the study of wars and revolutions

THE STUDY OF WARS AND REVOLUTIONS

Mark Sherwin Castronuevo Bayanito2008-33043

1. War1. Defining war2. History of war3. Towards a global security community?

2. Revolution1. Defining revolution2. History of ‘revolution’3. Typology4. Classic vs. modern5. Causes, stages, and strands6. States and Social Revolutions

3. Conclusion

REPORT OUTLINE

War is organized violence inter- and intra-states, designed to achieve a political goal (Reynolds) Legitimate and normal means of achieving political ends Most commonly accepted means of resolving disputes in

international politics Permanent threat of war among states

WHAT IS WAR?

War is either product of forces where states hold no control over, or consequence of militarist and aggressive policies of states Avoiding war or seeking to lessen its consequences = best

course of action Creation of League of Nations and United Nations “he who wishes peace must first prepare for war”

WHAT IS WAR?

Conflict May be carried on via

Diplomacy Economic pressures Propaganda Subversion Armed force

WHAT IS WAR?

WHAT IS WAR?

Progress of war and peace (Wright) Towards war

Tensions, military preparations, exchange of threats, mobilizations, and hostilities culminate in total conflict

Towards peace Tensions relax, budget for arms decline, disputes are settled,

trade increases, and cooperation ensues

War: a necessary evil? Protection and defence of states Preservation and promotion of their interests

Violence Rational as a means to an end A form of human action that is guided by rules, subject to

breaches more than observance Elimination of violence from human relations = elimination

of state

WHAT IS WAR?

Peace Order Monopoly of peace = monopoly of violence Surrendering of political autonomy of states to maintain

peace Tangible guarantee of state’s territorial and political

integrity

WHAT IS WAR?

Security Preservation of the state Complex set of empirical conditions and values Security of one state affects another Control over an inimical environment

International peace is a product of satisfaction of national security needs.International violence is the consequence of attaining security in an environment largely consisting of other states

Stability of government depends on its power to coerce and use force, and on its freedom from internal and external subversion.

WHAT IS WAR?

Power-security hypothesis Threats to security based on relative military capacities of

states Violation of territorial integrity of other states

One’s security is the insecurity of the other Balance of power

WHAT IS WAR FOR?

Civilized war War as an “institution conducted by a specialized class for

purposes of plunder, territorial acquisition, trade, or expansion of religion or ideology” (Wright)

Merging of “heroic age” and “time of troubles” Large-scale conquest Ideological, economic, psychological, political, and juridical

causes

HISTORY OF WAR

Modern war Use of gunpowder Continued exploration and exploitation of discovered

territories Concept of state sovereignty Military power as basis of political authority Ideology became less important than political imperialism

and nationalism Necessary war justifications in propaganda

Balance of power Independence from colonization Nationality White man’s burden

HISTORY OF WAR

Recent War Technological innovations Communism Revolutions Colonial self-determinism Legal-political claims of territory Cold War

HISTORY OF WAR

United Nations Charter Members obliged

To settle international disputes by peaceful means where international peace and security, and justice are not endangered

To refrain from threatening the territorial integrity or political independence of a state

To refrain from providing aid to any state which UN is taking preventive or enforcement action

War outlawed in charter; hostilities remain possible

“THE OUTLAWRY OF WAR” (WRIGHT)

Absence of war in democracies Pluralistic security community (Karl Deutsch) The future will only be less war-prone if democratization

persists among non-democratic states Integration and disintegration between political

communities Increasing global dependence

TOWARDS A GLOBAL SECURITY COMMUNITY? (EBERWEIN)

Wide range of activities that result in illegal or radical changes in government

Deep-seated social change Alterations in the political fabric Consummated through violence Accompanied by production of ideology

WHAT IS REVOLUTION?

