TheSubstance

ofColor

SMA

MARCH 5–24, 2013Spencer Museum of Art

TheSubstance

ofColor

MARCH 5–24, 2013

Mary M. Dusenbury, CuratorSaralyn Reece Hardy, Spencer Museum Director

Color functioned as a powerful visual language throughout ancient and medieval East Asia. It served as a critical element in the political, social, literary, religious, and artistic life of the people. Color could communicate effectively in a variety of realms because of a fundamental, long-standing belief in its importance.

In Western thought, color has been associated with light at least since the time of Aristotle. By contrast, in ancient and medieval East Asia, the classical ‘primary’ or ‘correct’ colors were earth-bound, linked to specific plant or mineral substances rather than to points on a spectrum of light. Many were also potent medicines or primary ingredients in Daoist elixirs of immortality. The idea that these colors shared the transformative powers associated with the substances from which they came—that they possessed a life-force or energy of their own—permeated early religious, social, and political thought and practices.

Color was an integral part of the complex system of wu xing, five sets of correlates comprising both natural and human phenomena. They were believed to interact in dynamic ways and could be used to comprehend and affect the cosmos. In one of its most basic forms, the system draws a correlation between East / Spring / Wood /

Blue-green; South / Summer / Fire / Red; West /Autumn / Metal / White; North / Winter / Water / Black; and Center / an intercalary period / Earth / Yellow.

Certain dye plants were believed to possess particularly strong di, or power. The colors from these plants, known as the ‘correct’ colors, were used in ritual contexts and to indicate status and power. The ‘correct’ colors used to dye textiles were: red from madder roots; yellow from gardenia hulls; blue/green from indigo leaves; white; and black from acorns.

The Substance of Color showcases and explores these and other primary dye materials that colored the world in ancient and medieval East Asia.

In the 19th and early 20th centuries, dyers throughout East Asia adopted synthetic dyes, prompting most to abandon traditional dyeing practices. In the process, much inherited knowledge regarding these traditions was lost. The Mingei or Folk Art Movement in Japan in the 1920s and ‘30s inspired a renewed interest in traditional dyes and dye technologies. Government support for individuals and communities preserving traditional craft soon followed. In the late 20th century, several dyers in Korea spurred a similar movement to revive and expand the use of natural dyes

in that country. The Korean government actively promotes traditional dyeing practices today.

The Substance of Color features the work of the contemporary Japanese dyers Shindo Hiroyuki, Shimura Fukumi, and Shimura Yoko.

Several people have helped organize this exhibition. Richard Laursen provided diagrams and analysis of chemical structures; Chika Mouri, Monica Bethe, Nobuko Hiroi, Inoue Shoji, and Mizutani Hiroshi furnished photographs of plants used for dyes; Yen-Yi Chan brushed the names of the dye plants in Chinese characters; Yano Toshiaki furnished dye materials and his own sample book to be photographed;

Hiroyuki Shindo dyed a series of indigo panels; Living National Treasure Shimura Fukumi1 and her daughter, Shimura Yoko, loaned dyed silk skeins from their workshop; and Royall Tyler gave permission to use quotations from his unpublished translations of Shimura-san’s writings. This exhibition would not have been possible without the generous and extensive assistance of Monica Bethe.

The Substance of Color is supported in part by the Henry Luce Foundation, the University of Kansas Department of Visual Art, the University of Kansas Textile Club, and Pam and Mike Sullivan.

— Mary M. Dusenbury, Curator

1 Living National Treasure (ningen kokuho) is the informal name for the highest recognition given by the Japanese national government to a living practitioner of traditional arts. The official title is juyo mukei bunkazai hojisha, or preserver of important intangible cultural properties.

