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British Journal of Religious Education

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The Teaching of Primal Religions in Schools

Fiona Bowie

To cite this article: Fiona Bowie (1988) The Teaching of Primal Religions in Schools, British Journal of Religious Education, 10:3, 145-153, DOI: 10.1080/0141620880100305

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FIONA BOWIE

The Teaching of Primal Religions

in Schools

Teachers and educational publishers have been slow to recognise the immense

contributions to be made by primal religions in the religious education syllabus.

Where comparative material drawing on primal religions is used its presentation

often lacks sensitivity and reveals a Western cultural bias which d oes the material

a disservice and which reinforces stereotypes rather than broadening children s

religious understanding and outlook. When used imaginatively and with clear

objectives in mind, however, primal religions provide a valuable tool in the

exploration of religion.

This article outlines the contributions of primal religions to the overall aims of

a religious education syllabus, evaluates some of the material currently available

for teaching primal religions in school, examines various ways in which primal

religions have been presented in the classroom and gives some suggestions for

schemes of work.

A Note on Terminology

Th e term 'prim al religion' is itself problem atic, as it suggests a possible evolutionary

connotation. I do no t, how ever, have any sort of evolutionary scale in mind when using

the term 'primal' , the word is chosen simply for lack of more acceptable alternatives.

Another possible term would have been 'traditional' , but all indigenous religions can

be regarded as traditional so this term does not adequately distinguish primal from

other 'world religions' (cf Parrinder, 1969:8).'The term 'tribal' is sometimes used but

this begs the whole question of: 'What is a tribe?' and takes us into an area of

anthropological controversy that is best avoided. Oth er less acceptable bu t still curren t

terms are 'pr imitive ' and 'simple ' . Both these terms might be taken to imply a moral

value judgment, placing these religions and their practitioners at the opposite end of

a spectrum from the 'civilized ', 'com plex' religions and societies of Eu rop e and N or th

America (and possibly Asia). Thes e term s also lead to the evolutionary fallacy of equa ting

living religions with 'what our ancestors believed'. I have, therefore, chosen to use

the term 'primal' in preference to its alternatives and I like to think of it particularly

in the sense of 'funda men tal' . A characteristic of primal religions, in as far as one can

possibly generalise about su ch a diverse range of beliefs and practices, is that religion

is an integral part of life, expressing how the world is and how peop le should act w ithin

it. Religion does not belong in a separate comp artment bu t is implicit within th e na ture

of society.

What are Primal Religions?

Generalisations about the nature of religious belief and practice in countries as far

apart and different culturally as Australia, Africa, South America or the islands of

Polynesia, for example, lead to the danger of gross over-simplification. What are termed

primal religions do, however, share certain common features. They are based upon

an oral rather than a literate tradition and express an integrated view of the world.

The notion of religion as a discrete phenomenon is not universal and many languages

have no equivalent of the English word 'religion'.

2

To describe the religion of another

people therefore necessitates an un derstan ding of their social life and the appreciation

B J R E 145


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of a totally different way of perceiving the world. This should of course be the case

when studying any religion but fundamentally so in respect of primal religions, providing

one of the most valuable aspects of such a study.

The Justification for Teaching Primal Religions

One of the m ost important and perhaps one of the most difficult tasks for the teacher

of religion is to convey to children what it means to have a religious view of life. Tho se

who are brought up within a particular religious tradition will bring to their studies

some understanding of the place of religion within their faith community and of the

consequences of belief for the members of that com munity. F or m any, however, religion

is seen as something strictly optional and extraneous to everyday life, interesting,

perha ps, bu t hardly of primary importance . A characteristic of primal religions is that

they form an integral part of the life of the com munity. T he whole way of perceiving

the world of most non-Western peoples is religious in nature. That is, there is a

recognition of transcendence and of the importance of myth, ritual and ceremony in

everyday life.

