the soviet space nuclear power programthermoelectric energy co111·ersloo ... trans from a heated...
TRANSCRIPT
~middot_ 1 C05617906
bulljlshy
r-
t [~middot c ~ middot
I
laquo I -Seeret_
SECRET
Directorate of Intelligence Withheld under statutory authority of the
Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 (50 U SC section 3507)
jbull ~middot ~
I
middot
a~GRET
Withheld under statutory authority of the Central Intellig-ence Agency Act of 1949 (50 C05617906 SECRET
--- middot-middot---middot- middot--middotmiddot- gt ----middot-middot ---middot - USC section 3507)L________~-----------
Seeret~~~~tGi-- A~~
EtJ ~ -- -----------------reg middot Dir_fcorate of liittllige~ce
--------- middotmiddot--middot---middot-----middotmiddot-------middotmiddot-middot middot- ---middot--middot
Tbe middotSoVietmiddotSpace N~uclear Power progr-am I_____
A Research Paper
This paper was prepared by______ middot Office ofScie11tific and Weapons Research Comments and queries middotare welcome and may be
directed t~ I
Withheld under statutory authority of the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 (50 USC section 3507)
SeeretRevuseBlank SW91-J0071X Oc1ob 1991
SECRET
bull)
m ~ bull
bull
middotlt4-lt~~~middot
SECRET
C05617906 SECIU~i
Withheld under statutory authority of the Central Intelligence Agency Act of1949 (50 USC section 3507)
Seere
JJle $ovi~t Space NUCtear Power middotPro~raml I
Summary l11forflfllrio11 available oi af-i7 Aurru1 1991 WtlS usedmiddot iluhis report
middot TheSoviet-spac~ nuclear power program has concentrated on developing 1luclear reactltJrs to provide electric power andon developing reactors to beat prop~llan~ for nmicroclear rockets As early as 1971 the Soviets were using a low-power ieactor togenerate abptit 25kilowatts of electric power to qperatea middotRadar Ocean Reconnai8sanc~$~tettite This program apparshyently ended-in 988 probably because c0ncern
1 abq~t accidental nuclear reactor reentry outweighe4 the value ohhe shortli~ed satellit~[J
lf the need arose tle USSR has the capabUity touS(I low-power reacrnrs in space at any time
I25Xl E013526
I25Xl E013S26
I
Efforts to develop higher power Oltput space reactor systems
ha fonding sharply reduce Although we believe termination is unlikely the space nuclear reactor will not make significant progress unless stable sources of funding are found Soviet scientists are urgently seeking support from other countries particularly the United States for these programs These Cientists see foreign support as a source of much-needed hard currency and ~s a means of locking in SovietGovernment funding CJ
25Xl E013526 Within 10 years the Soviets could produce a thermionic reactor with
____________________Research is under way that could lead to fast reactors using in-core multicell thermionic convert- middot middoters and gas-c00led reactors coupled to turbines producing from hundreds to a Jew thalsand kilowatts of electricity The lack of funding has limited work on thesemiddotsystems tomiddot component t~tsI I The Soviets have pursued development of nuclear reactors for rocket propulsion for more than 30 years but progress bas been slow
I25Xl E013526
Sccxet SWIJ1-10074X OtUibir 1991
Withlieid -under middotstatutory authority of the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 (50 USC section 3507)
5
7
C05617906 SECRET
Withheld under statutory authority of the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 (50 USC section 3507)
Tables
L RORSAT Launch History
2 Soviet RTGs Developed for Use on Satellites of the Regatta Program
viSecret
SECRET
C05617906 SECRET _ _ ______ ___ - -- -middot-- _~~ --middot-middotmiddot-bull-gtmiddotmiddotmiddot~middot
Withheld under statutory authority of the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 (50 USC section 3507)
Cont~ts
Joge
Summary iii Introduction l
Spice Electrical Power (Jeneration
Thermoelectric Energy ltonversion
Romamka
RORSAT 2
Rdiaisotope Tberm9el~tric Generators 6 Thermionic Energy Conversion 6
TOPAZ 6 it~
Cosmos 1818 and Cosmos 1867 7
Yeltnisey (TOPAZ-II) 9
Brayton-Cycle Conversion 10
Space Nuclear Propulsion Tecllriology 13
Nuclear Electric Propulsion 13
Nuclear Rockets 13
Solid-Core Nuclear Rocket Debullelopment 13
17J 25Xl E013526 J 1 middot -middot Gas-Core Nuclearmiddot Rockets 17
Prospects aIJd Missions for Soviet Space Nuclear Power 18 Near-Tenn Low-Pow~ Missions 18 High-Power Missions and Nuclear Rockets 18
Mars middotMission 18
Other Potential Missions 21
Appendix
Rocket Propulsion Teehnology-A frimer 23
Insets middotTjiermoelectrfo ConversiQn
Thermionic Conversion 3
Space Nucl~r ProDulsion Technology
v -Sectet
13
SECFUpoundT
Tempel(lture 1
drop
Hotjuncsion ~~Jljt~fifil~i~(
N-type Pmiddottype material material
I
C05617906 SECREf
- Sc1sectshyWithheld under statutory authority of the Centrai Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 (50 USC section 3507)
The Soviet Space Nuclear Power Program L==J
Introduction
The Soviet Union establishCd nuclear pawer for space applications as a goal in the early 1950s The Soviets moved quickly in the development of iowmiddotpower nucleshyar reactors for electric PQwer production in space By late 197 l they began routinely using a system promiddot ducing approximately 25 kilowatts of electricity (kWe) to power a military satellite known to the US Intelligence Community as the Radar Ocean Rcconmiddot naissance Satellite (RORSAT) C==J Work on high-power reactors for space applications and on nuclear rockSt technology proceeded more slowly Ncarmiddotfull-scalc testing of nuel~r rocket fuel
middotdid not begin until 1975 Although Soviet claims about nuclear rocket fuel development are impressive neither the nuclear rock~t nor the highmiddotpaWei reactor effort has moved beyond the component testing phase
C==J
Space Electrical Power Generation
Thermoelectric Energy Co111middotersloo In the 1950s the Soviets began to develop nuclear reactors with lhermoelectric energy conversion for space applications (sec inset) Soviet scientists appar- ently pursued parallel programs which may have used the same thernioefectric material but had no other common features The Romashka reactor never dcvelmiddot oped beyond demonstrating technoiogy and the oomshypeting program became the power source for the
- ( Soviet RORSAT (Romashka is Russian for middot~daisy0
so called because Qf the fiowermiddotlikc arrangement of its radiator fins) c=J Romashk4 On 14 Augustmiddot1964 the Soviet$ began testing the Romashkaa simply designed fast reacshytor with thermoelectric ener~~middot conversion-at the
TJermaelectric Co1t11ersion
Thenuoelectric Converter
middotIn 1821 Thomas Seebeck discovered that volrage is produced by dissimilar malerlals in a temperature gradient-a phenomenon known as the thennoeecmiddot tric effect Few practical applications existed until the 1950s when semiconducting thermoelec1ric marerials were developed As heat is applied rtgt a PmiddotN a semi~ conductor junction electrons rnoverom the hot w the cold end af the N-type material and positive charges movefrom the hot to the cold erid a1he P~rype material seefizure) This charge movemenr creates a voltage Thermoelectric converters are lowshyefficie111y devices only 2 to 5 percent of the supplied ener$JI is converted to electricity They are also highly reliable simple and durable which makes them attractive for space applications 0 bull Th lttm fmiddotN reftrs to 1he two rpet efremiconduclins mareial In P-1y11e marerla currnl Rows by move111e1tt QfsgtObulllriw charges (lioles In N-1ypt material c11rre111 flows by movemtnt 41 nitsative charges (elmrontJ0 middot
Withheld under statutory ~tithority of the Central Intelligence Agency Actof 1949 (50 USC section 3507)
Secretshy ~
bull flt middot bull raquo+ bull middot L w bullII bull J t 10_ _bull bull bull middot~I bullbull
SECRET
Shilll$ End-face reflector
Cootainer reflector
CQnvel1c radiator
~-=rr11-Beryllium reflector
Vessel -11-+--n-- End-filce reflector
1ltztqffr-- fuel disc
-r~-i1bullr~~11iL11-_-eoo1ro1 rod
I
C05617906 8ECRET ~ -middotmiddot -~- -- bull -- middotmiddotmiddotmiddot-middotmiddotmiddot- ~ _ middot-middot ---