The spread of Chinese dye technology to Korea and Japan: The color-rank system

Chinese dye technology and several dye plants reached the outer boundaries of the greater Chinese cultural area before the 8th century CE as part of a cultural transmission that included written language, technologies, architecture, city-planning, and government, as well as philosophical, religious and artistic ideas. To confer authority on the rulers of new ‘vassal’ states (as the Chinese imperium regarded them), the Chinese emperor bestowed gifts of rank insignia—including costume and its accoutrements—dyed in established rank colors. The rank colors were the ancient ‘correct’ colors with the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE) addition of purple.1

The rank colors in China under Emperor Daizong (626–649 CE):

Ranks 1–3: Purple (gromwell roots)Rank 4: Red (madder roots)Rank 5: Light Red (madder roots)

Rank 6: Dark Green (indigo + a yellow)Rank 7: Light Green (indigo + a yellow)Rank 8: Dark Blue (indigo)Rank 9: Light Blue (indigo)

The 12th-century Samguk Sagi, the earliest extant official history of the Korean peninsula, stated that in 260 CE the founder-king of Paekche in southwestern Korea established a state based on Chinese prototypes and created sixteen ranks distinguished by official dress in prescribed colors: purple robes for ranks 1–6, madder-red robes for ranks 7–11, and indigo blue for ranks 12–16. Other states followed. The kingdom of Silla, in 520 CE, kept the same order but added yellow for the lowest ranks.2

In 603 CE, in Japan, Empress Suiko (r. 592–628) and her regent Shotoku Taishi (574–622) also instituted a set of court ranks as part of their effort to model the Japanese polity on that of China and Sinified kingdoms on the Korean

1 Zhou Xun and Gao Chunming, 5000 Years of Chinese Costumes (Hong Kong: China Books, 1988), 76.

2 Ki-baik Lee. A New History of Korea. Translated by Edward W. Wagner (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993), 37 and Kim Pu-sik. Samguk Sagi II. Translated into Japanese by Rin Ei Ju (Tokyo: San’ichi Shobo, 1974), 150.

peninsula. The ranks, as in China and the Korean kingdoms, were distinguished by color and details of costume. Although rank colors were originally based on the ancient ‘correct’ colors, Japanese official histories trace a quick proliferation of colors, suggesting both the pleasure that the Japanese elite took in these new colors and the increasing skill of court dyers. In 685, for instance, safflower was added to the list for the top ranks, and the two lowest ranks wore a color of undetermined origin known as ebi or grape.3 The addition of red-purple in 701 CE indicates that dyers had achieved the skill to vary the tone as well as the shade of a color. Shades of color (darker and lighter) were relatively easy to achieve by varying the exposure of the thread or cloth to the dye bath, but variations of tone required skillful adjustments of pH, temperature, or some other factor in the dyeing process.

The Kusagusa no some yodo, a 10th-century manual for commissaries in the imperial dyeworks in Heian-kyo (Kyoto), is included in the Engishiki, a compendium of ritual procedures and government regulations

commissioned in 905 CE by Emperor Daigo (r.897–930). The Kusagusa no some yodo provides a glimpse into the skill behind the elegant layered costumes described in the literature. Not including the imperial koro (a rich red-brown made from sappanwood crimson and wax-tree yellow) and the heir apparent’s oni (a complex orange made from safflower scarlet and gardenia yellow), this document contains supply lists for 37 shades and tones of ten colors rendered on a variety of types of silk, bast-fiber cloth, and silk thread for a total of one hundred and seventeen entries, all made from one of ten dye plants or, rarely, a combination of two plants. The repetition of list after list with only very small variations—twenty-two entries for purple produced solely by varying the proportions of the roots of a gromwell plant, vinegar, ash and firewood, for example—underscores the sophistication of 10th-century court dyers who could wheedle so many shades and tones of color from a single species of plant.

Dyers in Japan today look back to the Heian period (794–1185 CE) as a golden

3 This information was recorded in the 8th century Nihonshoki, an imperially commissioned history of Japan. A transcription occurs in Maeda Ujo, Nihon no shikisai to some (Color and dye in Japan) (Tokyo: Kawade Shobooshinsha, 1982), 54.

Dye Materials

The basic toolkit for cloth dyeing in ancient and medieval East Asia included dyes extracted from the heartwood, bark, nuts, grass stems, flower petals, and roots of a wide variety of trees, shrubs, grasses and flowering plants. These were chopped, crushed, boiled, and/or fermented to extract the coloring. The fiber, usually silk or a bast fiber (hemp or ramie), was often mordanted before dyeing in an alkali solution (ash lye) or bath of metallic salts (iron, alum) to promote bonding between the dye and fiber molecules. Many plants used for dyeing also served medicinal purposes.

