehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Englandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montesquieuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montesquieuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montesquieuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmanuel-Joseph_Siey%C3%A8shttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_Is_the_Third_Estate%3Fhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_monarchyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_sovereigntyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egalitarianismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egalitarianismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egalitarianismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rightshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rightshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egalitarianismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egalitarianismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Subject_(law)&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vassalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representation_(politics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_democracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_democracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confederationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confederationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1812-cadiz.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1812-cadiz.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A1dizhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Constitution_of_1812http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereigntyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lockehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lockehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Englandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montesquieuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmanuel-Joseph_Siey%C3%A8shttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_Is_the_Third_Estate%3Fhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_monarchyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theocracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_sovereigntyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egalitarianismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rightshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egalitarianismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Subject_(law)&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vassalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representation_(politics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_democracyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confederationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._state


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conceived as indivisible and inalienable, not simply parceled out among individuals or any other

units who form the nation 'he French Revolution was e)plicitly national, based on the concept

of a nation state whose interests too( precedence over those of individuals, even whileguaranteeing rights to individuals "rticle A of the French Eeclaration of the Rights of 6an and

of the 8iti&en declared e)plicitly that >all sovereignty resides essentially in the nation>

'hus, under this doctrine, each individual is part of the nation, but it is a whole based on

something more than direct representation National sovereignty does not necessarily implyuniversal suffrage or electoral e+uality, both of which are usually considered to be inherent in the

logic of popular sovereignty .nder national sovereignty, the vote is not an individual right, but a

means to the end of determining the national will 'he franchise may be restricted by somesystem of census suffrage in practice, this restriction has most often been on the basis of

personal wealth

3olitical party

The impact of political parties, interestgroups, and social movement organizations

on public policy: some recent evidence and

theoretical concerns *.

Social Forces Eecember 1, 2002 9urstein, 3aul Kinton, "pril 8opyright

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-veryone who studies democratic politics agrees that political parties, interest groups, and

social movement organi&ations /S6!s strongly influence public policy 'hese political organi&ations define public problems, propose solutions, aggregate citi&ens policy preferences,

mobili&e voters, ma(e demands of elected officials, communicate information about government

action to their supporters and the larger public, and ma(e relatively coherent legislative action

possible 'hey seem indispensable to democratic policy ma(ing no democratic polity in themodern world is without them /on the role of political parties in the democratic process, see

"ldrich 1MM4 on interest groups, see ;ansen 1MM1 on S6!s, see 'illy 1MCB

'his article focuses on the most obvious way that political organi&ations affect policyD byinfluencing the final stage of legislative activity, when policy changes are, or are not, enacted

into law e consider the direct impact of political organi&ations on policy change, that is, the

impact organi&ations have after considering other potential influences 'his is a common

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nation_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_suffragehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_man,_one_votehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_sovereigntyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffragehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffrage#Census_suffragehttp://www.highbeam.com/Search?searchTerm=author%3A%22Burstein%2C+Paul%22&orderBy=Date+DESChttp://www.highbeam.com/Search?searchTerm=author%3A%22+Linton%2C+April%22&orderBy=Date+DESChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nation_statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_suffragehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_man,_one_votehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_sovereigntyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffragehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffrage#Census_suffragehttp://www.highbeam.com/Search?searchTerm=author%3A%22Burstein%2C+Paul%22&orderBy=Date+DESChttp://www.highbeam.com/Search?searchTerm=author%3A%22+Linton%2C+April%22&orderBy=Date+DESC


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approach to the study of policy change, and impact gauged in this way is what social scientists

are most often referring to when they discuss the determinants of public policy /1

e begin with what might be called the >core> hypothesis in studies of the direct impact of

political organi&ations on policy we then present three additional hypotheses that +ualify or

refine the core hypothesis, and provide evidence relevant to all four hypotheses

1 'he core hypothesisD Political organi&ations have a substantial direct impact on policy change

-ffectively, this means that they have a substantial impact even after all other variablescommonly included in recent studies are ta(en into account

2 hen public opinion on a policy /including opinions about its importance is ta(en into

account, political organi&ations direct impact will decline substantially or even disappear

