the space junk

56
THE REVOLUTION OF POLLUTION VIA EARTH TO AEROSPACE the JUNK storm 12/SEP/1959 LUNA 2 09/MAY/1965 LUNA 5 14/JULY/1967 SURVEYOR 4 07/JAN/1968 SURVEYOR 7 14/NOV/1969 APOLLO 12 26/JULY/1971 APOLLO 15 8/JAN/1973 LUNA 21 07/JAN/1998 LUNAR PROSPECTOR 26/JULY/1971 APOLLO 15 24/JAN/1990 HITEN FIRST JAPANESE LUNAR MISSION 21/DEC/1966 LUNA 13 28/JULY/1964 RANGER7 03/DEC/1965 LUNA 8 10/AUG/1966 LUNAR ORBITER 1 05/FEB/1967 LUNAR ORBITER 3 01/AUG/1967 LUNAR ORVITER 5 12/SEP/1970 LUNA 16 02/SEP/1971 LUNA 18 07/JAN/1998 LUNAR PROSPECTOR INTO A CRATER TO SEARCH FOR WATE 10 10 01 01 10 11 10 01 01 11 10 01 01 01 11 10 11 1 11 01 11 00 00 01 01 01 11 01

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Typography design book of Elsa Chung

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Page 1: The Space Junk

the revolution of pollution via earth to aerospace

the JUNK storm

12/Sep/1959Luna 2

09/may/1965Luna 5

14/juLy/1967Surveyor 4

07/jan/1968Surveyor 7

14/nov/1969apoLLo 12

26/juLy/1971apoLLo 15

8/jan/1973Luna 21

07/jan/1998Lunar proSpector

26/juLy/1971apoLLo 15

24/jan/1990hitenfirSt japaneSe Lunar miSSion

21/dec/1966Luna 13

28/juLy/1964ranger7

03/dec/1965Luna 8

10/aug/1966Lunar orbiter 1

05/feb/1967Lunar orbiter 3

01/aug/1967Lunar orviter 5

12/Sep/1970Luna 16

02/Sep/1971Luna 18

07/jan/1998Lunar proSpectorinto a crater to Search for water

0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1

0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1

Page 2: The Space Junk
Page 3: The Space Junk
Page 4: The Space Junk
Page 5: The Space Junk

the revolution of pollution via earth to aerospace

the JUNK storm

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the space exploratioN

coNteNt // page06

dealiNgwithdebris

page24

the operatioNal aspects

page38

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0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1

0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1

0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1

///////////// //// /// /// //////////// /// // /// /////////// // /// ////////// // // /////////// //// // ///////////// ///////// /////// //

Mohawk fine papers inc.

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0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1

0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1

0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1

0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1

///////////// //// /// /// //////////// /// // /// /////////// // /// ////////// // // /////////// //// // ///////////// ///////// /////// //

mohawk fine papers inc. is the largest manufacturer of premium print-ing and imaging papers in the country. privately owned and certified as women owned business enterprise, this highly successful company has grown from 900 tons per year on three paper machines to over 175, 000 tons capacity per year on six modernized machines. the company thriveson its competitive spirit and ability to combine the craft of traditional pap-ermaking with cutting-edge technology. mohawk fine papers inc. is alsothe exclusive marketer of Kromekote and Knightkote, coated brands man-ufactured by the Smart papers. > Story began with mohawk and hudson paper company, which was established after the civil war at a formeraxhandle factory on King’s canal in waterford, new york. the enterprisewas purchased in 1872 by frank gilbert, and renamed the frank gil-

bert paper company. nathaniel Sylvester describes the operation as employing 40 people who produced three tons of printing paper per day, using rags, wood and straw as raw materials. the mill building was pur-chased from uri gilbert, a prominent manufacturer of railroad cars in the1881. the frank gilbert paper company constructed their second paper mill in cohoes in 1917, just south of the junction of the erie and cham-plain canals. it manufactured groundwood, bond, mimeo, and wallpaperbase stock and was known as frank gilbert paper company until 1930 when it filed for bankruptcy. george o’connor, a waterford lawyer, and grandfather of current president and ceo.

