the theoretical and the empirical two pillars of your ethnographic essay

The Theoretical The Theoretical and the Empiricaland the Empirical

Two Pillars of Your Two Pillars of Your Ethnographic EssayEthnographic Essay

Theory: The AbstractTheory: The Abstract

Theory. Theory. Definition 4a from the Definition 4a from the Oxford Oxford English DictionaryEnglish Dictionary. .

““SScheme or system of ideas or statements cheme or system of ideas or statements held as an explanation or account of a group held as an explanation or account of a group of facts or phenomena; a hypothesis that of facts or phenomena; a hypothesis that has been confirmed or established by has been confirmed or established by observation or experiment, and is observation or experiment, and is propounded or accepted as accounting for propounded or accepted as accounting for the known facts; a statement of what are the known facts; a statement of what are held to be the general laws, principles, or held to be the general laws, principles, or causes of something known or observed.”causes of something known or observed.”

Theory: The AbstractTheory: The Abstract

Etymology: “Gr. a looking at, viewing, Etymology: “Gr. a looking at, viewing, contemplation, speculation, theory, also a sight, contemplation, speculation, theory, also a sight, a spectacle, abstr. n. f. (:*) spectator, looker on.” a spectacle, abstr. n. f. (:*) spectator, looker on.”

The word is related to our The word is related to our theatertheater, which is of , which is of course a place one goes to be a spectator or course a place one goes to be a spectator or viewer. According to Sharon Crowley, a theory, viewer. According to Sharon Crowley, a theory, then, might be thought of as the viewpoint of then, might be thought of as the viewpoint of the spectator at the theater who has a view of the spectator at the theater who has a view of all of the goings-on of the stage. In one way, the all of the goings-on of the stage. In one way, the person in the seats has a view of things an actor person in the seats has a view of things an actor simply doesn’t. (But the reverse is also true.)simply doesn’t. (But the reverse is also true.)

Theory: The AbstractTheory: The Abstract Theory, as it takes a view of a very wide range Theory, as it takes a view of a very wide range

of different phenomena and seeks to explain of different phenomena and seeks to explain their relationships to each other by use of their relationships to each other by use of categories, is abstract—separated from categories, is abstract—separated from particularsparticulars E.g., literacy is a social practice (general)E.g., literacy is a social practice (general) E.g., sponsors seek to gain an advantage (general) E.g., sponsors seek to gain an advantage (general)

Theory-driven or theoretical papers are fueled Theory-driven or theoretical papers are fueled by abstract explanations people have reached by abstract explanations people have reached from observing several different particular from observing several different particular cases, for which general explanations have been cases, for which general explanations have been offered offered

Whatever is Whatever is generalgeneral has necessarily “lost touch has necessarily “lost touch with” what actually goes on, at least somewhatwith” what actually goes on, at least somewhat

Empirical: The ConcreteEmpirical: The Concrete

Empirical. Empirical. Definition 4 from the Definition 4 from the OEDOED. .

““Pertaining to, or derived from, Pertaining to, or derived from, experience.” experience.”


Etymology: L. Etymology: L. empricusempricus, Gr. -, f. , Gr. -, f. experience, f. skilled, f. in + trial, experience, f. skilled, f. in + trial, experiment. experiment.

For “experience,” the word boils For “experience,” the word boils down to, “to put to the test.”down to, “to put to the test.”


An empirically driven paper is one informed by An empirically driven paper is one informed by direct observation or experiencedirect observation or experience

As such, empirical papers involve the writer’s As such, empirical papers involve the writer’s involvement with “real life”—the people, involvement with “real life”—the people, places, sights and sounds of particular places, sights and sounds of particular locations (contexts) locations (contexts)

Your experience with your chosen sites will be Your experience with your chosen sites will be a chance for you to “experiment,” in other a chance for you to “experiment,” in other words, to words, to testtest the theories you have the theories you have encountered in Brandt, Barton and Hamilton, encountered in Brandt, Barton and Hamilton, and Resnick and Resnick

Putting the Theoretical Putting the Theoretical with the Empiricalwith the Empirical

Theories, as we said above, necessarily lose Theories, as we said above, necessarily lose some touch with reality because they traffic in some touch with reality because they traffic in generalizations generalizations

It’s no stretch to say that theorizing is a It’s no stretch to say that theorizing is a sophisticated form of stereotyping sophisticated form of stereotyping

Like stereotyping, theorizing focuses on Like stereotyping, theorizing focuses on characteristics observed to be common to a characteristics observed to be common to a group, and then often applies, however group, and then often applies, however provisionally, those characteristics to all provisionally, those characteristics to all members of that group members of that group

But theories, just like stereotypes, can be But theories, just like stereotypes, can be shown to be insufficient, in need of shown to be insufficient, in need of modification, or just downright wrong modification, or just downright wrong

In some cases, you might find the theory, In some cases, you might find the theory, while dated, still holdswhile dated, still holds


But how will you know whether the But how will you know whether the theory is still an adequate theory is still an adequate explanation? explanation?