At first, dyers had access only to local, indigenous plants, but as communication increased throughout East Asia, desirable dye materials and even the plants from which they originated began to travel considerable distances.

age of dyeing. Readers familiar with the great women’s literature of the age—Murasaki Shikibu’s Tale of Genji, Sei Shonagan’s Pillowbook, and the diaries—are aware of the color that threads its pages. On reading and rereading the Genjimonogatari (Tale of Genji), the dyer and Living National Treasure Shimura Fukumi has said:

Above all, I witnessed the colors of Heian times. Of course, I have never actually seen those colors. The vision was an illusion. Still, I who work daily with [plant] dyes never cease wondering just what those colors were like. Perhaps they speak to us down the ages, through the spirit of present flowers….4

4 Shimura Fukumi (b.1924) in Katarikakeruhana (Kyoto: Jinbun Shoin, 1992). Unpublished translation by Royall Tyler.

PURPLEGromwell, Lithospermum officinale or Lithospermum erythrorhizon R O O T S

In ancient and medieval East Asia, purple was an ambiguous color, at once coveted and reviled. Purple was valued for its beauty, extracted with difficulty from the roots of the gromwell plant. At the same time it was criticized by Confucian scholars and statesmen for being frivolous and extravagant.

A passage in the Confucian Analects links moral inferiority with a love of luxury represented by clothing dyed purple from the roots of a gromwell plant, or scarlet from safflower flowers:

The superior man did not use a deep purple in the ornaments of his dress. Even in informal costume, he did not wear anything scarlet or purple.1

Despite Confucian denunciations, purple increased in popularity until early in the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), when it achieved legitimate prominence by coming to represent

Medicinal uses: Dried gromwell root has traditionally been used topically for burns and frostbite, and internally as an antiviral. Recent research suggests it also helps the inhibition of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).

1 James Legge, trans. The Chinese Classics I, Confucian Analects (Taipei: SCM Publishing, 1991, a photo-offset reproduction of the 1892 version), 230. The Analects, a collection of sayings attributed to Confucius and his followers, was originally written during the Warring States Period (475–221 BCE).

the cosmic unity behind the yin-yang duality. In 113 BCE, Emperor Wu of Han (Han Wudi) built a three-story altar to Taiyi, a Daoist deity who embodied the abstract concept of absolute unity behind the principle of duality. The altar was surrounded by five subordinate altars, one for each of the Five Emperors of China’s semi-mythological past. Priests responsible for the sacrifices for each of the Five Emperors wore vestments of that emperor’s color: red from madder, yellow from gardenia, blue/green from indigo, white, and acorn black. Positioned high above these figures was the priest serving Taiyi, who wore flowing purple vestments.2 Han Wudi’s altar can be seen as part of a larger effort to create a unified philosophical understanding of the universe from an inherited variety of disparate strands of thought, but it also served to provide a legitimate—and prominent—place for purple in official and ritual life.

A thousand years later and fifteen hundred miles to the northeast, murasaki (gromwell purple) and kurenai (safflower scarlet) became the two most beloved colors at the Heian court of Japan (794–1185 CE). The female protagonist of the Tale of Genji, Murasaki was named for the first of these colors, and today we know the author only by her penname, Murasaki Shikibu.

A tall perennial growing wild in mountains and plains throughout East Asia, the “purple grass” bears small white flowers. Its long purple roots that thicken and spread over the years yield both dye and medicine.

To make the dye, three or four year-old roots are harvested and dried for storage. They are then soaked in warm water, pounded, and the resulting purplish liquid strained off. The process is repeated until the roots are pulverized and no more color comes out.

Gromwell is difficult to dye successfully. The roots yield their color reluctantly, the dye bath is sensitive to pH and to temperature (too low has little impact, too high greys the purple), and it disintegrates into sediment easily. To achieve proper bonding between dye and fiber, the thread or cloth must be soaked in an alkali solution that contains alum, such as a lye bath made from the ash obtained by burning camelia twigs and stalks. Finally, vinegar neutralizes the pH balance. Washing, airing, and time allow the color to mature. To achieve a range of pale-to-deep purples with perfect balance between red and blue overtones requires skill and experience.

2 Benjamin Schwartz. The World of Thought in Ancient China (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1985), 375. Michelle, Pirazzoli-t’Serstevens. The Han Civilization of China. Translated by Janet Seligman (Oxford: Phaedon Press, 1982), 99.