10

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the first steps into space were taken by german scientists during world war ii while testing the v2 rocket which became the first human-made object in space. after the war, the allies used ger-man scientists and their captured rockets in programs for both military and civilian research. that was 1949, its the begging of space exploration. from that period, human keep developing aero-space technology into different ways. > nowadays, we talk on cell phone every single days, we use gpS when we are driving, and watching weather report to know the weather in the future. wealso listen to the traffic report from internet or radio, we even check googLe map to see how our roof looks from the space view. all this information is based on what is sent by artificial satel-lites. our life relate to aerospace technology unconsciously. this fancy high-tech equipment no longer belongs to Space administration or military, it has been benefiting our life as well. > how-ever, satellites or space stations actually cannot be used forever. they retire when they run out offuel or have broken machinery. they become a giant metal trash floating around the earth for thereason of gravity. in 1958, the uS launched vanguard i into a medium earth orbit. it became one of the longest surviving pieces of space junk and as of 2009 remains the oldest piece still in orbit. there are over 20,000 objects surrounding earth now and the amount is still growing. the speed of these space debris are so fast that can easyly damage space ships or any working man-made satellites which we might use everyday.

via earth to outer space //

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12mohawK fine paperS inc.junK Storm

via earth to outer space //

11

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1chapter oNe // history of aerospace techNology

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whipple proved useful data when space exploration started just afew years later.

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mohawK fine paperS inc.junK Storm

Space exploration is the use of astronomy and space technology to explore outer space. physical exploration of space is conducted both by human spaceflights and by robotic spacecraft. while the observation of objects in space, known as astronomy, predates reliable recorded history, it was the development of large liquid fuelled rocket engines during the early 20th century that allowed physical space exploration to become a reality. common rationales for exploring space include advancing scientific research, uniting different nations, ensuring future survival of humanity and developing military and strategic advantages against other countries. various criticisms of spaceexploration are sometimes made, enerally on cost or safety grounds. > Space exploration has often been used as a proxy competition for geopolitical rivalries such as the cold war. the early aera of space exploration was driven by a Space race between the Soviet union and the united States; the launch of the first man-made object to orbit the earth, the uSSr’s Sputnik 1, on octo-ber 4, 1957, and the first moon landing by the american apollo 11 craft on july 20, 1969 are often taken as the boundaries for this initial period. the Soviet space program achieved many of the first milestones, including the first living being in orbit in 1957, the first human spaceflight in 1961, the first spacewalk in 1965, the first automatic landing on another celestial body in 1966, and the launch of the first space station in 1971. > after the first 20 years of exploration, focus shifted from one-off flights to renewable hardware, such as the “Space Shuttle program”, and from competition to cooperation as with the international Space Station. from 1990, onwards, private interests began promoting space tourism and then private space exploration of the moon. > in 2000, china initiated a successful manned spaceflight program, while japan and india have also planned future manned space missions. Larger government programs have advocated manned missions to the moon and possibly mars sometime after 2010.

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1957

1958

1961

1969

1959

1960

firSt man-made object to orbit the earth, iS Launched and remainS in orbit untiL jan. 1958.

the firSt u.S. SateLLite in orbit, LiftS off atcape canaveraL uSing a modified abmajpL jupiter-c rocKet. it carrieS a Scientific exper-iment of jameS a. van aLLen, and diScoverS the earth’S radiation beLt.

oStoK 1 iS Launched by the uSSr, and carrying coSmonaut yuri a. gargarin, the firSt man inSpace. he orbitS the earth once.

neiL armStrong and edwin aLdrin, jr. made thefirSt manned Soft Landing on the moon, and aLSo the firSt moonwaLK, uSing apoLLo 11. at the Same year, Soyuz 4 and 5 perform the firSt Soviet Space Ship docKing, tranSferringcoSmonautS between vehicLeS.

Luna 1, firSt man-made SateLLite to orbit themoon, iS Launched by the uSSr. Luna 2 iS Lau-nched, impacting on the moon on Septembercarrying a copy of the Soviet coat of armS, and aLSo becoming the firSt man-made object to hit the moon.

tiroS 1, the firSt SucceSSfuL weather SateLL-ite iS Launched by uS. diScoverer xiv LauncheS it iS aLSo the firSt camera-equipped Spy Sat-eLLite that uS have.

tiMeline // space exploration

SmaLL debriS

0 89 173 456 847

0.025 KiLogram 25 gram

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mohawK fine paperS inc.junK Storm

1970 1971

197819771974

1981

1982

1986

1983

apoLLo 13 iS Launched, Suffering an expLoSionin itS Sm oxygen tanKS. itS moon Landing iS abo-rted, and the crew return SafeLy.

apoLLo 14 moon miSSion iS Launched by the uS with the Legendary aLan Shepard, aLong with Stuart rooSa and edgar mitcheLL on board. they Land in the pLanned apoLLo 13 Site.

einStein obServatory beginS itS 30 dayS miS-Sion. two pioneer Spacecraft reach venuS. one dropS four probeS into the atmoSphere, whiLe the other mapS the Surface.