Withheld under statutory authority of the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 (50shy
USC section 3507) t Institute of Atomic Energy fmeni Kurchatov (IAE) in Moscow The Romalhka was fueled by uranium dicarbide (UC) CXlntaincd in 11 plate-like graphite containers These plates were surrounded by a monoshylithic radiJl beryllium retJector A- key feature was a layer of araphite cla4ding between the fuel ccmtainers and the beryllium reflector and another layer between the outside of the refteclor and the converters The graphite prevented chemical reactions between the reflector and fuel and the refiector and the siliconshygennanium (SiGe) thermoelectric ~nverters Materishyal compatibility was a major concern in the Roshy
j lil
f I I
I
11 middot l ~ _
C M lll rf) -
0 ~ -
r1 M
-
mashka rogram he first
7 7R==-om-as-=hka_n_ev_e_r_r-ea-ch-cd~cntica-lityb-cca-us_etbe matemiddot
rials reacted so poorly when the reactor was heated to
The design goal for Romashka was 1000 hours of operation but it actually accumulated 15000 hours before being shut down for examination in 1966 Csce
figure l) ln 1977J I25Xl E013526 j
Bnew Roma~hka bad been developed)
25Xl E013526
and the new Romashka was apparently the last ln the eally 1970s I D Moro~ov published a paper describing a Romashka with a thermionic ronvertet (see inset) The idea of a thcnnionic Ro~ashka reargtshypeared in a 1990 paper presented at the Seventh Symposium on Space Nuclear Power Systems but this was nothing more than a revisit of the earlier 1970s middotconce_ptc=J
RORSAT The Soviet RORSAT used a nuclear reacshytor to power a conventional real aperture radar The RORSAT was developed to locate and track US carrier battle groups The relatibullely low-power radar limited the maximum RORSAT operational orbit to less than 300 kilometers (km) The SoViets have stated that a reactor was the only feasible power source for this satellite series They claim that solar arrays capable of providing several kilowatts of electrical
2
Figurel Design Parameters of Romashka Reactor
shy
Withheld under statutory authority of the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 (50 USC section 3507)
SECRET
ri t f 1 I
L L
l p
~I
I
t
I l ~
Load+ _____ Electron
t5ECREf -middot ~ bullbull middot- d - _
Withheld under statutory authority of the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 (50 USC section 3507)
SeeFet
Thermionic Conversion
Thermionic Converter
Thomas Edison first observed the emission of elec~ trans from a heated lamp filamenr Heating metal middot increases the kinetic energy ofconduction electrons Electrons with ki~tic energies greater than a value known as the work function may escape the surface of the metal 11 a cooler meral surface is place4 close lo the hot surface electrons boiingaff the hot surface wiJ condense on the cooler surface The hot surface shythat emits the electrons is called the emitter and the cooler surface that coleers the electrons is called the collector IIa conducting path is provided between the emitter and collector a current will Row Filling
gases are used in rherrnio11ic converiers lo neutralize rhespace charge thaz would otherwise build up around rhe emitter and retard the passage ofelecshytrons Cesium vapor is the most commonfiling gas (see figure D Thermionic converters are relatively inefficient deshyvites about S to JO percent af rhe energy is convened to electricity) bur they are rnore effective than ther~ moelectric converters and retain milch af thei1 rugshygednes6 and simplicity Thermionic converters can operate at a high-hear rejection remperaiure which is particularly important tn space applications becallSe rhe size afrhe radiator is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the temperature Thus thermionshyic reactors offer the possibility of comparatively highshyconversion tdiciency and a compact radiator reducshying overall system mass D The technical challenge Of a thermionic reactor using in-core converters is In the converter destgn and materials The fuel elements are complex and the emitter-collector spacing is typically about 05 millishymeter Properties of the emilters collectors and insulators must be maintained despite having to operate ar high temperatures in a htgh-radiarion environment Further bullthe emitler material must reshysist the tendency afrhe nuclear fuel to expand as the reactor operates D middot
I I
j power would have been so large that drag would have
middotseverely affected satellite stabili2ation and its lifeshyspan D
The RORSAT used a fast reactor with liquid metal sodium-potassium eutectic alloy) coolant and thermoshyelectric converters Heat was dissipated by a radiator covering much of the forward portion of the satellite
I I25Xl E013526
of Cosmos 626 651 and 654 suggested a reactor thermal power of about 50 kilowatts thermal kWt) However analysis of debris from Cosmos 954 indicatshyed the PoWer was about 100 kWt Other characterisshytics arc given in figure 20 The RORSATs missions typically lasted about 65 days although missions as shortas eight days and as
Withheld under statutory authority of the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 (50 USC section 3507)
-secretshy
bull
~middot bull 1 middot ~~1~1t~~~ middot~middot~~ ~f - ~middot 1 bullbull
SECRET
C05617906 SECRET _ middot----- -middotmiddot -- ~~--- -~- middot-middot middotmiddot---middot- ---
Withheld under statutory authorify of the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 (50 USC section 3507)
I25Xl E013526
long as 136 days were observed (sec table l) At the end or the mission the reactor was shut down by ground command or by a preprogrammed automatic sequence separated from the satellite and-boosted into a high orbit (about 800 km) If the boost was successful the reactor would remain in orbit for about 300 years allowing its radioactivity to decay to a safe level before reentry If the boost did not oceur however the highly radiltlactive reactor would reenter the atmosphere within a year or less Secau~ the Sovietuecognized that if the boost was not su~essful the RORSAT reactor would reenter the atmosphere they designed the reactor to break up on reentry theieby dispersing the fuel by aerodynamic heating Theoretical and experimental studies of RORSAT reactor breakup were described in a paper presented in i 99 I at the middotEighth ~ymposium 011 Space Nuclear Power Systcms1 I
But when the RORSAT Cosmos 954 failed to boost itself into high orbit and reentered the atmosphere 0ver Canada on 24 January 1918 radioactive debris-a ew pieces with activities as high as 200 roentgens per hour-were spread over a large area The contaminated area was uninhabited but if reenmiddot try had QCcurred over a populated area radiation injuries a11d possibly a few deaths would have ocshycurred As a result the Soviets added a backut1 safety
system to the RORSATgt I lSXl E013526 I ___________I this backup system is aut9shy
matically activated by the loss of radio contact or loss of satellite stability or by atmospheric heating wbcn the satellite reaches an altitude or about IOO km In addition the reactor was modified so that tne core was ejected about SO minutes after the activation of either the primary or backup safety systems whether or not the reactor had reached high orbit Ejection of the core was intended to guarantee that the highly radioactive fuel was dispersed in tbe upper atmoshysphere by separating the reactor from structural and reHector material that might protect the fuel during reentry middotI I middot RORSAT mislliollS were not limited by the rcaciors lirupan The reactor ltln Lhe malfunctionina Cosmos 1900 was still opcritlng after 294 day when thbull croeracncy backup system finally activatmiddot ec1o
Withheld under statutory authority of the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 (50
4 USC section 3507)
SECRET
i
I
C 1 05617906middotmiddotmiddot--middotmiddotmiddotmiddot- middotbull - middot bull middot 7 -middotmiddotmiddotmiddotmiddot middot-middot SECRET
Tablel RORSAT hlJlcbmiddot History