A hen political organi&ations have a direct impact on policy, the impact of political parties

will be greater /in both fre+uency and magnitude than the impact of interest groups and S6!s

B %nterest groups and S6!s will affect policy only to the e)tent that their activities provide

elected officials with information and resources relevant to their prospects for reelection

!ur evidence is of a somewhat unusual type, in that it has all been provided by others e have

analy&ed every article on policy change in the three most prestigious sociology *ournals :: the"merican Sociological Review, "merican Iournal of Sociology, and Social Forces :: and the

three most prestigious political science *ournals :: the "merican Political Science Review,

"merican Iournal of Political Science, and Iournal of 3olitics :: since 1MM0 9ut we have notdone a literature review in the usual sense Rather than summari&ing the arguments and

conclusions of the articles in a conventional narrative, we used each article as a source of data,

systematically tabulating the authors predictions, variables, indicators, and findings, along withinformation about which policy issues are studied in which countries 'hese data will beanaly&ed to show how often research supports each hypothesis, and also, at times, to highlight

how little evidence is available and how little we (now

"lmost all research about the direct impact of political organi&ations on policy is based on thecore hypothesis Pet we find that it is consistent with the data only about half the time, and, of

this half, in only about half the cases is the impact of political organi&ations found to be more

than minimal Political parties do not appear to have more impact than interest groups or S6!s

Finally, we note that few studies consider the relative impact of political organi&ations and public opinion, or the role of interest groups and S6!s as conveyers of political information

'he evidence suggests an agenda for future research

'heory

';- %63"8' !F P!"T"#$! !RG"N%W"'%!NS !N 3!K%8P

%t is virtually a truism among sociologists that political parties, S6!s, and interest groups allaffect policy !n parties, for e)ample, ;ic(s and 6isra /1MMA point out that among those


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adopting the >social democratic> theory of social welfare policy, >the (ey proposition is that

increases in left:party government augment welfare effort> /54, emphasis in original ;uber,

Ragin, and Stephens /1MMA hypothesi&e that >the relative strength of parties profoundlyshape /51, "menta and 3oulsen /1MM argue that if

Eemocratic and third:party politicians >ta(e control of state governments, the resulting

regimes are e)pected to increase social spending> /AB, when the political system is democraticand policy oriented 'he view on social movements and S6!s is the same as 6c"dam,

6c8arthy and Wald /1MCC state in their much:cited review article, >'he interest of many

scholars in social movements stems from their belief that movements represent an importantforce f or social change> /525 Sociologists do not often study interest groups, but when they do,

they e)pect them to influence policy as well /eg, 8ampbell X "llen 1MMBD44

Political scientists disagree among themselves more than sociologists do on the impact of

parties, S6!s, and interest groups on policy /as will be detailed below, but they often dohypothesi&e that political organi&ations will indeed have an impact /eg, on parties, see 9lais,

9la(e X Eion 1MMA 'ufte 1M5C on S6!s, see 'arrow 1MMBD1 ald, 9utton X Rien&o 1MM on

interest groups, "usten:Smith X right 1MMBDB2

;ow much impact are political organi&ations e)pected to have Sociologists and political scientists seldom address this +uestion e)plicitly 'heir language is nearly always that used in the

first two e)amples above, where organi&ations are hypothesi&ed to >augment> or >increase> the

relevant policy outcome, but they say little about how great the impact is e)pected to be, even invery general terms %t seems reasonable to infer, however, that authors e)pect an impact large

enough to matter politically 'hey would hardly find it worthwhile to analy&e organi&ational

impacts they e)pect to be politically inconse+uential, even if by conventional statistical criteria

they are probably not &ero 6ost researchers, we presume, want theoretical and substantiveanswers to the +uestion that forms the title of a recent review article on social movementsD >as

%t orth the -ffort> /Giugnis 1MMC

Sociologists and political scientists e)pect the impact of political organi&ations on policy to besubstantial So pervasive is the view that political organi&ations have a substantial impact on

policy that we treat it as a core hypothesis in the study of democratic politics or( on the

determinants of policy change either argues on behalf of the hypothesis, or responds to it in some

way

P!"T"#$! !RG"N%W"'%!NS "NE 3.9K%8 !3%N%!N

'he most direct challenge to the core hypothesis is provided by political scientists wor( in

democratic theory 9eginning with Eowns -conomic 'heory of Eemocracy /1M45 over B0

years ago, many political scientists /and some economists have argued that electoralcompetition fre+uently forces elected officials to enact policies consistent with public opinion