Soviet SaLyut 6 Space Station iS Launched. itS crewS incLude memberS from czechoSLova-Kia, poLand, gdr, buLgaria, hungary, vietnam,cuba, mongoLia, and romania.

naSa LauncheS the firSt SynchronouS mete-oroLogicaL SateLLite. aLSo, their firSt miLitarySpace Station, Soviet SaLyut 3, iS Launched. it remainS in orbit untiL january 1975.

the firSt manned miSSion of the Space tran-Sportation SyStem Launched. the european Space agency LauncheS itS third ariane roc-Ket aLSo happened in thiS year aS weLL.

the european Space agency LauncheS itS third ariane rocKet. voyager 2 compLeteS itS fLyby of Saturn. the Space ShuttLe coLumbia’S fifth miSSion, itS firSt operationaL one, beginS, dep-Loying two SateLLiteS.

aStronomerS diScovered an inviSibLe gravity Source that SpLitS a quaSar’S Light. aStrono-merS aLSo found that our gaLaxy iS SmaLLer than they thought and the Sun iS 23000 Light-yearS from it’S center.

Space ShuttLe chaLLenger LiftS off for itS fir-St miSSion and the firSt Space waLK made by the uS in nine yearS.

1354 1589 1890 2165

0.658 centimetreS 0.259 inch

1817

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mohawK fine paperS inc.junK Storm

in the context of spaceflight, a satellite is an object which has been placed into orbit by human end-eavor. Such objects are sometimes called artificial satellites to distinguish them from natural satellites such as the moon. > in 1957, the first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, was launched by the Soviet union. by 2009 thousands of satellites had been launched into orbit around the earth. these originate from more than 50 countries have used satellites launching capabilities of ten nations. a few hundred satellites are currently operational, whereas thousands of unused satel-lites and satellite fragments orbit the earth as space debris. a few space probes have been placed into orbit around other bodies and become artificial satellites to the moon, venus, mars, jupiter and Saturn. common types of satellites include military and civilian earth observation satellites, communication satellites, navigation satellites, weather satellites, and research satellites. Space stations and human spacecraft in orbit are also satellites. Satellite orbits vary greatly, dependingon the purpose of the satellite, and are classified in a number of ways. well-known classes include low earth orbit, polar orbit, and geostationary orbit. > Satellites are semi independent computercontrolled systems. a spacecraft is a craft or machine designed for spaceflight. Satellite subsys-tems attend many tasks attitude control and orbit control. on a sub-orbital spaceflight, a space-craft enters space then returns to the earth. for an orbital spaceflight, a spacecraft enters a closed orbit around the planetary body. Spacecraft used for human spaceflight carry people onb-oard as crew or passengers. robotic spacecraft that leave the vicinity of the planetary body arespace probes. the spacecrafts used for robotic space missions operate eitherautonomously ortelerobotically. robotic spacecraft that remain in orbit around the planetary body are artificial satellites. Starships, which are built for interstellar travel, are so far a theoretical concept only. Spaceships bring astronauts into space to help repair damaged or broken sattelites.

2019

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china 2750c. i. S (former uSSr) 4360european Space agency 0074united StateS 4280other 1173

china

other

european Space agency

united StateS

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2586 2984 3254 3698 4682

0.32 KiLogram 320 gram

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mohawK fine paperS inc.junK Storm

just as an individual ship seems tiny compared to the immensity of thesea, or an airplane relative to the entirety of the sky, man made satellites seem very insignificant in size compared to the vastness of space. the collection of material referred to as “space debris” ranges in size fromtiny paint chips to huge space stations. but relative size alone does notnecessarily determine the extent of the threat to humans posed by orbi-tal debris. > those who argue space debris does not pose a significant threat to humans draw their confidence from the vastness of space itself, the ability of the atmosphere to burn up objects before they reach earth’s surface, and from ongoing efforts by engineers and scientists to minimize the proliferation of space debris and to protect against it. no one has been killed by space debris, and satellites and space vesselshave rarely sustained serious damage from impacts in orbit. > those who fear space debris poses an imminent threat argue that uncertainty surrounding the dangers of space debris is reason enough to proceedwith the greatest of caution. rather than draw comfort from the absence

of any catastrophic collisions during the first four decades of space exp-loration, they point to a collection of observa-tions of minor to moderate impacts as warning sign of potential disaster. although serious damage has been avoided, space debris has fallen in and near populated areas, inju-red people, killed livestock, damaged terrestrial structures, and caused observable damage to satellites or space vehicles. any increase in space-based technology could easily lead to an increase in such events, with anaccompanying threat of more serious consequences. perhaps the great-est worry associated with space debris comes from the possibility thathighly toxic nuclear and chemical fuels used in space vehicles could re-enter the earth’s atmosphere and contaminate a populated area.