Mission C-oimlli I Launch Oaui Launch Time (Zulu) Days of Radar Operation
Propulsion middottesu 102 27 Dec 196S ms 12S 20 Jul 1966 OSS8
Transfer maneuver tests 198 27 Dlaquo 1967 1129 201 22Mar 1968 0930 Failurebull is Jan middot1969 lil4
Failure~ l Nov1969 10SI 367 3 Oci 1970 1026
402 1 Api 1971 1130 1 Operational satellites 469 25 be 1971 1130 [)
si6 21Aug1972 1036 32 Failurebull 25 Apr l973 0910 626 27 Dec 1973 2020 46
651 IS May 1974 0730 12
6S4 17 May l974 om 7S 723 2Apr1975 1100 3 724 7 Apr 1975 1100 66 785 12 bee l97S 1245
860 17 Oltt 976 1807
861 21Oet1976 16~3 62 9S2 16 Sep 1977 142S 21
954bull is S~middotl977 1348 40 Post-Cosmos 954 middot 1176 29 Apr i980 1140 134 mission$ 1249 S Mar 198 1809 106
1266 21Apr1981 0345 8 1291 24 Aug 1981 1637 12
1365 l4 May 1982 1928 136
1372 l Jun 1982 nss 71
1402bull 3G Aug middot19a2 1006 412 2 OCt 1982 ( 0002 40 1$79 29 Jun 1984 0028 90 1607 31 Od 1984 1229 93 1670 1Au111985 OS36 83 Hi77 23 Aug 1985 2234 61
736 21 Mar t986 lOOS
1771 lOAu 1936 12SS SS
1860 18 Jun 1987 2133 1900d 12 Dce 1987 1421 llO
l932 1~ Mar 188 1421 66
bullSpacecraft diil not acliieve orbit therefore it is not ilven middotcosmas d=ignadon b Cosmos 954 reentered aver Canada on 24 Jarcuary 1978 middot bullCosmos 1402 reentered over the Indian ~n on 23 January 1983 4 CltlSmos 1900 backup safety system activated 011 t October 1988
This tabllr is I____I Withheld under statutory authority of the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 (50 USC section 3507)
middotmiddot-
~ middotmiddot ~
SECRET
C05617906 SECRET
Secret
Withheld under statutory authority of the Central Iittelligence Agency Act of 1949 (50 USC section 3507)
~middot j
1 ~-
~
~~ 1 bull
Tue CJre successfully sepaflted frommiddot Cosmos l 402 after it failed to middotboost itself into high orbit apd reentered the atmosphere oo 23 January 198l The
middot last RORSAT safety systemicroi faiiure Y3S in 1988 this time the backup system of C-Osmos I90Q triggered by atmospheric hcatingmiddotsucessfttlymiddotboOst~ the reactor to high orbit Theremiddotbave been nollORSATfaunches since Cosmos 1900-malfunctioned Considerable in- middot ternationat roncern over the maifunctioning of Cosmiddot mos i 900 and subseque~tlltatem~nts bymiddot Soviet scienshytists suggestSovienafety reqwrements have been changed to preclude the operation of re~ctors in low Eart4 orbit CJ middot Radioisotope Thennoelectric Generatora Radiois9tope thennoelc1Jtric generat6is (RTG) are composedmiddotof a nuclear heat source and thermoelectric power conversi9n equipme~t Unlike a reactor where fissioning uranium is the heat source the heat sourec for an RTG is ra~ioactive decay of an artificially produced unstablemiddotisotope In 1964 the Soviets launched an tOrion RTG on CosmQs 84 A second RTG followed on Cosmos 90 Th Orion was a short-lived RTG using a po1onium-2l0 heat source (138-day half-Uie) These technoiogy demonst~ation flights are the only known use of RTGs in space by the Soviets The Soviets did USemiddot radioisotope heat sources to warm critical equipment on the runokbod moon rovers in 1969 and 1973 but tbeRTG program was basically dormant for 25 years I I In L990 Soviet scientists blamed their tack of proshygress in RTQ development for space applications on ~dcquate middotfunding Recently the Soviets d~idd to again use RTGs inspaeeSmall RTGs are being developed for Se on two satellites of themiddotRegatta program which will study the affect of solar activity on tbe environment schepuled for launch in about 1995 The RTG will provide an ~to-qomous power source for t~e satellite data and control unit Small RTGs may also be used on the small space laboramiddot lory satellites plannecimiddotror about the year 2000 Work on larger RTGs ismiddotfalte~g
25Xl E013526
Secret
25Xl E013526
Thermionic Energy Co11r~Siori Steps leadingmiddotto the ~ev~iriP~ellt qfbullthlrmionic reacshytors )gtegan in 1958 at themiddot middot teofrPhysics and Power Jngineering (FEI)bull middot Inreactor tests of thermionic converters began hd96f
25Xl E013competing progratriS
-p-ac_e_rea_otors began in l965Ftic wbicbmiddotor-iginatedin Obnin~k middot multicell i~ermionic fue middot middot (TOPAZ is the Russian acronym formiddot th~rmioni6 cilnversion in the re~ctor core or fer bullifnYYmiddot~PJltnVYprecr braroliilnie v dktivnoy ro middot Yeiii$ey design which originated in the central D~Sign Bureau for Machine Building fo Leningrad (now St Petersburg) featured single-cellTFEs Initially these were altershynate Yersions of the same project but the programs quickly becam~ separate Initi~l work on the TOPAZ was funded by the Soviet Navy possibly for eventual UC in submarine detection The Yenisey reactor was
526
-smiddot
onginally to power a geostationary civilian communimiddot ----------- cations satellite Later the 25Xl E013526 military took o~er the Yenisey reactor Potential military missions for the Yenisey included powering an aircraft surveillance radar satellite and a military communication6 satellite A lifespan of 10000 hours at a power ltif at least S kWe was required Unlike TOPAZ Yenisey was a highly classified program I I
TiJP4Z In 1970 the first prototype TOPAZ reactor became operational at the FEI in Obninsk This reactor was shutmiddotdown in 1971 after l300 hoursmiddotof operation at power levels up ~o 72 kWe A second TO)AZ prototype became operational in 1972 at Obninsk This reactor operated for 5000 hours but rep0rtedly produced electricity for only l 600 hours A tliird TOPAZ protQcype b~me operational in Marchmiddot 1973 and generated electricity for 2760 hoursD middotshy
Withheld under statutory authority of the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 (50 USC section 3507)
6
SECRET
C05617906 SEQREJ
Withheld under statutory authority of the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 (50 us~c section 3507) middot-------middot~-middot--------middot~-----
TaWel SltnietRTGs Developed for Use OD Satellites of the Regatta Pro~
EI~trical Weiitht Specific Power (kilograms) Power
(watts) (wans kitltgtgramr)
RTG238-00212 002 os 004 RTG-238-03(7 oi 20 OlS
RT0middot238middot37 30 so 06
The prototype TOPAZ reactors were zirconium hydride moderated liquid metal cooled and fueled with uranium dioxide enriched to 90 percent uraniummiddot 235 The reactors used 79 TFEs eacb containing five converters The TFEs were conqected in a seriesshyparaUel arrangement with silt circuits in the outer section and an auxiliary section of 19middotparalle conshynected TFEs in the center dedicated to the electroshymapetic coolant pump Reactor ointrol was acmmshyplished by using rotating drums wttb absorber sections in the reflectorcJ Although early TOPAZ reactor performance was satisfactory TFE performance was at best marginal Efficiency levels were lower than expected Poisoning of ~itter su~faces by trace impurities caused electrishycal power to decrease with time Mass transfer of emitter material to the insulators and fuel swelling decreased internal resistance of the interelectrode gap causing short circuits Clearly materials probshylcms severely limited the lifespan and thus the potenshytial u~ility of the TOPbZ POtot~=J
The TOP~Z pr~tolypcs wen followed by a fourth ryaclor ins~Ued in the TOPAZ facility at the FEI Two types of emitters were tested tungsten-coated single-a-ystal molybdenum and uncoated singleshycrystat molybdenum According to a paper presented in May 1990 at t~e Obninsk conference on nucle~r power engineering in space the reactor operated for S000 hours and produccd up to 9 kWe Tests were completed in i978 but the results have nevei been publisbed and the existence of this reactor was not revealed until 1990=J
7 Seent
~
-middotmiddotimiddot t ~ f~~~- bullfJ4 bull 4 ~ middot~i ) bull bullbull bull bull middotmiddot
shy
----1 25Xl E013526 as of JuJy 191 ~~~ TQPAZprogram was
complete a~dtlc Sofets Ycrecahable of flying a nuclear thermionic-ronverter middotHowever automatic startup of - o~ypelf~~AZf~~tor was not achieved middot 979 bullThis was ioliowed in the period 1982middot84 byl two tests1offlightbullsytem prototypes The first protot)~middot ~hi~li use9 singl~~~ystal molybdenum emitters CPVltiedWith~irtgle-cfY~~l tungsten was tested for 4lsdtflioursTqe s~cQndtirototype whfoh used singl~-~~st~l irligtYbdenilm emitters operated for 7 000 hours These teSts were followed by orbital tests of two thermionic reactarsD