Primal religions also succeed in integrating a scientific and religious level of

explanation. Among the Azande of the southern Sudan, for example, as with many

other African peoples, misfortune an d death are often in terpreted as signs of witchcraft

(Evans-Pritchard, 1976). Witchcraft, for the A zande, combines a 'scientific' view of

biology (witchcraft can be revealed by autopsy as a physical substance in the stomach

or intestines and is inherited from one's parents), an d a psychological view of hum an

relationships. Accusations of witchcraft focus on existing areas of tension within the

comm unity. T he process of divination, accusation and healing can act as a means of

expressing and controlling difficult situations and individuals. From studying a

phenomenon such as witchcraft it is possible to appreciate the links between

psychological, social and physical health and to understand something of the relationship

between beliefs and social structure within a society. When teaching such a topic it

is vital that the m aterial is presented as forming a logical view of the w orld. Students

can be asked to explore their own explanations of events, whether expressed in terms

of random coincidence or within a religious framework.

A second reason for teaching primal religions in schools is that, well taught, they

can open up for pup ils a radically different way of perceiving the world. T he sensitivity

and respect with which Laurens van der Post describes and interprets Bushman

mythology, for example, provides a model for work of this kind. Through his own

enthusiasm, van der P ost communicates a vision of life which integrates the physical,

spiritual and mythological realms of existence in a rich and harmonious whole.

Studying primal religions can enable pupils to appreciate religion as a dynamic

process. Because many tribal peoples have been faced with th e radically different values

of Western social and religious systems, their own view of the world has often been

restructured to m ake sense of this experience. By exploring this process of change it

is possible to appreciate the function of religion as an explanation of the w orld. One

way in which this could be approached could be through the study of 'cargo cults'

(Lawrence, 1971). For a people with a simple technology encountering advanced

Western technology can be traumatic and challenging. Th e white man 's paraphernalia

is not locally produced and seems to appear miraculously. T he acquisition of material

goods, such as aeroplanes, record players, mirrors, guris, etc., is thought to be dependent

upon harnessing the white man's power. In parts of the Pacific this type of thinking

has led to well developed 'cargo cu lts' in w hich religious endeavour becomes directed

towards harnessing this pow er. Th ese cults are typically m illenarian, looking forward

to the time when the white man's goods will be delivered by aeroplane or ship for

the benefit of the cult practitioner. A study of cargo cults would link well with an

examination of millenarian or Utopian thinking in other religious traditions. It also serves

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to illustrate the link betw een social and metaphysical aspects of religious experience.

Primal religions provide a wealth of material for the study of religion in several

different dim ensions (cf. Sm art, 1968). Th e doctrinal dimen sion of religion is sometimes

treated as if it were paramount in the study of religion, but this aspect is often

underdeveloped in primal religions, which lack a written statement of belief. O the r

aspects of religion therefore attain greater importance. The second dimension of religion

put forward by Smart (ibid.) is the mythological dimens ion, and this is of fun damental

importance in m ost primal religions. Jud ith Ollington (1982:70) stresses the imp ortance

of myth and of mythological narrative at all stages of religious education, whether in

the form of the fairy story at prim ary level or in more so phisticated forms at secondary

level. Of the place of mythology in the curriculum she writes:

It is now widely recognised that without myth there can be no religion. By myth

is mean t here a story which is seen to have significance for hu ma n life. N arrative

is one of the most important forms of synthesis. It is the form through which

image and action are united, where the human being and the unpredictable

happenings to which he is subject are shaped into a pattern which makes living

possible.

There is no shortage of marvellous mythological material in the traditions of tribal

peoples. Primal religions illustrate the central importance of mythological narrative

in making sense of the, world.

;

Smart's third dimension of religion is the ethical dimension. This too can be well

demonstrated through a study of primal religions. All religions prescribe a particular

way of life and in primal religions this is often expressed through the maintenance

of good relations within the community. Children are enjoined to honour their elders

and elders to honour th eir ancestors. Supernatural sanctions are often invoked for those

who fail to fulfil the ethical demands of their religion.

A fourth dimension is that of experience. As the Schools Council handbook for

teachers puts it (1979:14): 'T his living faith in the life of believers is perhaps t he heart

of a religion'. It is vitally impo rtant to teach primal religions as living faiths a nd not

as evolutionary survivals. It is perhaps through novels that the experience of living

within a particular religious tradition can best be communicated. A particularly suitable

novel for use in secondary school would be Mugo Gatheru's account of his Kenyan

childhood in

Child of two Worlds

(1966). Throug h an appreciation of the importance

of religion for someone from a tradition very different from on e's ow n, the pup ils are

led to reflect upon their own responses to religion and of its place within their lives.