22

the total nuMber of space debrits

0.1968 inch

5398 6175 7246 8246 8365

0.5 centimetreS

21

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2chapter two //iNtrodUctioN of space debris

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Space debriS // orbitaL debriS // Space junK // Space waSte

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mohawK fine paperS inc.junK Storm

in 1946, during the giacobinid meteor shower, helmut Landsberg collected several small mag-netic particles that apparently were associated with the shower. fred whipple was intrigued bythis and wrote a paper that demonstrated that particles of this size were too small to maintain their velocity when they encountered the upper atmosphere. instead, they would quickly decelerate and then fall to earth unmelted. at the time some argued that meteors were extra-solar in origin, while others claimed they were leftovers from the formation of the solar system. these direct measurements were able to locate the source of the meteors, demonstrating that the bulk of mat-erial was leftover from comet tails, and that none of it could be demonstrated to have an extra solar origin. today, it is understood that meteors of all sorts are leftover material from the formationof the solar system, part of the interplanetary dust cloud or the various other objects made up from this material, like comets. > a lack of good data about the debris problem prompted a seriesof studies to better characterize the Leo environment. naSa provided Kessler with additional funding for the further studies of the problem. Several approaches were used by these studies.Some used optical telescopes or short-wavelength radars to more accurately measure the num-ber and size of objects in space. the optical measurements alone demonstrated that the publishedpopulation count was too low by at least 50%. before this it was believed that the database wasessentially complete and accounted for at least the majority of large objects in orbit. these meas-urements demonstrated that lists deliberately eliminated some objects, could not easily accountfor objects under 20 centimetres in size, and did not bother to track many others because they were considered unimportant. in particular, the debris left over from exploding rocket boosters and several anti-satellite tests were only tracked in a haphazard way in the main database from 1960. > others studies used microscopes to study spacecraft that had returned to earth, looking for impacts that had already taken place and had gone unnoticed. Sections of Skylab and the apollo cSms that had been recovered in the 1960 and 1970 were shown to be heavily pitted by debris. to everyone’s surprise, every study demonstrated that the debris flux was much higher than expected, and that debris was already the primary source of collisions in space. Similar stud-ies continue to this day. one discovery was particularly disconcerting was that 42% of all debriswere the result of only 19 events, explosions of spent rocket stages, mostly from the uS deltas. Kessler made this discovery after using gabbard’s methods against known debris fields, overturn-ing the previously held belief that most unknown debris was from formerly unknown aSat tests.the delta was a workhorse of the uS space program, and there were already numerous other delta components in orbit that had not yet exploded.

2827

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0.45 KiLogram 450 gram

Page 29: The Space Junk

mohawK fine paperS inc.junK Storm

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2930

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cargo bay damage

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0.756 KiLogram 756 gram

Page 31: The Space Junk

mohawK fine paperS inc.junK Storm

tiny rocks, paint flecks and other fragments of junk whizzing around the earth pose the greatest threat to the shuttles and the astronauts onboard, according to the preliminary results of a new naSa risk study. engineers and scientists long have known the stuff pounding the shut-tle as it flies through space can do catastrophic damage. until now, fewput space debris on the same level as the dangers seen during the shut-tle’s treacherous launch or its fiery plunge back through the atmosphere to land. the internal risk assessment, still under review by the agency’sexperts, says space debris hitting different parts of the orbiter accounts for 11 of the 20 problems most likely to cause the loss of another shut-tle and crew. overall, space debris accounts for half of the catastrophic risk on any flight. > naSa would not comment on the study, saying it is incomplete. the agency also would not permit interviews with people who’ve worked for more than five years on the study, even though the off-icials have made multiple presentations about the preliminary results at industry events. “we do not comment on things that are not done,” saidmelissa mathews, the spokesman at the agency’s headquarters in wash-ington. Shuttles will continue to orbit, as much as possible, in a backwardposition that keeps delicate parts such as its heat shield and windows guarded against direct impacts. one new tactic will be, after the shuttledocks at the international Space Station, flipping the two connected spa-cecraft around so the better armored station shields the orbiter. new inspace shuttle inspections also will help detect debris damage. > the2003 shuttle risk assessment is the first to incorporate the threat from orbital debris. the new assessment indicates about half of the risk of disaster on any given shuttle mission involves space debris hitting theorbiter, and, consequently, damaging some component needed to keep the crew alive in space or safely return them to the earth. past risk asse-ssments attributed most risk to thousands of possible mishaps during the fraction of time it takes to go from a standstill on the launch pad to the 20, 000 mph necessary to escape the grip of the gravity of earth. >