Cosmos 1818 and Cosmos 1867 On l February 1987 the Soviets launched lhe first thermicnic reactor into space on Cosmos 1818 middotThis was followed on 10 July 1987 by a second reactor on Cosmos 1867 Unlike the RORSAT these reactors orierated in the 800middotkilomeshyters orbit and so no end-of-life orbital transfer mashyneuver was required Cosmos 1818 operated for 143 days and Cosmos 1867 operated for 342 days
I I
Beginning in 1989 the Soviets revealed a number of details about the flight tests of the two reactors The reactor is now referred to as TOPAZ-I It used the TOPAZ multicell TFE design The reactor on Cosshymos 1818 used single-crystal molybdenum emitters and the reactor on Cosmos 1867 used an emitter of single-crystal molybdenum coated with a layer of single-crystal tungsten The lifespan of both reactors was limited by the amount of cesium carried (25 kg) Cosmos 1867 operatiO longer beltause the optimum cesilim pressure for tungsten emitters is lower No attempt was made to recycle cesium which passed through the reactor and was vented tosPace through a zero-thrust nozzle According to Soviet staLcments there was no design requirement for a long life for the TOPAZmiddotI system Had the supply of cesium not been limiting loss of hydrogen from the zirconium hydride moderator would
_have limited life tCJ about two years
Characteristics of the TOPAZ-1 reactor are given in figure 3 __ __
Withheld under statutory authority of the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 (50 U SC section 3507)
SECRET
I
I 1middot
SECRET
FigureJ Design Parameters ofTOPA7rl Reactor
TOPAZ-I Reactor
Soviet scientists claim that Cosmos 1818 and Cosmos 1867 were primarily reactor tests
====~~~~~~~--- ----~~__~----==
1 middot 25Xl E013526 th_e_T_O_P_A-Z--I-fli-gh_t_sw-e-re___
intended to verify reactor suitability for use as a power source for satellites designed to monitor US ~
Seerel
submarines Flight tests of TOPAZ-I were successful but the Yenisey (TOPAZ-II see figure 4 reactor won the competition The TOPAZ-I production program was terminated and two space reactors that had been completed are fr sale I I
Withheld-under statutory authority of the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 (50 middot U SC section 3507) 8
SeCRET
C05617906 ~ --middot-~middot middotmiddot-middot middotmiddotmiddotmiddotmiddot - --middotmiddot- -~
SeeFet
I
1bull
[
i
Imiddot k
~middot
r
r~~05617906 Stt1et
I25Xl EOi3526
Yenisey (TOPAZ-II) I25Xl E013526
the first complete test of the Yenisey reactor occurred in 1973 Unlike TOPAZ-I the Yenisey can
be fully tested in a nonnuclear mode by insertingtungsten heaters into the TFEs in place of the nuclear fuel pellets Nonnuclear testscontinued up to 1982 in
9middot
SECRET
I
10Seeret middot
middot~ftmiddot-
bull S
i middot ~ middotmiddot
ECR
~ bull l
ET
C05617906 middotmiddot middotmiddot--- ---middotmiddot---middot -middotmiddotmiddotmiddotmiddotmiddot- _ SEGRfT
Seeret bull I
Withheld under statutory authority of the Central In~elligence Agency Act of 1949 (SO USC section 3S07)
Figures Brayton-Cycle System
(
Imiddot Reactor
A Brayton-cycle system is simply n cl()led-cycle gas turbine with amiddot nqcloor beat source and a gaseous working fluid typicall)bullhelium or xenon Most suchsystems utilize a heat Cxihanger called a ncuperator 10 increase efficiency
The motie for switching to a dynamic power oonvenion system is 10 increase efficiency o~r static comren1ion systems A Braytoncycle system would iypically hilVean efficiency of 20 to 30 percent
I
vacuum test stands in Leningrad (now St Petersburg) The total number of tests is unknown but tbe engishyneer claims that between 1975 and 1980 at least seven test reactors were produced and that by 1982 three or middotfour test reactors were built each year Th existence of the Yenisey reactor was revealed in 1990 at the Seventh Symposium on Space Nuclear Power Sys-terns During the presentaOon PonomarevmiddotStepnoy apparently not having approval to reveal the cla~ified name stumbled over what to call the reactor A US scientist volunteered the name TOPAZ-II
I wbich
Soviets have used ever sinceI the
25X1 E013526
25Xl E013526 The cesium supply still limits
ultimate life to about three years but the Soviets have designs for a circulating cesium system and estimate that the ultimate limit on the operating lifespan of the TOPAZII is in the five- to seven-year range
I25Xl E013526
25X1 E013526 Brayton--Cycle Conversion I ~ lthe bulk of Soviet work on electric power production in space has fo cused Qn thermionic energy production However work on closed-cycle Brayton systems for higher~wer applications is also being conducted (see figur)e
_ 25Xl E013526 j Withheld under statutory authority of the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 (SO USC section 3S07)
i
C05617906 middot middotmiddotmiddot middot------ --middotmiddotmiddot-middotmiddotmiddot-middotmiddotmiddot-middot-- - SESR~T
Withheld under statutory authority of the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 (50 U SC section 3507)
I 25Xl E013526
The principal fuel-element test facility is the 400shykilowatt RA reactoi Key tec~nical c~aracteristics of the reactor are shown irdigure 6 Sketches shown in 1990 at Obninsk and in 1991 at-Los Alamos New Mexico indicate ~he reactor is air-ltaoled the cooling air mixes with heated inert gas from the test channels and then exhausts directly to the-almosphere This design precludes the use of the reactor for turbine tests consistent with Soviet statements that complete
modeI Brayton-cycle systems
I middot have not been run in a nuclear
f
Igt jmiddot
L~ middot~
le-~~middotbull
v
I 25Xl E013526
Secret
j
Figure6 RA Reactor and Characteristics - - -~-
RA1eactor
Test fuel assemblies
Air reed
Channel filling S1tem argon helium and nitrogen)
--~~-2-5_x_1_E__o_1_3_52_6~~~~~1
II
- bullbullbull
bullbull bull bullbull bull bullbull bull bullbullbullbullbull
middotmiddotbull_middotltmiddot~~~~~~~~~~f~~- middot _
Seeref
Withheld under statutory authority of theCentral Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 (50 USC section 3507)
SECRET
rmiddot bullmiddot r-middot C05617906 middotmiddotmiddot-middotmiddotmiddotmiddot-middotmiddotmiddotmiddot SECRET middot imiddot
Seeret
1
Figure7 _Brayton-Cycle Developments
(
[-
25Xl E013526 I
L~ r I
1 I I I l
I
1middot I
i I
jmiddot
(
middot
imiddot
Seeret 12
SECRET
C05617906 SECRET
SeeretWithheld under statutory authority of the
Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 (50 USC section 3507) middot
25Xl E013526
Space Nuclear Propulsion Technology
Nuclear Electric Propulsion The USSR first used electric propulsion in 1962middoton Zond-2 whichmiddot used pulsed magnetopliJimadynamic (MPD) thrusters for satelli~e orientation This was followedmiddotmiddot in 1971 by tests of a steady state MPD thruster on a Meteor satellite
25Xl E013526 I _Today the Soviets claim to routinely
use xenon propellant MPD tlirusters on satellites
25Xl E013526 I
Nuclear energy is the only practical source of power for large thrusters The Soviets have discussed using nuclear-powered elcenttric propulsion systems rcquirmiddot -ing from tens of kilowatts for orbital maneuvering to tens of megawatts for both manned and unmanned spaceflights to Mars
25XlE01
____However work on space propulsion ing on the more sophisticated MPD technology
I 25Xl E013526 I
Nuclear Rockets Soviet research on nuclear rockcts be an in the late
25Xl E013526
Space Nuclear Propuls011 Teclznology
IElectric Tltrus1ers Electric thrust~r~-rmr ltitthrus very-high-specificshy
~-------------------impulse (lip) enfines Types afthruiiers include
)
I ______
I
is focusmiddot
1950s
I
13
bull-bull
bull Arcjet-propellant gas flows through and is heated by an electrical arc Tsp is generally greater than 1000