The ritual dimension of religion is richly demonstrated in primal religions. Some

North American Indian peoples, for example, believe that their ritual actions directly

affect the operation of the sun and stars. Their actions are of benefit to the whole of

creation, ens uring the correct passage of days and seas ons. Ritual is not a meaningless

frill bu t a vital instrume ntal tool for most tribal peoples. .-

The final dimension mentioned by Smart is the social dimension. As stated above

the integration of religious and social life is a feature of tribal societies and the study

of primal religions must ipso facto include the social dimension of religion.

As well as widening the study of Smart's dimensions of religion, primal religions

can increase our understanding of phenomena such as sacred places, visions, ritual

specialists, initiation rites, motivation, syncretism and responses to change.

Current Approaches to Primal Religions

In comparison with the major world religions, the teaching of primal religions in

schools has been largely neglected. Good teaching materials are hard to come by and ,

due to lack of guidance or thought, there is evidence that where primal religions are

taugh t they are not always dealt with as sensitively as they m ight be .

3

An examination

of some of the material currently available and of ways in which th e subject of p rimal

B J R E

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It is unfortunate that little material of this quality on primal religions has been

produced for use in schools, but one useful book, intended for the senior primary or

junior secondary school pupil, is provided by Ray Bruce and Jane Wallbank in

Beginning

Religion (1986).

Beginning Religion

The book is divided into six chapters: Everyone asks Questions, The Way Back,

The World of Gods and Spir i ts, Contacting Gods and Spir i ts, Myths-Stories of the

Gods and Festivals and Ceremonies. Each cha pter is sub-divided into shorter sections,

which generally contain enough material for one single or double lesson with text,

illustrations and thing s to do . The tex t is of a high sta nda rd — the language is simple

and straightforward and the amount of information just sufficient to avoid

oversimplification of the topics. The suggested activities are varied and suitable for

different ability levels. As well as written comprehension tasks there are suggestions

for class discussion, poetry writing, researching, copying and imaginative drawing.

Th e rang e of topics covered provides an excellent basis for secondary religious studies.

The book starts with the question of the nature of religion and of religious

belief

and

then moves on to a study of Stone Age religion (based on archaeological evidence rathe r

than fanciful imagination or a study of 'primitive survivals').

Unfortunately, the introduction of the ethnographic material in Chapter Three, 'The

World of Gods and Spirits', makes an unnecessary connection between Stone Age beliefs

and 'tribal' societies, suggesting that the chief interest in studying these societies is

to find out more about Stone Age religion (18):

Des pite the archaeological evidence, however, we can still only guess as to wh at

Stone Age people believed. . . . Is there any way we can find out more about

these fundamental beliefs? Many scholars think we can try.

Th ere are many people today who live in societies that have chang ed very little

over the centuries. We call these groups of people ' tribes' and they live in such

places as Africa, Australia, South America and Asia. Scholars think that if we

stud y their religions we migh t have some idea abo ut t he earliest religious beliefs

of humankind which will add to what the archaeologists might tell us.

The tone of the rest of the book and the choice of themes and material suggest that

these societies are of interest in their own right and the links made are with other

contemporary beliefs, not Stone Age religion.

The topics covered, ranging from gods and spirits, ancestors, ritual specialists, myths,

healing, sacrifice and sacred places, to festivals and ceremonies and.rites of passage,

provide a n excellent basis for the study of world religions and o ther aspects of

belief.

There are also 'special studies' such as 'Dreamtime of the Australian Aborigines' and

' the Shaman

1

wh ich could be extended into more detailed project work. M y criticisms

of this book, which do not outweigh its general usefulness, concern a rather outdated

use of terminology and lack of awareness of contemporary anthropological thinking.

Beginning Religion

remains one of the few books which uses materials from primal

religions as a way of introdu cing im portan t areas in the stu dy of religion. The material

is attractively presented and amply demonstrates the value of primal religions in school

religious education.

Practica l App roache s to Primal Religions

In 1986 Devon County Council produced a set of six booklets entitled Practical

Approaches,

consisting of units of work taught in religious studies periods in Devon

classrooms. Tw o of the booklets cover the primary level, two m iddle school level and

two senior level. Among the work presented are some lessons which touch directly

or indirectly on the teaching of primal religions. The teachers describe their educational

aims,

resources, me thod s and prov ide an evaluation of the lesson. It is therefore possible

B J R E 149


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to gain some insight into the way the topics are dealt with in the classroom. A lthough

full of useful and imaginative ideas, the evidence from these booklets suggests that

primal religions are often treated w ith an alarming lack of sophistication and without

sufficient background knowledge.