this study says space debris hits on different spots on the wing flaps are the two most likely catastrophic failures. the damage could rendean elevon, or wing flap, unable to steer and slow the orbiter as it plum-mets through the atmosphere. without them, the orbiter could burn up,rip apart or veer far off planned landing course. ten other space debrisfailure modes involve space junk damaging the heat shield. investigators initially suspected orbital debris might have caused columbia’s destruc-tion. forensic evidence later showed the shuttle burned up because of a hole in its heat shield in the same spot where a piece of foam insulation slammed into the wing during the shuttle’s launch. > Still, the possibilityalarmed the investigators enough to recommend that naSa makes the shuttle at least as safe as the international Space Station when it comes to surviving hits by space junk. naSa correctly points out, however, that the station was built to higher standards because it is more exposed. itstays in space permanently compared with the relatively small number of days that shuttles are in space in a given year. naSa says it’s trying to decrease the odds of a space debris disaster from about 1 in 200 to 1 in 600. achieving the same strength as the space station is not likely.

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3132

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every satellite has the potential to create space debris.

Page 33: The Space Junk

mohawK fine paperS inc.junK Storm

every satellite, space probe and manned mission has the potential to create space debris. any impact between two objects of sizeable mass spalls off shrapnel debris from the force of colli-sion. each piece of shrapnel has the potential to cause further damage, creating even more space debris. with a large enough collision, the amount of cascading debris could be enough to render low earth orbit essentially unusable. the problem in Leo is compounded by the fact that there are few universal orbits that keep spacecraft in particular rings, as opposed to geo, a single wid-ely used orbit. the closest would be the sun synchronous orbits that maintain a constant angle between the sun and orbital plane. but Leo satellites are different orbital planes providing global coverage. Since sun synchronous orbits are polar, the polar regions are common crossing points.

3433

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Page 35: The Space Junk

mohawK fine paperS inc.junK Storm

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Page 37: The Space Junk

mohawK fine paperS inc.junK Storm

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37

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Page 39: The Space Junk

3chapter three //dealiNg with space debris

Page 40: The Space Junk

debris at higher altitudes //

one major source of debris in the past was the testing of anti-satellite weapons carried out by both the uS and Soviet union in the 60s and 70s. the norad element files only contained data for Soviet tests, and it was not until much later that debris from uS tests were identified. by the time the problem with debris was understood, widespread aSat testing had ended. the uS re-started their aSat programs in the 80s with the vought aSm-135 aSat. a 1985 test destroyed a 1 tonne satellite orbiting at 525 kilometres altitude, creating thousands of pieces of space debris larger than 1 centimetre. because it took place at relatively low altitude, atmospheric drag caused the vast majority of the large debris to decay from orbit within a decade. following the uS test in 1985, there was a de-facto moratorium on such tests. Known orbit planes of fengyun-1c debris one month after its disintegration by the chinese aSat. > china suffered widespread condem-nation after their 2007 anti-satellite missile test, both for the military implications as well as the huge amount of debris it created. this is the largest single space debris incident in history, estimated to have created more than 2, 300 pieces of trackable debris, over 35, 000 pieces 1 cm or larger, and 1 million pieces 1 mm or larger. particularly worrying is the fact that the test took place in the most densely populated part of space, as the target satellite orbited between 850 kilometres and 882 kilometres. > Since the atmospheric drag is quite low at that altitude, the debris will persist for 35 years or more. in june 2007, naSa’s terra environmental spacecraft was the first to be moved in order to prevent impacts from this debris. on 20 february 2008, the uS launched an Sm-3 missile from the uSS Lake erie specially to destroy a defective uS spy satellite feared to be carrying 1000 pounds of toxic hydrazine fuel. > Since this event occurred at about 250 km altitude, all of the resulting debris have a perigee of 250 km or lower. the mis-sile was aimed to deliberately reduce the amount of debris as much as possible, and they had decayed by early 2008. the vulnerability of satellites to a collision with larger debris and the ease of launching such an attack against a low-flying satellite, has led some to speculate that such an attack would be within the capabilities of countries unable to make a precision attack like former uS or Soviet systems. Such an attack against a large satellite of 10 tonnes or more would cause enormous damage to the Leo environment.