REDMadder, Rubia cordifolia L. and Rubia akaneR O O T S

Growing in mild regions of Japan, madder is a vine-like perennial with whorls of four leaves, small white flowers, and long red roots. Two to seven year-old roots are harvested in October, dried, pounded, then boiled to release a crimson red dye. The ingredients for dyeing madder listed in the 10th-century Engishiki include rice (to leach out the latent yellow) and ash lye as a mordant.

Dye compounds: Most species of madder contain purpurin and alizarin. Rubia cordifolia L. contains predominantly purpurin; Rubia akane is unusual in that its primary dye material is hydroxyrubiadin.

Medicinal uses: An infusion of madder roots has traditionally been used to treat jaundice, rheumatism, and bleeding.

REDSappanwood, Caesalpinia sappan L. H E A R T W O O D

Dye compound: brazilein

Medicinal uses: An infusion of sappanwood has been used traditionally for blood-related ailments, to ease menstruation, and to reduce pain and swelling.

Sappanwood is a flowering tree with legume fruits and thorny bark that grows in South China, Southeast Asia, and India. It was imported to Japan as a dye material beginning in the Nara period (710–794 CE). Boiled wood chips produce a deep red when mordanted with ash lye and a reddish purple with an iron mordant.

REDSafflower, Carthamus tinctorius L. F L O R E T S

pink to scarlet, but color is light sensitive and fades quickly

Dye compound: carthamin

Medicinal uses: An infusion of safflower petals was used traditionally to alleviate pain, to increase circulation, to treat high blood pressure, and as a parasiticide.

Safflower is a tall annual thistle with sharply pointed leaves and pompom-like blooms of spiky, thin yellow petals that eventually turn red from the base up. Native to Ethiopia and Egypt, safflower garlands and safflower-dyed linen cloth have been found on 4000 year-old Egyptian mummies, in the tomb of Ahmenhotep 1 (18th dynasty: 1526–1506 BCE,) and in a Late Period (664–332 BCE) coffin in the Saqqara tomb complex near Cairo. The latter tomb contained lipstick made from safflower extract.1 From Egypt, safflower traveled east. Its name in Japanese, kurenai, suggests that it reached Japan from the Chinese country of Wu (J. Kure). Safflower pollen was recently found at the 3rd-century Makimuku archaeological site in Nara prefecture in a context that

suggested medicinal use, but there is no documentary or archaeological evidence that it was cultivated and used as a dye material in Japan before it appeared as a rank color in 685 CE.2

In July, as soon as a hint of red shows on the plant, the petals are picked without the calyx. This requires an extremely labor-intensive method of harvesting. To extract scarlet, the dried petals are soaked in successive baths of water until the yellow is leached out. They are then soaked and kneaded in ash lye to release a muddy bath that clears to red with the addition of plum vinegar. Repeated baths are required to impart intense colors. The deep scarlet of safflower was highly prized but faded quickly.

That year I dyed and wove with safflower like one possessed …. I had never used a dye extracted solely from flowers, and it mattered little to me if it faded in sunlight. In fact, its fleeting character attracted me all the more…..To dye with safflower blossoms, you first soak the dried flower cakes in cold water overnight, then rinse away the yellow tint in many waters. Next you knead the flowers in [ash] lye and bring out the red with ubai (dried, smoked green ume plums)…Dipping a pure white skein in the dye…again and again to deepen the color, is like watching a young girl awaken and flower into womanhood. The beauty of safflower has purity, just as that of sappanwood has mystery and that of madder a sturdy solidity.

— Shimura Fukumi (b.1924) in Katarikakeruhana (Kyoto: Jinbun Shoin, 1992). Unpublished translation by Royall Tyler.

1 Yoshioka, Sachio. Nihon no iro jiten (Dictionary of Japanese color) (Kyoto: Shikosha, 2002), 38. 2 Matsui, Akira, Masaaki Kanehara, Masako Kanehara. “Palaeoparasitology in Japan—Discovery of toilet features.” In Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz. Vol. 98, suppl.1. (Instituto Oswaldo Cruz: Rio de Janeiro, Jan. 2003), unpaginated. Retrieved from www.scielo.br.3 Maeda, Ujo. Nihon kodai no shikisai to some (Color and dye in ancient Japan)(Tokyo: Kawade Shoboshinsha, 1982), 54.