An example of a less successful exercise appears in a topic for a third year middle

school class (Middle Years: Part 2, Unit M21) entitled T h e Bear Cult '. Th e stated

objectives were: 'To develop a sympathetic awareness of the range of religious expression

in human society' and 'To investigate the role of the bear as an object of worship many

years ago'. The idea for the topic was sparked off by the visit of one of the children

to Dan-yr-Ogof in the Brecon Beacons where she had seen a cave painting of a bear

and a pile of bears' bones. The class compiled an information book about the topic

and some art work of life-size drawings and paintings of bears. T he information book

was intended to stress the importance of the bear as an early god-figure and the topics

which the children researched were:

The Bear as an Early God;

Rituals Connected with Bear-Hunting;

The Cult of the Cave Bear;

Symbols of the Bear Cult;

Totem Spirits;

Bears Big and Small;

The Original Teddy Bear.

I w ould regard this as a rather unhappy juxtaposition of unscientific speculation (there

is no evidence that the bear was 'an early go d'), living primal religions (totem spirits)

and sentimentality (the original teddy bear). T he way the topics are presented leads

to the suspicion that material from contemporary primal religions was drawn on

uncritically to provide a supposed explanation for the presence of bear paintings and

remains dating from the Stone Age. Apart from the incongruity of leaping over centuries

and co ntinen ts, such an approach leads inevitably to a trivialization of primal religions.

Tribal peoples are equated w ith our Stone Age ancestors and seen as survivals from

a primitive past. Although eginning Religion is quoted as an 'especially useful' resourc

the material it contains does not justify this type of approach.

4

A more successful series of lessons, described in Middle Years: (Unit M14), was

developed as the religious education component for a middle school environmental

studies project on trade. The teacher stated that:

I wanted the children to see the importance of religion as a force shaping society.

As we looked at trade, I planned that the following aspects of religion would

become evident:

i. Animism

ii.

Spirit magic and super-nature

iii. The Shaman

iv. Totemism

v. The Priest-King

vi.

The Sumerian Pantheon

vii. Temple building

Th e range of approaches employed was impressive, utilising art and craft (making totem

poles and masks), creative writing, literature, drama and dance and science. Material

from the ancient world and p rimal religions appear to have been imaginatively drawn

upon to illustrate the chosen themes. Unlike the previous example, there is no suggestion

of evolutionism. The only reservation I would express regarding this unit is the use

of the term 'animism' which has resonances of missionary tales of 'natives worshipping

trees and animals'. The term fails to convey the understanding of the natural world

in primal religions and is best avoided altogether.

15

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Place of Primal Religions within the Curriculum

Primal religions could be introduced into the curriculum in a variety of ways,

depending u pon the syllabus and priorities of the school and of the religious education

departm ent, and well taught can make a valuable contribution to the s tudy of religion.

At primary level children are likely to encounter religious studies as part of an integrated

humanities syllabus. Th ere is a danger that the religious education content of the syllabus

becomes watered down o r appears to be stuck on as an extra. T his is particularly th e

case when teaching biblical material. A project on 'the environment^ for example,

does not lead naturally to an examination of the environment of Palestine in the time

of Jesus (although this would n ot be impossible). A more natural link would be a study

of Bushman or Pygmy a ttitudes to their environment. This would involve an exploration

of religious attitudes towards the n atural world and of the place of humans w ithin the

world. The integration of religious belief and social and economic life could be drawn

out, leading to reflection on our own treatment of the environment and of our attitudes

to nature.

Another approach to integrated studies which lends itself to the teaching of primal

religions is the exploration of a particular region. Any region would lend itself to a

study of religious beliefs, practices and influences, bu t where the region chosen is outside

Europe or Asia, primal religions would almost certainly feature. ,A project on South

America, for example, w ould hardly m ake sense without an examination of religion

on the continent. T he religious education part of the course could include a study of

Inca and Aztec society and religion and the meeting of these peoples with the

Conquistadors. The genocide of these peoples only makes sense if one understands

the logic of Spanish Catholicism with its policy of baptism and the sword. The social

and religious life of Amazonian Indian peoples could be explored, along with a study

of contemporary Christian missionary activity. Finally the conflict between liberation

theology and conservative Catholicism could be included, at an appropriate level for

the age and ability of the children.