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Page 41: The Space Junk

mohawK fine paperS inc.junK Storm42

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Page 42: The Space Junk

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Page 43: The Space Junk

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Space debris is becoming a growing problem. the number of non-operat-ing satellites in orbit has increased, as well as debris from spacecraft explosions and, as happened earlier this year, collisions between satel-lites. “the earth has become virtually a beehive, ” chang diaz said. “the number of satellites orbiting the earth, we’re talking hundreds of thou-sands of these objects. Some of them are just junk that’s floating there simply because these satellites have run out of fuel and they just rem-ain in orbit dead. ” the rocket, called the vaSimr for variable specific impulse magnetoplasma rocket, ” uses a high-power technology initially studied by naSa that turns argon into plasma. propelled by an exhaust gas at temperatures close to that of the sun, the vaSimr vx-200 engine would have the ability to change orbits and accelerate and decelerate in order to pick up space debris. > in September, chang diaz’s company, ad astra, tested the rocket and achieved a milestone. during the a test on in a vacuum chamber on earth, the engine cranked at just over 200 kilowatts, becoming the world’s most powerful electric rocket. vaSimr is not suitable to launch payloads from the surface of the earth due toits low thrust to weight ratio and its need of a vacuum to operate. it

would, however be an ideal to function as an upper stage for cargo, dra-stically reducing the fuel requirements for in-space transportation. ad astra has also signed an agreement with naSa to test a 200 kilowatt vaSimr engine on the international Space Station in 2013 to help keep it in orbit. iSS boosts are currently provided by conventional thrusters,which consume about 7. 5 tons of propellant per year. by cutting this amount down to 0. 3 tons, chang-diaz estimates that vaSimr could save naSa millions of dollars per year.

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the vast majority of space debris, especially smaller debris, cannot beremoved under its own power. a variety of proposals have been made todirectly remove such material from orbit. one of the most widely discus-sed solutions is the laser broom, which uses a powerful ground-based laser to ablate front surface off known debris and thereby produce a working mass that slows the debris in orbit. with a continued applicationof such thrust, the debris will eventually spiral down into a low orbit andbecome subject to atmospheric drag. the air force worked on a groundbased design under the name “project orion”. although a testbed device was slated to launch on a Space Shuttle, numerous international agree-ments for bidding testing of powerful lasers in orbit, caused the programto be limited to using the laser as a measurement device. > in the end,Space Shuttle columbia disaster led to the project being set back, andas nicholas johnson, chief Scientist and program manager for naSa’s orbital debris program office, later noted, “there are lots of little got-chas in the orion final report. there’s a reason why it’s been sitting onthe shelf for more than a decade.” another well-studied solution is to usea remotely controlled vehicle to rendezvous with debris, capture it, andreturn to a central station. > a number of other proposals intercept thedebris in a foamy ball of aerogel or even a spray of water. these wouldimpact with the debris and slow it. Some propose inflating balloons aro-und the objects in order to increase their atmospheric drag. however, it was pointed out that a balloon could be punctured by other debris, the-reby failing in its mission and actually increasing the amount of mass inorbit. in any event, the cost of launching any of these solutions is aboutthe same as launching any spacecraft. johnson has stated that none of the existing solutions are currently cost effective.

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junK Storm: the poLLution via earth to aeroSpacepubLiShed by eLSa chao-chia chung for courSe number gr 330, typography 3 &4,taught by aeriaL grey in faLL,2009 at academy of art univerSity,San franciSco, caLifornia, uSprinted and bound at eLSa chao-chia chung,887 buSh St. apt.506,San franciSco, caLifornia, uS.

aLL rightS reServed.

compiLed and deSigned by: eLSa chao-chia chungproject inStructor: aeriaL greyprinter: epSon StyLuS photo r1800font: qtypeSquare bLod, qtypeSquare reguLar, bLender pro booKpaper: moab entradar, rag bright 190 gSm© 2009 by eLSa chao-chia chung

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