Invention of Writing in Ancient Egypt Records of humans killed in internal wars and rebellions Social upheaval or rebellion as sacrilege against the

reigning monarch and their ‘divine right’ Revolution as replacement of the weak ruler by a strong

ruler, who is seen to be favored by the gods to overthrow the former in war

HISTORY OF ‘REVOLUTION’

Greeks Revolution as embodying:

Change of rulers implied in revolt Social displacement due to rise of (new) aristocracy or fall of

(exclusive) aristocracy Thucydides’ History of the Peloponnesian War

Revolution as rapid change accompanied by violence Stasis or dissolution of state => overhaul of basic social relationships


Greeks Aristotle’s The Politics (Book V)

Metabole or political change Complete change from one constitution to another, or modification of existing

constitution States founded on erroneous ideas of justice, leading to discontent and

upheaval Revolution necessary for political change

Both violent and non-violent By force and by fraud Leading to alteration or displacement of social groups


Greeks Aristotle’s The Politics (Book V)

Inequality as prime cause of revolution Different forms of inequalities in different states

“Revolutions break out when opposite parties, e.g. the rich and the poor, are equally balanced and there is little or nothing between them; for, if either party were manifestly superior, the other world will not risk an attack on them.”

Revolutions as causing subsequent development rather than decay

Revolution as a political rather than a social concept Affects rule and authority within states Affects social composition and ordering of rank within the state


Italian City-States Rivoluzioni

origin of contemporary political usage Changes of power = changes of alliances Occurring when planets reach major conjunctions

Rotation of celestial bodies following natural inexorable laws (Copernicus, 1543)


Italian City-States Niccolo Machiavelli’s The Prince

Overthrown rulers were either Unable to strengthen military power Unable to keep people’s allegiance

Niccolo Machiavelli’s The Discourses on the First Ten Books of Livy state decay due to loss of “original goodness”

Ambitions of individual citizens or rival tyrants regimes overthrown frequently without bloodshed

Violent overthrow of regimes due to motive of revenge, rather than ambition Reestablishment of concept of revolution as political


French Revolution of 1789 Democratic concept of revolution Inefficiency of ancien régime Revolution as replacement by new and more rational

government Government representing the people

Revolution as an end in itself Jean-Jacques Rosseau’s concept of ‘general will’

A social rather than a political revolution? Political consequences were undesirable (Calvert)


Marx and Engels Revolution is inevitable

Socialist revolution as the final revolution Historical development => emergence of proletariat class, to

destroy ‘political class’ or bourgeoisie => overthrow of ‘capitalist’ state => establishment of new and permanent government

October Revolution in Russia, 1917 Lenin’s State and Revolution (1917)

Justification of the October Revolution as a Proletariat Revolution Justification of the Soviets as the dictatorship of the Proletariat Achievement of a post-revolutionary society

Proletariat class was not primary movers in the revolution


Vilfredo Pareto’s elite theory Long-term elite monopoly of power as cause of revolution Revolution as violent means of replacing ruling elite by rival

Sorel’s Reflections on Violence (1908) Myth of revolutionary success as sine qua non of that

success Formula for revolution need not to be real, but must be believed

by its followersMussolini’s March on Rome in 1922

Manipulation of government through an illusion of overwhelming power Seizure of legitimacy and state control through implied rather

than visible force


1. Jacquerie Mass peasant uprising

2. Millenarian Rebellion Jacquerie + charismatic leadership

3. Anarchistic Rebellion Restoration attempt to an already shattered society

E.g., Vendée Rebellion (1793-1796)4. Jacobin-Communist Revolution

Spontaneous social revolution E.g., French Revolution (1789), Russian Revolution (

5. Conspiratorial Coup d’État6. Militarized Mass Insurrection

Calculated nationalist and social revolutions China (1937-1949), Algeria (1954-1962), North Vietnam (1945-1954)

TYPES OF REVOLUTIONS (JOHNSON)

Classic revolutions: French and Russian Existence of an ancien régime Middle-class affairs Widespread discontent, frustration, and alienation Violence and terror Emergence of ‘proper leadership’

Quick hold to power “initial frenzied effort to overhaul the whole fabric of society”

(Leiden and Schmitt) Thermidor

retreat from more radical goals and strategies during revolution, caused by replacement of leaders

Overthrow of Maximilien Robespierre and his followers “convalescence from the fever of revolution” (Brinton)

CLASSIC VS. MODERN REVOLUTIONS

Modern Revolutions Latin America and Middle East Coups d’état Violent upheavals Limited political revolt