You observe You observe This is where your site research comes This is where your site research comes

in in You are out to test the validity of You are out to test the validity of

Brandt, Barton and Hamilton, and Brandt, Barton and Hamilton, and Resnick’s theories Resnick’s theories


You should find, then, one of three (3) things: You should find, then, one of three (3) things:

1.1. Their theories are corroborated Their theories are corroborated (confirmed). They hold up, point for point (confirmed). They hold up, point for point

2.2. Their theories are inadequate and in need Their theories are inadequate and in need of modification. You then of modification. You then add toadd to the the theory (still staying within the overall theory (still staying within the overall framework) by offering new ways of framework) by offering new ways of accounting for phenomena accounting for phenomena

3.3. The theories are downright useless. A The theories are downright useless. A new one must be drawn upnew one must be drawn up

Theory and Observation: Theory and Observation: Mutually InformingMutually Informing

Theory needs observationTheory needs observation Theory is often viewed as “high” because it “sees from Theory is often viewed as “high” because it “sees from

above”above” However, However, direct observationdirect observation (empirical research) must (empirical research) must

inform theory for it to be up-to-date, accurate and usefulinform theory for it to be up-to-date, accurate and useful Observation needs theoryObservation needs theory

Observation is often viewed as “low” or, alternately, Observation is often viewed as “low” or, alternately, “down-to-earth”“down-to-earth”

Observation unguided by theory may run the danger of Observation unguided by theory may run the danger of finding nothing but random, scattered factsfinding nothing but random, scattered facts

In academia, these two are kept in constant In academia, these two are kept in constant “dialogue”“dialogue”

Theory and Observation: Theory and Observation: Mutually InformingMutually Informing

Putting it on PaperPutting it on Paper

Overall StructureOverall Structure Introduction*Introduction* MethodologyMethodology ResultsResults DiscussionDiscussion

*Fuses elements of your proposal’s Introduction and Purpose sections

Introduction: To get us Introduction: To get us started …started …

Theory-situated papers Theory-situated papers begin begin with theory (“they with theory (“they say”)say”)

Burkean parlor: Burkean parlor: You come late. When you arrive, others have long preceded You come late. When you arrive, others have long preceded you, and they are engaged in a heated discussion, a you, and they are engaged in a heated discussion, a discussion too heated for them to pause and tell you exactly discussion too heated for them to pause and tell you exactly what it is about. […] You listen for a while, until you decide what it is about. […] You listen for a while, until you decide that you have caught the tenor of the argument; then you that you have caught the tenor of the argument; then you put in your oar. Someone answers; you answer him; another put in your oar. Someone answers; you answer him; another comes to your defense; another aligns himself against you. comes to your defense; another aligns himself against you. […] The hour grows late, you must depart. And you do […] The hour grows late, you must depart. And you do depart, with the discussion still vigorously in progress. (qtd. depart, with the discussion still vigorously in progress. (qtd. in Graff and Birkenstein 12)in Graff and Birkenstein 12)

You “enter the conversation”You “enter the conversation” Also called “situating” the paperAlso called “situating” the paper ““Anchoring” in previous researchAnchoring” in previous research

Bring the Bring the unfamiliar academic audienceunfamiliar academic audience up to speed up to speed Names and titles of worksNames and titles of works DefinitionsDefinitions ExplanationsExplanations

Introduction: To get us Introduction: To get us started …started …

Purpose must be plainly statedPurpose must be plainly stated Research questions (with reference to site)Research questions (with reference to site) Roughly equivalent to a “thesis Roughly equivalent to a “thesis

statement”statement” Thesis statements, however, make claims Thesis statements, however, make claims

to be proven later in the textto be proven later in the text Research questions do not begin with Research questions do not begin with

claims; they are, to state the obvious, claims; they are, to state the obvious, questionsquestions to be later to be later answered answered in the textin the text

May be subdivided as you see fitMay be subdivided as you see fit

Methodology: How’d ya Methodology: How’d ya do it?do it?

When did you go to your site to do research?When did you go to your site to do research? How did you gain entry to the site?How did you gain entry to the site? Did you have the appropriate permission to use Did you have the appropriate permission to use

that site? (Signed consent form)that site? (Signed consent form) Did you observe, interview, or both?Did you observe, interview, or both? How did you choose whom to interview?How did you choose whom to interview? Did you participate as an “insider” (“participant-Did you participate as an “insider” (“participant-

observer”)?observer”)? How did you show the “insider” and “outsider” How did you show the “insider” and “outsider”

perspectives in your research?perspectives in your research? Were there problems/obstacles?Were there problems/obstacles? Was this research intended to serve the Was this research intended to serve the

community in some way?community in some way? How did you present your information ethically in How did you present your information ethically in

your write-up?your write-up?

Results: What’d ya find?Results: What’d ya find?

““Thick” descriptions/narrations Thick” descriptions/narrations ((passim*passim*)) Scrupulous attention to detailScrupulous attention to detail Frequent use of interviewee statementsFrequent use of interviewee statements

Data so arranged to answer research Data so arranged to answer research questionsquestions

May be subdivided into sections as May be subdivided into sections as you see fit you see fit

*An academic’s weakness for Latin terms: it means “throughout” or “here and there”

Discussion: Whaddya Discussion: Whaddya think?think?

What in your reading (theory) ties to what you What in your reading (theory) ties to what you saw?saw?

What in the theory argues against what you What in the theory argues against what you saw?saw?

What other sources, if any, in your background What other sources, if any, in your background research relates to what you saw?research relates to what you saw?

What other ideas could be explored with your What other ideas could be explored with your research?research?

Why should this research be Why should this research be interesting/important to others?interesting/important to others?

Why was it interesting to you?Why was it interesting to you? May be subdivided as you see fitMay be subdivided as you see fit

Discussion: Whaddya Discussion: Whaddya think?think?

The The most importantmost important part of the paper since it part of the paper since it is here that the findings of the results section is here that the findings of the results section are interpreted in light of previous literature are interpreted in light of previous literature

Whether the theory holds up or fails in new Whether the theory holds up or fails in new contexts will be gone into at some length contexts will be gone into at some length

Here, the researcher is free to speculate and Here, the researcher is free to speculate and theorize about why the findings turned up as theorize about why the findings turned up as they did they did

As this section is the most important, it will As this section is the most important, it will also need to be also need to be very highly developedvery highly developed

the theoretical and the empirical two pillars of your ethnographic essay

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