bull Magnetoplosmadynamic current lowing through ionized propellant gas in a coaxial thrust chamber interacts with a magneticfield lo produce thrust IP is greater than l500
bull Ion engi1te-propelanr atoms are ionized and the resultant ions are accelerated to high velocities by an electrostaticfield The exhaust beam is neutralshyized by electron injection lp J greater than 3000
D Nuclear Rockets Nuclear rockets use energy from fission lo heal up a low-molecular-weight propellant usually hydrogen which is expanded through a nozzle to produce thrust A nuclear rocket with solid fuel can attain an lP ofbetween 850 and about 1000 fissioning
middot plasma could be used as a hear source in a nuclear rocket an bullP afroughly 2500 is at1ainable D
Solid-Core N11dear Ruckel DeveoJJment Testing of developmental fuel for solid-core nuclear rockets beshygan in 1962
I25Xl E013526
Withheld under statutory authority of the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 (50 USC section 3507)
SEGRE+
14
-d ~ i ~ ~ -t
t1
SECRET
--~~~-~~-~-1-t---~ -r - -~-------------- __ --middotmiddot- -----middot- ~-~middot ~-= -middot-~
--middot middot~-
_middotmiddotmiddot C05617906 - middot--- middot- _qEORlT
l fl l
I~ Seeretfdl
r lr ( middot-1 _
middot-_~
I _i bull
bull~middotII Figule8 Pul~ Graphite Reactor
[gt
Discharge vessel
Test fuel assemblies
Gas feed sysicm (hydrogen and nitrogen)
[
shy
I 25Xl E013526
ol
~bull
L 15
~middotmiddotmiddot bull ~- ~ -gt~~~~_~~~-middot ~ middot middotmiddot=~~~~~~-~~ ~middotmiddot bull ~middot u middotmiddot~bull
bullbull
SECRET ~ L i~ - - --middot __ ____
C05617906 S~GRET
Sees ct
25Xl E013526
j
I
L
l
r-~middot~~-----7---middot- ---~~_--~~--~~--------~
middot- f C05617906 -- ~ ~ middot 1-- middot gee RET
f -seeret _
bullI
shyi IL
I )
i I- _
j
ImiddotI
II
tmiddot
I t
l
I
i
I
bull I
bulll
I25Xl E013526 I
I25Xl E013526 I I
The Soviets have focused tlieir efforts on developing and testing nuclear rocket rmicro~l --
25Xl E013526 I
16
~ ~ bull middot~
~middot --~middot ~~middot_middotmiddot~ r ~middotI~ ~~ bull middottmiddot 1 bull
r
-SECRET
l A
J l
~t-middotmiddot
fr~ 7 90 6 --middot---8ECR~T- 7
1 n
~-~ shy Seeret Withhelq under statutory authority of the Central Int~lligence Agency Act of 1949 (50
usc~ sectio_n 3507) -~1 i I
l i
middot1 ~- i
I 1
J
~ l ~--J
middotC05 I ~
bull t
f
t
Ltj
(1
shygt middoti
~ i I f 1middot _
middot
~~ middot~ i bull middot
lmiddot bull _
-~
middot
I
I
J
- shy ~ ~
1
~shy
25Xl E013526
25Xl E013526
25Xl E013526
Gas-CoreNil~lear Roe~e~sthc $ovietsfhaye-b~ discussingg~sQrereactor- c009AAtssince the 1950s bur the effo~middotlias1~mAHi~ iltmiddot lh~ cilncept stage Tne principal pro~ne_nifarecein year5 ~~~ V M)yfvlev1 who headWtleDivisfonfor N microlt1carRockcfEngines at tilcNIItP Uritit his d~th1 in 99o The scllehic f~vCiiampi si~ce theinception oftbe pogtarriisa~~ityshytype reactor using a magnetic fieldto~confine the
fissioning plasma Heat is transferred~t6middotthi hydrogen by radiation-a process enhanceaby~lkali metals seeded in the coolJri~ ti )ncreas~ op~qfde~i1-yover the yrs numerous exJlCrimentl middoth~veP~nPcirshy
~ formed on the miidngof gas jetsltlle~clfcenttof a~ustic vibrations on criti~lity and thestability of-~ranium be~afiQride (UrJ(~ middot~Jr~ctor~E~CcentRffqr an experimiddot metit re(lttoi
bullyen _-
ylaquoar~middotag9 ltcittgnsiratlng thaJa w_a_s
middot-ir ~
bull
UFmiddotfueled pr~cti~~~U knOWImiddot
bull 1
WQd~ha~ involved surrogate materials such as Frooij~aild liquid metals rather than fissilc~matcrialmiddotIn l98Jthe bullRrogram was (cpoh~ly~cancet~b~~~~~ili~~~9Jciltt~ developmiddot ~ni~nt-cosfand riskoutweighOdthe pote~tial benefit middotfioJeverit is ho~ciiiat middotmiddot middot andmiddotother proponents kept ~ small i effottl~live Accordshying to a paper presentecr1at Obninsk~ili May 1990 the NIITP in l99i1~iQc0opcrltiJn with tne lAE will attempt to creaka uraniilm plasma in the center of a stream of flowigg futdrqg~n 1ri the IGR reactor Researchers hQpetollrieftY achieve a plasma ternmiddot perature of 8000 iri-ifi006tdand obtain for the first time data to vatiG~tetieori~cai models
CJ
I
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~---
middot~~~1~ rl 1-middot
17
f
1 I I
Withheld under statutory authority of the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 (50 U SC section 3507)
---middot-~f~~----- -----~ middot--
~
middot- middot~
middot_cos6middot1middotmiddot7-9middotGr~6Imiddot_ middot middotr bull SpoundCRET1 t - ~ - -shyi I -shy
1
Withheld under statutory authority of the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 (50 middotusc section 3507)
bull - J
__-
middot bull
-- i middot
--
f
_-
middot Prospec~and~ssions for ~~middotY~i~~a~e N~~eiir Power
~e_aj~ferm~ ~wrgtwetMissigtns middot ThcSovietS baverthc capability tomiddotlaunchlow-powermiddot s~~sect~~t9~s~a~~~n _timicroi~ S~vietmiddot~ci~nti~ts ~av~
stated thaJ tlicrc-are two TOPAZ-I and six TOPAZ~)I re~c~~fa~~all~~leTft~e al~ostccfUilrllybullln~lu~~~
the TQPAZ~IIrcactor ex)lil~ted-~Albuquerque~ NeiM~ico~in
bull _ bull - - middotbull 19 bull bull
ai
the _
Eiglith-SYniPoSium bull
Ciri -middot bull
Spa~e~
Nuclear v
PciweSystcms Theremiddot is alsofan 1 - r~middot
_ middot~iilcrto~li-~iiliiiilgt~tofRORSNrreidors~vailaSlemiddot
j j
middot1 -raquo
_ __ middot i middot-
middot-
middot bull
middot~- middot I -middot middotI
middot
middot( middot - Irmiddot I - middot bull middot-~- bull middotmiddot ~ --
middot Th~ie arcinomiddot obvious middotmissions ibowevcr middotfor reactbrs
of thls1gt0wer ~i~ss-Jithciuglfihcrearc prdbabIY middotmiddot middot R0R5h a~ailabte for use shouid-a ~riSiSiiiis~ (liete ha~e- lgtc~noIaunch~ sinee C~m~middot t 9Qc rria~fu~~~ioned~ilil9B8Witliinthc~t y~r-middotYyacncSmiddotJav l~fob~ifovaD~Ptiiy bi~ectot(f ttiemiddotUS$It~ -1middot
S~~middot R~~rch Institute and Ponomarev-StepRqy havebothstated
that there are no plans to orbit -middot
anothiit n~ciear-p0wercd spacecraft until after the y~rmiddotioootPrOduction of TOP AZ-I reactors has ~~~lcd-rtgtPAz-n components continue in producmiddot U9li~outsoViCt Government fundin2has become Ef~~~2i~andamiddotmiddotllajor porti~l of funding for the
tPPiZ p~ogr~mhas com~ from the lAEs budget r-_tlietmiddottiia~I bens funded directly Soviet scientists hope to seUmiddot atIeast one TOPAZ-II reactor to the Uriit~ S~tes~-ticlieVing that a s~le would provide iinpetus-for~fufther Soviet funding of the program
middot I
bull ItiS not surprising that the Soviets have been hard pr=Sse~ tci iigg~i missions for TOPAZ-U The low Po~e~~nmiddot41s~ort--design life limit and proviq~ lit~l~if
ariYtdyaiit~gcover solar arrays Iristead-thi S9victs ~emph~sjz~t~epotential for TOPAZ varja~tsW~tll ttiuch higher~Per power that only a1nu~1easys~em cci~~~ iir~Ma~~ovi~t concept papers have di~=u~~
bull -TOPAZmiddot~var1ants Nfltb powers of 50 to gomiddotkVe middot sucliiasysternbullmightmiddotbcmiddotpossible
~- 1 +- bullbull -middot _ -Wtille
bull --r - - middot I ~ -J 1_ size andmiddot mass middot
-middotltonsjd~ratj6n_s1~roliibli imit I l
TOPAZ-tpet~ernt~t~ r~~~~~rs~ to 202~~~ o~ Fs~i~ly 30 kWc fasfrea9~o~
iarem11cb ~o~ attrac~~ye-~or l1gher 0 pqw_~r S)S~~in-~ Sovietcoliccptrpapcis discuss lithium-cooledmurticellJFpound~astj~itigtrs p~oduci~g ioo-kWe tci2~sl~~ebull bull bull middot j1
) bull t
Butth~So~ctShav~_Ycfi~testmiddottlle-multiceiJ tEE de$fansbullbeifi~CicelpiJedorii$e in-amiddotmiddotfas~~eactor Whenconsideringsystem siu-andmassBraytoii cy~i~ srst~tiiswqii~ra~o ~e veiY middot~mpefiiv~ at1tig~er Powers-middotfr is unlikelytliata-thcrniionic fast1reactor or ~Pr~ytqil-c~~le_~Y~~~11wpii1cf~b~middotriadyJor sp~~~lisein this decade even 1fthemiddot Soviets were not having- undt~grpr9gl~ms[=J middot - -_
___ ffiglhPow
bullbull - bullerMissfuiisanaNucieat-Roekets
bull
MarsMissi~ii-Pt0Vidinfpropulsivecentwer~f11l middotbull bullmiddot - ( l middot Li - bull _
irtaiined ind urtmann~a rilissib~sto Mar~hasbeeMhc middotf~us~tAs~vi~t~~b~l~-effo~iodc~el9p-~t~nucdr rock~tS~tid~largemiddot-rtU6Jear~e~~~rjc prop~l~ionmiddot~ystei1is Yn thelate 198Os ilie Soviets scccfccfinan-ned-ftight 1to Marsmiddotas 6~e ltir tli~new s~Tcpiogramiddoti~ fobe fuiiltlca i