!fficeholders usually strongly want to win reelection, and believe that failure to do what the

public wants will mean defeat /see "rnold 1MM0 Eahl 1MCM 6ayhew 1M5B 'his argument hasma*or implications for our e)pectations about the direct impact of political organi&ations on

policy hen a ma*ority of the public favors a policy, both parties in a two:party system, and all

ma*or parties in multiparty systems, will respond, and the policy is li(ely to be enacted


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regardless of what the party balance is 'he direct impact of party, as conventionally measured,

will be &ero /see also -ri(son, right X 6c%ver 1MMA for a good e)plication of this argument

'his will be especially li(ely when the public is intensely concerned about an issue, because it isthen that elected officials can be most certain that their actions will influence citi&ens party

choice hen the public is relatively indifferent, parties and elected officials may have more

freedom to act on the basis of differing ideologies then the party balance may matter /"rnold1MM0 Iones 1MMB

" similar argument applies to S6!s and interest groups hen a ma*ority of the public wants

particular policies enacted, it would be foolish for officeholders to respond to the wishes of

S6!s and interest groups, especially when the publics level of concern is high Kohmann/1MMADA1M states this view especially bluntly, but her opinion is fairly widely shared among

political scientistsD > by S6!s or interest groups 9urstein /1MMMDM sums upthis argument in what he calls >the direct impact hypothesis>D >the greater and more persistent the

ma*ority favoring a particular policy, and the more important the issue to that ma*ority, as

perceived by legislators, the smaller the direct impact of interest organi&ations

'hus, in opposition to the core hypothesis is what might be called the public opinion hypothesisD

hen public opinion on a policy /including opinions about its importance is ta(en into account,

political organi&ations direct impact will decline substantially or even disappear

P$%T"&S VS %N'-R-S' GR!.3S "NE S6!s

Neither the core hypothesis nor the public opinion hypothesis distinguish among types of

political organi&ations 6any political scientists would argue, however, that political parties

differ from the other two types of organi&ations in a critical wayD unli(e interest groups andS6!s, parties actually control the government %t is easy to imagine /for many political scientists, at least that elected officials would ignore interest groups and S6!s when their

reelection is at sta(e, but the dynamics with regard to political parties are more complicated

6any party activists are li(ely to have gotten into politics because they are strongly committedto relatively e)treme ideological views, and, when their party wins power, may be torn between

the need to follow public opinion and their desire to transform their own ideologies into policy

-ven elected officials most strongly oriented to reelection, and therefore to public opinion, mayfind it difficult to ignore party activists holding relatively e)treme views "ctivists support may

be crucial for winning nomination, and their time and money may be essential for winning the

general election as well /"ldrich 1MM4 'hus, the internal dynamics of parties and the electoral

system may combine to give substantial power to those in both parties who are relativelyreluctant to follow public opinion on the issues that matter most to them hen this happens, the

parties may espouse +uite different policies, and a change in the party balance may lead to

substantial policy change /2

%n addition, and consistent with the public opinion hypothesis, elected officials may feel it

relatively safe to ignore the public on issues it cares little about /though they must always be

concerned that issues not salient now may become so during the ne)t campaign hen officials


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feel this way, all three types of political organi&ations may affect policy directly but parties

control of the government may enable them to turn their preferences into policy more +uic(ly

and effectively than interest groups and S6!s can

'hus, a first refinement of the core hypothesis, which we might call the relative impact

hypothesisD

hen political organi&ations have a direct impact on policy, the impact of political parties will

be greater /in both fre+uency and magnitude than the impact of interest groups and S6!s

;! %N'-R-S' GR!.3S "NE S6!S 6"P "FF-8' 3!K%8P

'hose who study S6!s and interest groups have come to Y

Economic nationalism is a term used to describe policies $hich emphasi%edomestic control of the economy, labor and capital formation, even if this re