Th e choice of topics according to them es, either as part of a junior hum anities course

or within a religious education syllabus, is a popular approach at primary and junior

secondary level. Here too primal religions can make a valuable contribution. If a theme

such as 'He alth and Healing ' were proposed, for example, this might include attitudes

towards disease, the connection between psychological and physical health, explanations

of sickness in term s of spirit possession and/or sin (using biblical and contemporary

material), traditional healers, the role of the

shaman,

modern medicine, faith healing

and the attitudes towards suffering.

Other suitable themes which might include material from primal religions would

be: rites of passage and initiation, life after death and the treatment of ancestors, gods

and spirits, prayer, festivals and ceremonies, the role of dance, music and art in religion,

religious change, attitudes to authority, religious specialists, sacred places, and so on.

Th e list would be almost endless. The only topics which would not lend themselves

to the inclusion of material on primal religions would be sacred writings and doctrines.

Teaching Units on Primal Religions in Primary School

Th e following chart provides an indication of one way in which primal religions might

be included within a primary religious education syllabus (cf. Holm, 1984:140-141):

5-9 Hum an experience themes; material on how others live.

Families: an African family, an Inuit family.

Celebrations: celebrations surrounding birth and m arriage in the Pacific Islands.

School: education of an Amazonian Indian into traditional skills and values.

Age:

respect for the elderly and for ancestors in sub-Saharan Africa.

9-11 Explicit them es:

Creation Myths: creation myths from Africa, the Pacific, North America.

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Sacred Places: shrines to local spirits and deities in tropical Africa, Aborigine sacred

places.

Religious Specialists: Th e shaman in Central Europe, traditional healers in Afric

Life Cycles: rites of passage and the socialization of children in Tropical Africa,

Melanesia, North America.

Teaching Units on Primal Religions in Secondary School

First Year: eginning Religion (Bruce and W allbank).

Second Year: Project on American Indian religions. Novel.

Third Year:

Myth,

history

and ritual

(Schools Council: Journeys

into Religion).

Fo urth Year Religion and Society: Study of Itur i Pygmies and of their relationship

with the Bantu (Turnbull).

Fifth Year: Religious Change: Melanesian cargo cults.

Sixth Year: Religion and culture: Primal religions and mission Christianity.

Th e dep th at which these units are taught would depend upon th e time and resources

available. eginning

Religion,

used as a Fir st Year class text, for instance, could b

completed within a term or expanded to cover an entire F irst Year religious education

syllabus. A project on American Indians could be completed within four-six weeks

or consist of a term's work. The interest of the pupils and the amount of material in

other parts of the syllabus would obviously affect decisions of this kind . Unfortunately

there is n ot a great deal of scope for primal religions w ithin present religious studies

public examinations. The type of work done from the Fourth to Sixth Year would

therefore depend upon the ability and interest of the non-examination pupils.

Conclusion

Primal religions have an important contribution to make to children's understanding

and enjoyment of religion. A considerable variety of approaches can be adopted as the

material often lends itself to artistic and dramatic p resentation. T here is a wealth of

visual material available in the form of posters, film strips and videos, and this can

be supplemented by visits to outside exhibitions or by m ounting school displays. Novels

are another rich source of material, especially useful for giving an empathetic

understan ding of the experiential side of religion. The most important resource remains

the teacher and it is vital that she or he approaches the material in a spirit of critical

interest and respect and n ot as a nineteenth cen tury collector of the curious and bizarre.

References

1

Th e question of terminology is discussed by Geoffrey P arrinde r in his book Africa s Three Religio

(1969:8). He uses the term 'traditional religions' in preference to 'animism', 'fetishism' or 'polytheism',

but notes that both Islam and Christianity can be regarded as 'traditional religions' in Africa in the sense

that they have long traditions on the continent. Parrinder uses the term 'traditional religion' to refer

exclusively to 'th e older pre literate religions, mostly of tropical and southern A frica'. A similar discussion

can be found in John Fergu son's book Gods Many and Lords Many (1982:vii). Ferguson, like myself finally

opts for the term 'primal'.