lt1uring ~4e i3(ii~fiv~-Y~aiP1~ncr~9Y9s)middot~ 25Xl E013526 I middot I
l middot Recentcorwepitapers_envisitinmiddot the miSsiorimiddot tie in Chlt yda(2Qi8 whmiddote~ therefative posltfons or Eartlianci Mar~ niinirriitett~veltiine aeeiiuse o( middot tileireportedmiddotsuccessindeveIQp_lng anltL(esting-nu=lebullaifUCl Clcmerii~ thtSmiddotis amiddot reallstic g~a1Jf~r~~f~~eii- funq~ q_r~a1_1ized _Progr~~middot Foi~~i~f~ifeuro~~~ howe~e~ S9yiet-~ci_cn~1istsha~c c~~P~j~~~tlattb~y had not received the financiiiJresoiircesJtieeessaiYlO proceed from technol~gy de~~lfo~tiie~l~~9 inll_gt~tc( system development Rathel- they claiined stipPort for space programs is diminishi~g E~vironmental concerns have precluded fuel-devel9Pp~11~t~tin~ at Semipalatinsk since 1985 ceot~i~(o~~Pdbullda-mov Director ofthe NIKIETanew spa~middotreacfor test facility is being considered9~middotNo~iiiamiddot ~Itil~a
b11t =onstru~tion or such a facil~ty wc1rn_91thrqf-middotihe 1trc~ic Ciicle would bcdifficulLand ex ensive Furshy-iher
25Xl E013526 flt-4amciVhad de~~d~4 ~Qd~n1~tasizc 1space n~~lear~f~P~iai i~ middotorder to use the funds far researchQnnext--gencrauon power reactors
bull
Smetannikovmiddotadded
tllat _ bull11bull_
the bull --
consenshy-middot bull
sus among NIKlET
scientis~ wa_s_ tli~t the spacemiddot ~uclear prop~lsion _program woul_a middoteventualll be can-I celed_ unless it received Western investment
earliest toI - ~-
I - - middot middot
_
middot middot middot ~ middot -1Imiddot I - -
i t_~_ - -i( J middotf 1 ~ I
_ middot i middotmiddotI I
- Uo bull
middot - -middot - ~ bull middot~
-
_ middotmiddot middot pound -
bull
- middot middot bull bull bull middot middot middot middot _middot - i middot _ middot I 25Xl E013526 _ middot---middot r Withheld under statutory authority of the
Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 (50shyUSC section 3507)
-_ I _
lbull middot_1
- -~~
c
1 bull
bullI
18
SEC REF
shy
shy
shy
-I
J
l
if
I
bull l l
_
i
1middot
middot- shy
I I
- -_
I j
1_middot
I
- - shy
25Xl E0~13526
middotbull
-middot 1middot~-r------------middot- - ~-~~rmiddot- middot~- ~middot--~--~----middot--~~-_-- -~--[~-_- middotmiddot ~~ middot-~~-- ~-rmiddot~~-r 1 middot - shylmiddot ~ C05 ~9~1 7J9 0 6 -- - -- middot- middot- middot- -middot middot- -- middot-middot- -~sectEeREt
bull 1 i bull ~middot~~
---_~middot_---~---------------- middot - Withheld under statutory authority of the
_Centrall~telligence Agency Act of 1949 (50 middotu~sc~ seetjon 3507)
middotmiddotmiddot middot ------------~-----------~ ~ -middot- ~
rl 25Xl~ E013526 b~~~tfuMngbull middot middot ltfordcvClopmcntofa largemiddotnuclcarrockcf enginemiddotwas
~lWamp~~-in midmiddot1991 T~cmiddot ~ieii~is~middot9Jai~~ tli~tQle middotI 1effortl-would receive I 3-8 middotbdhon rullles p_cr y~r
I
cmiddot Oi64r Potential Mlssions~On-e-potcritiahpplicationgt middot~middot pound6fln~clear rocket tSareuSiblcofbitaftififii ~bletbe
middot amp6~(ts)urrentlyarepr~motlnglfigtanmiddotupgfu~~middotmiddot middot T(JRAZrcactor coupled to an eiectdc propuISionuriit
N~olgli a nuclear rcentk~t r~iiit~ mor~p~opeliati~ middotthan~anuclear-electfic system~ fomiddotmuch~high~r_thrust
-itrMiCies ~ time adv~~~ge__amiddotfew Jiours~riom low middot ~~~3rtK~rbit to acostationatiiorigti~middot ratii~r tha~tliey~ar middot cmiddotmiddot1Sc)r~11ired for a ~uCiear~eiectriiiiioigtuismiddot~1_1middotsys- middot
middot tern fime is impor~t potoillilllg~tting~lhe satcllite into use burasain teducin1itli~timemiddotspenrin the Earths radiationmiddot~itS ThcmiddotSovi~bihowcverwiU havc to weigh the co$t middotaavaniag~ middotofamiddotreusaigtle-tugbull middotmiddot against ltXgtnccrns abciut -~lie lgtQ~i~le reentry of a reactor from low Earth orbit fip_9 Soviets apparently are not very serious abciliforbitalctugs using
J existing
bull bull middotbull
-- middotmiddot middot
middot-middotmiddot
s1r
- -~
I
Imiddot1
middot
-~ f I middot-middotI _ j t _ ~ bull
bullfl~ ~
~ - bull bull bull ~-
__i bullbullt
middotmiddotr --
J middot bull
- middot
l ~ middot~ -middot
~ -_ f
bull1 f
_ii~ bullbull
bull bull -
bull
middot bull 1bull-_ ~t -lt
I -
1- - --~ )-
I shy
I middot
middot
middot fl
-~ - ~ middotmiddot~ Riivifte lll~nicmiddot 21
-~
SECRETmiddotmiddot
f ~
1 P _ __ ___~ middot- bullbull ~
~ltsec1et
~
~oigt~-tcchnoogyu~~~s ~6oth~r ~lnfrYvoilin ~ccrstofundfhe project middotThusit ismostunlikelymiddot that ~~~~Ji~ )~kiiiii se~iOJlcsly ~t~ucent1~i~t~ckeis for li1i~ aPphca~~~- r---1 middot middot
L___J J
Potenti~Lmilitary iises of nmiddot~clearock~tsmiddot 01ig~t in~ cluqedirect3$~nt~ru1tis~t~jif~(ASAIJ sxstsms and antioaliisiicmisslie AB defense -interceto~rs
t~~Sobull1middotvietsweie unliRely-to pursuctliesemiddotapRliCaiionsasthe eombiri~tion ~lnuacar ~amiddotf~tyJs~~~~ Blia aati~tihg middotde~elopment~Osts outweigliU~riyadvahta~ampoffer~ igt~ IUCJiarJ~opiiislon Kk~ymiddotp~tfoi t~iseval~~tiO~ middot middotwasc~a_s~middotlt~~h~J~~t~t~~q~o~~~ts1~l~~a~~ ~~ve middot ASAT~systc~_andmiddotanABMmiddotsystern Tlius__nuclcu middot iiropulsionwo~idimprove onty1rtcr~mentally an existshy~g ~p~biliti~rathc~-~~itc~atii1g middota ciitiilbllitycJ
middot
-= ~
d ~ ~
~
rl ~ M
middot
Withheld under statutory authority of the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 (50 USC section 3507)
Seerer
_ i
-middot 1 t
11
middotlt i
r i
f middotil ~
i
1 ~middot
middot1
I
shy
shy
I
i
middot
middot l
middot 1 gt- middot _ bull I middot middotmiddotmiddotmiddotmiddot~
middot middot
middot 1 middot middot
middot
middot- middot middot middoth middot
- middot~
middot v
j
-~
1 bull
middot _
~
middot ~middot I
withheld under statutory authority of the middotcentral intelligence Agency Act of 1949 (50
USC-section 3507) middot
middotAppendix
middotR~cket Propulsion Teehnolegtgy-LA Pr~~r
Thc tbrust produced by 1folrocket~is d~femif~yen to a Jargc~xtent
4by the CXba1$t velocityWbichascprnpor~middot
ti~~~lfto the sciuarc root ~ftbemiddot~atiomiddotofmiddotthe ~xhausigaS middott~~~huurc ~t the en0middotio~~e~~~l~Al~d1th~ middot _
middot ~bl~~~~ 1r weight of themiddot~xh~u~~=~scsIJacqny~n~ J1p~alb1roriellant chemical~~~~ f~ltrt-ndox19Jzlt~r afcentf~~fij~ in amiddotcombustion cbam~r~~ncent-xpe~l~ ~-
tampr~li~ amiddotnozzle The ticsiavail middot middot- ci~i_zer _ com~in~tign isbydroge1-oxygcii llurnsprq - ~u~~g~tcr with a m~lecular~Ciintlt08middot~
lll~clciirlaquot0cket is potentially capable ofrea~fijng nigiie(~perating temperatures and useslidrogen~
Vit~ poundrttolccularmiddot weight oi-2ai~zpr~J~tiG~Tlii~ middot bull ~itf~~ncein molecular weightro1~~ll~~if~~ t~~
~iIlC exyenust temperaturemiddotamiddotnuc~ai r~et -~111 have middot ttlrecmiddottbncs the exhaust vclocityofamiddotflyqrJigen oxygen roc~eregineo - - bull
- -Thy simple fact-that the o~rating tempefture of-themiddot
f~~1~r1astr~6t~~middoti~m~n~~~ ~f~a~~l~~~ (icket middot middotc~l~Ot e~ceeo the~atenallslTeltipampj~_g~nt I tt)I th~
_ maxunum middoto~er -t - middot ~- _-
propellant bull -
temperaturew - -
abull11ttle (K)bulll=his
middot_- bull _ -- ~ bull
~ooomiddotKelvin irih~re9tHigiit l~middot ~i~itis~ to IQ(lk~at d~igp5 in whicli the fuel wasi pliSj[ia middot ao4ing irtccntive to this efrox+isthaf~~~1hydtogeii
~mPfrii iur~excltiedaMu(4looQTKthr~~o1~ctiies middot bull
- p~gin io ~is~o9lateAT~bCz~~te~p~ratUresmiddotiuggestelti middot middotmiddot (orPiaSmamiddotcore 1Uci~arr~letstne propillaniiis Cmicrolly
i middotaissociated~ fo~Jogcn wiih~~iiiol~cliiar YC of 1~ y~eldi~yen~ PltntillPltrfo~sectanc~T~orc middotmiddotmiddotmiddot r umcs gr~teitban~~~~Yltl9ampenbull0XY~en e1g_ine~ ~()~middot71~rbull ~ keyd1ffi~tYOf~nybullJl~smacore S91~~e s~ful~1~gan effezt~v~mea~~ o(Jfcepi~g tb~ tgtllsDd_iiampii~9~1anf sep~~~teQespiteycentsofresearcQ a sui~a~lepoundoi tai~mcnt~cfieinehascnoib~cridejrelopelanafot thregreti~bea~~~-middotthc-PrCISP~~sbull111~igt9oro
middot middot middot bull bull middot Rocket engine performancemiddot isoffon1cnara~te~iztid ampy ~parameter ~lle_d th~yenPecfi~ffiilf~l~e(Iijde~nedltmiddot ~~)he ratio ofthe~~p~~gen~~~-t~~i~~it~o)Vrate middot