BLUEIndigo, Polygonum tinctoriumL E A V E S & S T E M S

Indigo is a leafy annual with small red or white flowers that grows to a height of around 28 inches. The plant reached Japan from the continent sometime before the 7th century. In the Nara (710–794) and Heian (794–1185) periods, fresh leaves were rubbed into cloth or chopped and crushed in water to produce pale to sky blue, or vatted for fermentation, a method that could yield darker shades. In Korea today, fresh leaves are fermented directly in the dye vat; in Japan, beginning in the Muromachi period (1333–1568), the leaves were dried and composted for later fermentation (a practice that continues to this day). In this compact and long-lasting form, they became an important market commodity.

Dye compound: indigotin

Medicinal uses: Indigo has been used traditionally for stomach disorders, to lower fevers and treat snakebites. It acted as an insecticide for Buddhist sutra papers.

Dip a skein into a healthy indigo pot, and you first get a dull brownish color, like earth; then twist the skein with a length of bamboo to wring it out. Release the twist. The relaxing skein breathes in the surrounding air, quietly recovers its normal shape, and turns an astonishing jade green. The last drop of brown liquid falls, and this green emerges, like a cicada casting off its empty shell or a butterfly spreading its beautiful wings. It is a mystery.

Then count to three, and before your eyes the green vanishes, while the parts exposed to the

air slowly turn blue…. The green that melts away in a twinkling, as though it had never been, fixes the indigo; it is the other side of the blue that appears next. In other words, you see in a single color both this world and the world beyond. The green belongs to the realm of sky and sea. Touch it, and it does not even exist.

From it is born the blue that remains behind in this world…

— Shimura Fukumi (b.1924) in Katarikakeruhana (Kyoto: Jinbun Shoin, 1992). Unpublished translation by Royall Tyler.

First section of Buddhist sutra, Korea, 14th century, Spencer Research Library.

Eulalia, Miscanthus tinctorius (Sieb. & Steud.) and Anthraxon hispidus S T A L K S & L E A V E S

Eulalia is a tall grass with head tassels that open in early autumn. Boiled stalks and leaves yield a slightly transparent yellow dye with a green tinge. Because this

plant grows wild and is easy to dye, yellow was designated a commoners’ color in 8th-century Japan. It also appears in the Engishiki as a court color both on its own and in conjunction with other dyes.

Dye compound: luteolin

YELLOWGardenia, Gardenia jasminoides H U L L S

Dye compound:

Medicinal use: An infusion of the hulls has been used traditionally to treat fever, inflammation, and bleeding.

Gardenia is an evergreen shrub with fleshy oval leaves and fragrant white flowers. The dye is derived from the orange colored star-shaped crowns of the fruit. When boiled, gardenia hulls produce a warm yellow dye that does not require a mordant to bond with thread or cloth.

Amur Cork Tree, Phellodendron amurense Rupr. I N N E R B A R K

The Amur Cork Tree is a tall deciduous tree with small pointed leaves that grow in pairs and yellowish-green flowers that bear black berries. Boiling the inner bark releases a bright yellow that does not require a mordant to bond with the fiber, although mordanting the thread or cloth with ash lye before dyeing helps to counter phellodendron’s tendency to brown. References to the use of yellow paper dyed with phellodendron in the 8th-century Izumo Fudoki (History and Customs of the Izumo Region) and in 8th-century documents from the Shosoin Repository of the Todaiji Temple in Nara suggest that its use as an insecticide was well known. Yellow papers commonly appear in Buddhist sutra manuscripts of this period. The 10th-century Engishiki (Regulations of the Engi Era) frequently mentions phellodendron in conjunction with indigo to produce green.

The color is a gift from the plant. What color the plant yields depends on whether or not you’ve received it in the best, most tactful way from a plant gathered at the right time of year. … And that right time and proper state, you have to watch for them every year, over and over again, and note the slightest difference or discovery. You have to go on feeling your way forward and let the plants guide you.

— Shimura Fukumi (b.1924) in Katarikakeruhana (Kyoto: Jinbun Shoin, 1992). Unpublished translation by Royall Tyler.