1

Th e notion of belief is itself a peculiarly W estern and Christian pheno menon. W ilfred C antwell Smith

observed that:

The peculiarity of the place given to belief in Christian history is a monumental matter, whose

importance and relative uniqueness must be appreciated. So characteristic has it been that

unsuspecting Westerners have . . . been liable to ask about a religious group other than their own

as well, 'What do they believe?' as though this were the primary question, and certainly were a

legitimate one (1978:180).

When teaching about primal religions it is therefore necessary to give due weight to the mythological,

ethical, experiential, ritual and social dimensions of religion, and not merely the doctrinal dimension,

which figured prominently in traditional religious education syllabuses.

3

An example of recent material produced for schools which illustrates the dangers of thoughtless use

of terminology and the lack of a conceptual framework is provided in the little booklet Nature Religion

in the Hulton 'Our World: Life and Faith' series (1983). Although beautifully illustrated, the short text

is grossly oversimplified and dangerously m isleading. T he choice of material itself is pu zzling, consisting

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of the Masai of Tanzania and (Catholic) Indians of Peru. If the latter example was intended to examine

the fascinating question of religious syncretism and folk belief it totally fails to do so.

T he popu la r From Fear to Faith (Wigley and Pitcher, 1979) in the Longman 'Th e Developing Wor ld '

series,

displays similar confusion. The religious practices of many living peoples are described,

simplistically, in the past tense alongside Old Testament beliefs and customs. The continuity of belief and

continuing relevance of many of the practices described are ignored and the whole tenor of the book is

confessional in the worst sense. As the title of the book indicates, material on primal religions is used in

order to point to the superiority of the Christian message. I would suggest that a treatment of this sort does

not do justice to primal religions and can only serve to reinforce negative racial stereotypes in the eyes of

children using this book.

4

The unnecessary and rather c lumsy link made on p. 18 of Beginning Religion between Stone Age and

tribal peoples may have had the seriously misleading effect of encouraging the sort of comparisons put

forward in 'The Bear Cult*.

Bibliography

Bruce, R. , and Wallbank, J . , (1985): Beginning Religion, Edward Arnold.

Cole, W. O., (1978):

World Faiths in Education,

George Allen and Unwin.

Devon County Council Education Department, (1986): Practical Approaches, Series of six booklets on

Religious Education in Devon.

Evans-Pritchard, E . E . , (1976): Witchcraft Oracles and M agic among the Azande, O U P .

Ferguson, J., (1982):

Gods Many And Lords Many: A Study In Primal Religions,

Lutterworth Educational.

Gatheru, M., (1966): Child of Two Worlds, Heinemann .

Holm, J . , (1984): T eaching Religion in School, O U P .

Life and Faith/Our World series (1983): Nature Religions, Hul ton .

Lawrence, P . , (1971): Road Belong Cargo, M U P .

Ollington, J . , (1982): ' Images for Life? ' in M . F. Tickner D . H. Webster (eds.) , Religious Education

and the Imagination, Univ. of Hull (pp. 63-73).

Parrinder, G. , (1969): Africa s Three Religions, Sheldon.

Schools Council Religious Educati on in Secondary Schools Project, (1979): Journeys into Religion: Myth,

History and Ritual. Making Sense. Te acher s Handboo k A. Teacher s Handboo k B, Har t -Dav is .

Smart, N. , (1968):

Secular Education and the Logic of Religion,

Faber .

Smith, W . C , (1978): The Meaning and End of Religion, SPCK. Quoted in M. Ruel (1982): 'Christ ians

as Believers', in J. Davis (ed), Religious Organisation and Religious Experience (pp. 9-31), Academic Press,

(p .

9).

Turnbull , C. M., (1974): The Forest People, Book Club Assoc. (1976): Wayward Servants, Greenwood.

van der Post, L, (1961): The Heart of the Hunter, Hogarth Press.

Wigley , B ., Pitcher , R. , (1979):

From Fear to Faith,

The Developing World series , Longman.

The a uthor is a course tutor for the Op en University and has a doctorate in social anthropology. Her address

is 29 Bryntirion, Bethesda, Gwynedd LL57 3NG.

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the teaching of primal religions in schools

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