o~ propellantL Ahydtogeno~yg~nmiddotchelll~alr9C~et- lneoretically-the most efficierltchemjcal~engin~~ t~pically hasanmiddotJ~igt9f~b~ut~1 _ids)n ~ont~l-st~ amiddotsolid--core 11ucJearr~kelco v~ a~middotmiddot1 ofl000 seconds and a plasma-oore iuicleat rocket aii I~P-of_ 1500 sc00Jdsbull ElcctricNhrusiersprod in-the rruige ofl500 fo OVcrtOOOO second
middot_
~middot - middot
~ -
~ bull bullmiddot bullmiddot middot middot ~ middot
1 bull
Withheld under statutory authority of the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 (50 USC section 3507)
middot middot -
I middot- l
bull
- Structure Bookmarks
-
- SECRET
- Directorate of Intelligence
-
- Directorate of Intelligence
-
- Directorate of Intelligence
-
- Directorate of Intelligence
-
- Directorate of Intelligence
-
- Withheld under statutory authority of the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 (50 U SC section 3507)
-
- Withheld under statutory authority of the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 (50 U SC section 3507)
-
- Withheld under statutory authority of the Central Intellig-ence Agency Act of 1949 (50
- USC section 3507)
-
- Tbe middotSoVietmiddotSpace N~uclear Power progr-am I_____
-
- Tbe middotSoVietmiddotSpace N~uclear Power progr-am I_____
- A Research Paper
-
- A Research Paper
-
- This paper was prepared by
- Office ofScie11tific and Weapons Research Comments and queries middotare welcome and may be
- directed t~
- Withheld under statutory authority ofthe Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 (50 USC section 3507)
- Seeret
-
- Seeret
-
- Seeret
-
- Seeret
-
- RevuseBlank
- SW91-J0071X
-
- SECRET
- Withheld under statutory authority of the Central Intelligence Agency Act of1949 (50 USC section 3507)
- Seere
-
- Seere
-
- JJle $
- ovi~t Space
- NUCtear Power
- middotPro~raml I
- Summary l11forflfllrio11 available oi af-i7 Aurru1 1991 WtlS usedmiddot iluhis report
- middot TheSoviet-spac~ nuclear power program has concentrated on developing 1luclear reactltJrs to provide electric power andon developing reactors to beat prop~llan~ for nmicroclear rockets As early as 1971 the Soviets were using a low-power ieactor togenerate abptit 25kilowatts of electric power to qperatea middotRadar Ocean Reconnai8sanc~$~tettite This program apparshyently ended-in 988 probably because c0ncern1 abq~t accidental nuclear reactor reentry outweighe4 the value ohhe shortli~ed s
- lfthe need arose tle USSR has the capabUity touS(I low-power reacrnrs in space at any time 25Xl E013526
- 25Xl E013S26
-
- 25Xl E013S26
- 25Xl E013526
-
- Efforts to develop higher power Oltput space reactor systems
- ha fonding sharply reduce Although we believe termination is unlikely the space nuclear reactor will not make significant progress unless stable sources of funding are found Soviet scientists are urgently seeking support from other countries particularly the United States for these programs These Cientists see foreign support as a source of much-needed hard currency and ~s a means of locking in SovietGovernment funding CJ
- Within 10 years the Soviets could produce a thermionic reactor with
- Research is under way
- that could lead to fast reactors using in-core multicell thermionic convert-middot middoters and gas-c00led reactors coupled to turbines producing from hundreds to a Jew thalsand kilowatts of electricity The lack of funding has limited work on thesemiddotsystems tomiddot component t~tsI I
- The Soviets have pursued development of nuclear reactors for rocket propulsion for more than 30 years but progress bas been slow
- 25Xl E013526
-
- 25Xl E013526
-
- Sect
-
- Withlieid -under middotstatutory authority of the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 (50
- USC section 3507)
-
- USC section 3507)
-
- SECRET
- Withheld under statutory authority of the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 (50 USC section 3507)
- Tables
-
- Tables
-
- L RORSAT Launch History
- 2 Soviet RTGs Developed for Use on Satellites of the Regatta Program
- SECRET
- SECRET
- Withheld under statutory authority of the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 (50 USC section 3507)
- Sect
-
- Figure
- Cont~ts
- Joge
-
- Summary iii
- Introduction l
- Spice Electrical Power (Jeneration
- Thermoelectric Energy ltonversion
- Romamka
- RORSAT 2
- Rdiaisotope Tberm9el~tric Generators 6
- Thermionic Energy Conversion 6
- TOPAZ 6
- Cosmos 1818 and Cosmos 1867 7
- Yeltnisey (TOPAZ-II) 9
- Brayton-Cycle Conversion 10
- Space Nuclear Propulsion Tecllriology 13
- Nuclear Electric Propulsion 13
- Nuclear Rockets 13
- Solid-Core Nuclear Rocket Debullelopment 13
- J 25Xl E013526 J 1 middot -middot Gas-Core Nuclearmiddot Rockets 17
- Prospects aIJd Missions for Soviet Space Nuclear Power 18
- Near-Tenn Low-Pow~ Missions 18
- High-Power Missions and Nuclear Rockets 18
- Mars middotMission 18
- Other Potential Missions 21
- Appendix
-
- Appendix
-
- Rocket Propulsion Teehnology-A frimer 23
- Insets
-
- Insets
- middotTjiermoelectrfo ConversiQn
- 3
- Thermionic Conversion
- 13
-
- Space Nucl~rProDulsion Technology
- SECFUpoundT
-
- SECFUpoundT
- SECREf
- -Sc1sectshy
-
- -Sc1sectshy
-
- -Sc1sectshy
-
- Withheld under statutory authority of the Centrai Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 (50 USC section 3507)
- The Soviet Space Nuclear Power
-
- The Soviet Space Nuclear Power
- Program L==J
- Introduction
-
- The Soviet Union establishCd nuclear pawer for space applications as a goal in the early 1950s The Soviets moved quickly in the development of iowmiddotpower nucleshyar reactors for electric PQwer production in space By late 197 l they began routinely using a system promiddot ducing approximately 25 kilowatts of electricity (kWe) to power a military satellite known to the US Intelligence Community as the Radar Ocean Rcconmiddot naissance Satellite (RORSAT) C==J
- Work on high-power reactors for space applications and on nuclear rockSt technology proceeded more slowly Ncarmiddotfull-scalc testing of nuel~r rocket fuel
- middotdid not begin until 1975 Although Soviet claims about nuclear rocket fuel development are impressive neither the nuclear rock~t nor the highmiddotpaWei reactor effort has moved beyond the component testing phase
-
- C==J
-
- C==J
- Space Electrical Power Generation
-
- Space Electrical Power Generation
-
- Thermoelectric Energy Co111middotersloo In the 1950s the Soviets began to develop nuclear reactors with lhermoelectric energy conversion for space applications (sec inset) Soviet scientists appar- ently pursued parallel programs which may have used the same thernioefectric material but had no other common features The Romashka reactor never dcvelmiddot oped beyond demonstrating technoiogy and the oomshypeting program became the power source for the
- Soviet RORSAT (Romashka is Russian for middot~daisyso called because Qf the fiowermiddotlikc arrangement of its radiator fins) c=J
- Romashk4 On 14 Augustmiddot1964 the Soviet$ began testing the Romashkaa simply designed fast reacshytor with thermoelectric ener~~middot conversion-at the
- TJermaelectric Co1t11ersion
-
- TJermaelectric Co1t11ersion
- Thenuoelectric Converter
- P
-
- Link
-
- middotIn 1821 Thomas Seebeck discovered that volrage is
- produced by dissimilar malerlals in a temperature
- gradient-a phenomenon known as the thennoeecmiddot
- tric effect Few practical applications existed until the
- 1950s when semiconducting thermoelec1ric marerials
- were developed As heat is applied rtgt a PmiddotN a semi~
- conductor junction electrons rnoverom the hot w
- the cold end afthe N-type material and positive
- charges movefrom the hot to the cold erid a1he
- P~rype material seefizure) This charge movemenr
- creates a voltage Thermoelectric converters are lowshy
- efficie111y devices only 2 to 5 percent of the supplied
- ener$JI is converted to electricity They are also
- highly reliable simple and durable which makes
- them attractive for space applications 0
- bull Th lttm fmiddotN reftrs to 1he two rpet efremiconduclins mareial In P-1y11e marerla currnl Rows by move111e1tt QfsgtObulllriw charges (lioles In N-1ypt material c11rre111 flows by movemtnt 41 nitsative charges (elmrontJ0 middot