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%n the .nited States, an e)ample of economic patriotism would be the numerous bumper

stic(ersD >9e "merican, 9uy "merican>

[edit] Criticisms

8onsumer preference for local goods gives local producers more mar(et power and allows local producers to lift prices to e)tract greater profits 'his occurs because firms that produce locally:

produced goods can charge a premium for that good 8onsumers who favor products by local producers may end up being e)ploited by profit:ma)imi&ing local producers For e)ample,

protectionist policy in "merica that placed tariffs on foreign cars gave local producers Ford and

G6 mar(et power that allowed them to raise prices of cars, which negatively affected "mericanconsumers who faced fewer choices and higher prices


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-e2nancing risk

',erational ris)

Degal risk

-olitical ris)

Re,utational ris)

.olatility ris)

"ettlement ris)

-ro(t ris)

"ystemic ris)

v / d / e

Political ris' is a type of ris( faced by investors, corporations, and governments %t is a ris( thatcan be understood and managed with reasoned foresight and investment

9roadly, political ris( refers to the complications businesses and governments may face as a

result of what are commonly referred to as political decisionsHor ?any political change that

alters the e)pected outcome and value of a given economic action by changing the probability ofachieving business ob*ectives@


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analysis, it would be incorrect to e+uate macro:level political ris( analysis with country ris( as

country ris( only loo(s at national:level ris(s and also includes financial and economic ris(s

6icro:level ris(s focus on sector, firm, or pro*ect specific ris(


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States /8F%.S, the selection of dangerous local partners with political power, and

e)propriationTnationali&ation of pro*ects and assets

'o e)tend the 8F%.S e)ample above, imagine a 8hinese company wished to purchase a .Sweapons component producer " micro:level political ris( report might include a full analysis of

the 8F%.S regulatory climate as it directly relates to pro*ect components and structuring, as wellas analysis of congressional climate and public opinion in the .S toward such a deal 'his type

of analysis can prove crucial in the decision:ma(ing process of a company assessing whether to pursue such a deal For instance, Eubai 3orts orld suffered significant public relations damage

from its attempt to purchase the .S port operations of 3X!, which might have been avoided

with more clear understanding of the .S climate at the time

3olitical ris( is also relevant for government pro*ect decision:ma(ing, whereby government

initiatives /be they diplomatic or military or other may be complicated as a result of political

ris( hereas political ris( for business may involve understanding the host government and

how its actions and attitudes can impact a business initiative, government political ris( analysis

re+uires a (een understanding of politics and policy that includes both the client government aswell as the host government of the activity

[ edit ] %olitical ris$ and !egapro&ects

3olitical ris( has been shown to be particularly large for very big investment pro*ects, so:calledmegapro*ects 'his is because such pro*ects are especially visible and are often used for political

purposes, eg, monument building, in addition to the functional demands the pro*ects are

designed to meet 6oreover, megapro*ects have been shown to be prone to controversy because

of widespread cost overrun, schedule delays, and benefit shortfalls for such pro*ects 8ontroversyoften translates into improvised political decisions, which translate into political ris(


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insurance usually outlines specific triggers, such as e)propriation or breach of contract by a local

party, which entitle the insured entity to a pay:out after relin+uishing control of the insured

pro*ect to the insurer 3olitical ris( insurance, however, often involves premiums which mustfactor in considerable uncertainty and the threat that arbitrary decisions will affect the value of

insured property 3olicies therefore can be e)pensive and are manuscripted after e)tensive

negotiations "n e)perienced and specialist bro(er can assess the availability of appropriatecover from private and public insurers and then, based on their e)perience and e)pertise,

negotiate appropriate policies 9usinesses can also purchase hedges, which could be derivative

instruments, which allow them to reduce ris( by selecting a level of return based on a given setof outcomes

3olitical ris( mitigation ta(es place before, during, and after an investment 3rior to investment,

businesses can perform due diligence related to local partners and carefully word and structure

their contracts hile a pro*ect is on:going, the investor may benefit from building local politicalleverage through community activities "fter a ris( has been reali&ed, its effects may be

mitigated through post:hoc litigation and retaliation, as well as the implementation of a

previously developed contingency plan, or e)it from the mar(et
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the sovereignty of nations

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