Primacy of the military In ‘underdeveloped’ countries

Impact of technology and globalization

CLASSIC VS. MODERN REVOLUTIONS

1. Foreign control2. Economic conditions3. Political disputes4. Defects in the regime5. Disruption of the incumbent power structure

CAUSES OF REVOLUTION (LEIDEN AND SCHMITT)

Birth of revolution (Outbreak) Actual or implied violence

Protracted political struggle leading to armed conflict Sudden uprising of a small group to immediately seize state

power (coup d’état) Outburst of armed violence by massed forces or small group of

guerilla fighters Triggering element necessary

Revolutionary leaders (agitators, organizers, etc.) Natural or man-made catastrophes Reforms and improvements of incumbent government

Revolutionary situation does not necessarily lead to revolution (Laqueur)

STAGES OF REVOLUTION (LEIDEN AND SCHMITT; LAQUEUR)

Deconstruction (Radical phase) Annihilation of certain features of incumbent regime Replacement

Construction Return to stability and acceptance Ideology to justify revolution

STAGES OF REVOLUTION (LEIDEN AND SCHMITT; LAQUEUR)

Economic Revolution as a social phenomenon caused by economic

factors Marx – results from increasing misery De Tocqueville – results from increasing prosperity Davies’ ‘J-curve’ – period of increasing prosperity culminating in

inability of government to accommodate increasing demands Revolution of rising expectations

Social Revolution arises from society’s failure to meet demands

Multiple dysfunctions in society “accelerators” of revolt

STRANDS OF PRESENT-DAY CONCEPTION (CALVERT)

Psychological Based on individual’s alienation from society Talcott Parsons’ theory of social action and Robert Merton’s

theory of social groups Concept of revolution compatible with behavioral

psychology and behavioral analysisPolitical

Aristotle, Machiavelli, Locke Revolution as displacement of political power Without this view, other aspects of change will not be

distinguishable as ‘revolutionary’ (Calvert) Revolution is an impious defiance of the will of the state or

of the people, and hence contrary to the proper order of things

STRANDS OF PRESENT-DAY CONCEPTION (CALVERT)

Most theories of revolution account only for direct action

Social revolution Fast-paced foundational transformations of state and social

structures Two stages:

Crisis of state Poor economy, natural disasters, food shortage, security issues

Emergence of dominant classMain causes of social unrest

State social structures International competitive pressures International demonstrations Class relations

STATES AND SOCIAL REVOLUTIONS (SKOCPOL)

War is not equal to revolution War is towards a political goal of the state, usually against

another state In the realm of international relations

Revolution is towards a radical change within the stateWar as precursor to revolution

Huge material and economic losses in aftermath Access to arms and less priority to human life Disintegration and dissatisfaction upon defeat

CONCLUSION

“He who wishes peace must first prepare for war” The goal of attaining security poses insecurity on other

states, thus posing a threat of war Even though outlawed, there is no end to the possibility

of war State sovereignty Balance of power Technological innovation Arms race International disputes

CONCLUSION

War is primarily a political phenomenon Revolution may have other aspects but its political

aspect still remains important Change in government affects social order

The necessity and importance of violence in both wars and revolutions seems to be depreciating Cold War Bloodless revolutions

Globalization and technological innovations will either heat up or cool down the occurrence of wars and revolutions

CONCLUSION

Brinton, Crane. The Anatomy of Revolution . New York: Prentice-Hall , Inc. 1965

Calvert, Peter. Revolution . New York: Praeger Publishers, 1970. Eberwein, Wolf-Dieter. “The Future of International Warfare: Toward a

Global Security Community?”. International Polit ical Science Review , vol . 16 no. 4, Dangers of Our Time (Oct. 1995), pp. 341-360.

Laqueur, Walter. “Revolution”. International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences , vol. 13, pp. 501-507.

Leiden, Carl , and Karl M. Schmitt. The Polit ics of Violence: Revolution in the Modern World . New Jersey: Prentice-Hal l , Inc. , 1968.

Neumann, Sigmund. “The International Civi l War”. World Polit ics , vol. 1 (1949), pp. 335-336.

Reynolds, Charles. The Pol it ics of War: A study of the rational ity of violence in inter-state relations . New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1989.

Skocpol, Theda. States and Social Revolutions . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979.

Wright, Quincy. A Study of War . Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1942

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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