-
- Withheld under statutory ~tithority of the Central Intelligence Agency Actof 1949 (50 USC section 3507)
- 8ECRET
- Withheld under statutory authority of the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 (50shy USC section 3507)
- Institute of Atomic Energy fmeni Kurchatov (IAE) in Moscow The Romalhka was fueled by uranium dicarbide (UC) CXlntaincd in 11 plate-like graphite containers These plates were surrounded by a monoshylithic radiJl beryllium retJector A-key feature was a layer of araphite cla4ding between the fuel ccmtainers and the beryllium reflector and another layer between the outside of the refteclor and the converters The graphite prevented chemical reactions between the reflector and fuel and the refiector and
- he first
-
- he first
-
- R==-om-as-=hka_n_ev_e_r_r-ea-ch-cd~cn
- matemiddot rials reacted so poorly when the reactor was heated to
- Figure
- The design goal for Romashka was 1000 hours of operation but it actually accumulated 15000 hours before being shut down for examination in 1966 Csce
- figure l) ln 1977J I25Xl E013526 j
- Bnew Roma~hka bad been developed)
-
- Bnew Roma~hka bad been developed)
- 25Xl E013526
-
- 25Xl E013526
-
- and the new Romashka was apparently the last ln
- the eally 1970s I D Moro~ov published a paper describing a Romashka with a thermionic ronvertet (see inset) The idea of a thcnnionic Ro~ashka reargtshypeared in a 1990 paper presented at the Seventh Symposium on Space Nuclear Power Systems but this was nothing more than a revisit of the earlier
- 1970s middotconce_ptc=J
- RORSAT The Soviet RORSAT used a nuclear reacshytor to power a conventional real aperture radar The RORSAT was developed to locate and track US carrier battle groups The relatibullely low-power radar limited the maximum RORSAT operational orbit to less than 300 kilometers (km) The SoViets have stated that a reactor was the only feasible power source for this satellite series They claim that solar arrays capable of providing several kilowatts of electrical
- Figurel Design Parameters of Romashka Reactor
-
- Figurel Design Parameters of Romashka Reactor
- shy
-
- SECRET
- Withheld under statutory authority of the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 (50 USC section 3507)
- t5ECREf
- Withheld under statutory authority of the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 (50 USC section 3507)
-
- Thermionic Conversion
-
- Thermionic Conversion
-
- Thermionic Conversion
- Thermionic Converter
-
- Thomas Edison first observed the emission ofelec~ trans from a heated lamp filamenr Heating metal middot increases the kinetic energy ofconduction electrons Electrons with ki~tic energies greater than a value
- known as the work function may escape the surface of the metal 11 a cooler meral surface is place4 close lo the hot surface electrons boiingaff the hot surface wiJ condense on the cooler surface The hot surface shythat emits the electrons is called the emitter and the cooler surface that coleers the electrons is called the collector IIa conducting path is provided between the emitter and collector a current will Row Filling
-
- known as the work function may escape the surface of the metal 11 a cooler meral surface is place4 close lo the hot surface electrons boiingaff the hot surface wiJ condense on the cooler surface The hot surface shythat emits the electrons is called the emitter and the cooler surface that coleers the electrons is called the collector IIa conducting path is provided between the emitter and collector a current will Row Filling
- gases are used in rherrnio11ic converiers lo neutralize
-
- rhespace charge thaz would otherwise build up around rhe emitter and retard the passage ofelecshytrons Cesium vapor is the most commonfiling gas (see figure D
-
- rhespace charge thaz would otherwise build up around rhe emitter and retard the passage ofelecshytrons Cesium vapor is the most commonfiling gas (see figure D
-
- Thermionic converters are relatively inefficient deshyvites about S to JO percent af rhe energy is convened
-
- Thermionic converters are relatively inefficient deshyvites about S to JO percent af rhe energy is convened
-
- Thermionic converters are relatively inefficient deshyvites about S to JO percent af rhe energy is convened
-
- to electricity) bur they are rnore effective than ther~
-
- to electricity) bur they are rnore effective than ther~
-
- moelectric converters and retain milch afthei1 rugshy
-
- moelectric converters and retain milch afthei1 rugshy
-
- gednes6 and simplicity Thermionic converters can
-
- gednes6 and simplicity Thermionic converters can
-
- operate at a high-hear rejection remperaiure which is
-
- operate at a high-hear rejection remperaiure which is
-
- particularly important tn space applications becallSe
-
- particularly important tn space applications becallSe
-
- rhe size afrhe radiator is inversely proportional to
-
- rhe size afrhe radiator is inversely proportional to
-
- the fourth power ofthe temperature Thus thermionshy
-
- the fourth power ofthe temperature Thus thermionshy
-
- ic reactors offer the possibility of comparatively highshy
-
- ic reactors offer the possibility of comparatively highshy
-
- conversion tdiciency and a compact radiator reducshying overall system mass D
-
- conversion tdiciency and a compact radiator reducshying overall system mass D
-
- The technical challenge Of a thermionic reactor using
-
- The technical challenge Of a thermionic reactor using
-
- in-core converters is In the converter destgn and
-
- in-core converters is In the converter destgn and
-
- materials The fuel elements are complex and the
-
- materials The fuel elements are complex and the
-
- emitter-collector spacing is typically about 05 millishy
-
- emitter-collector spacing is typically about 05 millishy
-
- meter Properties of the emilters collectors and
-
- meter Properties of the emilters collectors and
-
- insulators must be maintained despite having to
-
- insulators must be maintained despite having to
-
- operate ar high temperatures in a htgh-radiarion
-
- operate ar high temperatures in a htgh-radiarion
-
- environment Further bullthe emitler material must reshy
-
- environment Further bullthe emitler material must reshy
-
- sist the tendency afrhe nuclear fuel to expand as the reactor operates D middot
-
- sist the tendency afrhe nuclear fuel to expand as the reactor operates D middot
-
- power would have been so large that drag would have middotseverely affected satellite stabili2ation and its lifeshyspan D The RORSAT used a fast reactor with liquid metal sodium-potassium eutectic alloy) coolant and thermoshyelectric converters Heat was dissipated by a radiator covering much of the forward portion of the satellite I I25Xl E013526
-
- power would have been so large that drag would have middotseverely affected satellite stabili2ation and its lifeshyspan D The RORSAT used a fast reactor with liquid metal sodium-potassium eutectic alloy) coolant and thermoshyelectric converters Heat was dissipated by a radiator covering much of the forward portion of the satellite I I25Xl E013526
-
- power would have been so large that drag would have middotseverely affected satellite stabili2ation and its lifeshyspan D The RORSAT used a fast reactor with liquid metal sodium-potassium eutectic alloy) coolant and thermoshyelectric converters Heat was dissipated by a radiator covering much of the forward portion of the satellite I I25Xl E013526
- of Cosmos 626 651 and 654 suggested a reactor thermal power of about 50 kilowatts thermal kWt) However analysis of debris from Cosmos 954 indicatshyed the PoWer was about 100 kWt Other characterisshytics arc given in figure 20 The RORSATs missions typically lasted about 65 days although missions as shortas eight days and as Withheld under statutory authority of the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 (50 USC section 3507)
-
- TR
-
- -secretshy
-
- SECRET
- SECRET
- Withheld under statutory authorify of the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949 (50 USC section 3507)
- 25Xl E013526