Dye compound:

TANBROWN

GREYBLACK

Oak, Quercus acutissima A C O R N S

This oak is a tall, spreading, broadleaf tree with a thick, grey trunk and long, oval, serrated leaves that drop off only in spring. The slim, cylindrical flower clusters produce small, round acorns. Although many parts of the oak contain tannin, a source for brown dyes, it was traditionally the acorns that served as primary dye materials. Acorns were boiled to produce the dye bath. The use of an ash lye mordant in the dyeing process yielded shades of tan, brown, and grey; an iron mordant yielded black. Because acorns were plentiful, acorn-dyed garments were permitted to commoners in Japan. The 10th-century Engishiki lists acorns and madder with an ash lye mordant as ingredients used to create grey or black dyes for court use. The addition of madder would have yielded a quality of color distinct from the commoner’s more straightforward acorn-dyed garb.

In 8th-century Japan, the properties of the major dye plants were common knowledge. In this final verse of a longer poem, a provincial governor uses the contrasting properties of safflower and acorns to rebuke Owari Okuhi, a subordinate who had abandoned his wife in the capital for a scandalous love affair with a local belle. The governor contrasted the allure, expense, and fleeting character of safflower scarlet with the long-lasting dependability of the oak. Okuhi could not have failed to understand the message.

Scarlet is fleetingHow can you compare it with

Familiar robesDyed acorn-grey

Otomo no Yakamochi (716–785), poem #4109 in Manyoshu IV, book 18 (Nihon koten bungaku taikei VII, 1957), 289.

MORDANTSA mordant is a substance that forms a bridge between a dye molecule and a fiber molecule, forging a chemical bond between dye and fiber. The word comes from the Latin mordere and means to bite.

In ancient and medieval East Asia, the most common mordant was an alkali solution made by leaching ashes in water and filtering the resulting solution to produce a clear liquid. Today in Japan, silk is usually mordanted in a simmering solution of ash lye, then washed and dried before it is dyed, but we do not know the sequence of processes in most earlier times. Iron has also been used since ancient times as a mordant to produce dark colors. In the last few hundred years, other metallic salts have been added to the palette; alum (aluminum sulfate) was one of the earliest and most common. The tannins occurring in trees and woody shrubs act as mordants, and the dyes from these plants are generally robust and stable.

TECHNICAL DESCRIPTIONHypothetical representation of alizarin bound to a mordant (alumininum ion) and bound to silk. All known mordants are at least trivalent (three + charges) which can complex with dye molecules as shown. This leaves a single + charge that can bind to negatively-charged carboxyl groups (shown) found in protein fibers, such as silk and wool. Cotton has very few carboxyl groups and is more difficult to dye.

Silk fibroin is a protein composed of about 5,500 amino acids linked, like proteins (e.g., wool), in a single chain:

Every protein is composed of only 20 different amino acids (i.e., 20 different “R” groups) strung together like beads on a necklace. Some “R” groups have positive (+) and some negative (-) charges.

Mordants are positively charged metal ions (e.g., aluminium ion, AI3+) that can bind to the negative charges on proteins, where R2 contains a negatively charged COO- group.

The remaining two positive (+) charges on the aluminum ion can bind the dye molecule.

THURSDAY, MARCH 7, 12 PM, the Pine Room at the Kansas Union Michele Wipplinger, Earthues in Seattle, Washington Natural Dyes and Dyers in Laos Free and open to the public.

FRIDAY, MARCH 8–SATURDAY, MARCH 9, 2013, 9 AM–5 PM, The Commons in Spooner Hall Color in Ancient and Medieval East Asia (schedule online at spencerart.ku.edu) Free and open to the public; registration requested at the door.

FRIDAY, MARCH 8, 4–6:30 PM, Spencer Museum of Art Extended gallery hours for viewing of The Substance of Color and other exhibitions

SUNDAY, MARCH 10, 10 AM–5 PM, Art and Design Building, 5th Floor, Textiles / Fibers Studio Michele Wipplinger, Natural Dye workshop Dyeing as if the Earth Matters$75 materials fee for non-students; register via email, maj@ku.edu

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symposium & exhibition programming

Color in Ancient and Medieval East AsiaThe Commons in Spooner Hall | MARCH 8–9, 2013

The Substance of Color The Spencer Museum of Art | MARCH 5–24, 2013

Symposium supported in part by the Henry Luce Foundation, the Chiang Ching-Kuo Foundation for International Scholarly Exchange.

Exhibition supported in part by the Henry Luce Foundation, the University of Kansas Department of Visual Art, the University of Kansas Textile Club, and Pam and Mike Sullivan.