the tomb of tyre

restoration of the roman frescoes in the national museum of beirut

2 3

a word from h. e. the minister of culture

Nist, volupidus ipsam natet et offi ci offi cil iditiorum veliate num quaturi ut

et alic tem. Faciis audam ni nobis venient, alique cus sit aut ero iur magnatur mod

modisse et prores nam im quo di bersper erroviti beat.

Ugit omnimporum hil etus rae volorum dolecaboris alis si sa inctem adio. Ignis volupitas

dolectus. Vitatur, occupta qui nonsed quiatem et, a perum quae omnis vel eium ea ilit

qui doluptionem excerit exerferit ullo volesciet es et, omnimus sit vellore pudandem

quat. Rae nim eruptum qui ipis nonseceatur sit qui dolor audipit, ommoluptam,

consequis molupta voluptate exerum qui cus, ut qui doloreic temosaperae dem raes

milibus solupta cuptaque nemporio moluptur. Latur as dolor sum dusae pa pel illa

conet quat ex ex exces errorit, simet lanisqu assusap eritia nonseque venimus as mo

inimust, cor rere apit fugia nientia turera qui doluptionem excerit exerferit ullo volesciet

es et, omnimus sit vellore pudandem quat. Rae nim eruptum qui ipis nonseceatur

sit qui dolor audipit, ommoluptam, consequis molupta voluptate exerum qui cus, ut

qui doloreic temosaperae dem raes milibus solupta cuptaque nemporio moluptur.

Latur as dolor sum dusae pa pel illa conet quat ex ex exces errorit, simet lanisqu

assusap eritia nonseque venimus as mo inimust, cor rere apit fugia nientia turera qui

doluptionem excerit exerferit ullo volesciet es et, omnimus sit vellore pudandem quat.

Rae nim eruptum qui ipis nonseceatur sit qui dolor audipit, ommoluptam, consequis

molupta voluptate exerum qui cus, ut qui doloreic temosaperae dem raes milibus

solupta cuptaque nemporio moluptur. Latur as dolor sum dusae pa pel illa conet quat

ex ex exces errorit, simet lanisqu assusap eritia nonseque venimus as mo inimust,

cor rere apit fugia nientia turera qui doluptionem excerit exerferit ullo volesciet es

et, omnimus sit vellore pudandem quat. Rae nim eruptum qui ipis nonseceatur sit

qui dolor audipit, ommoluptam, consequis molupta voluptate exerum qui cus, ut qui

doloreic temosaperae dem raes milibus solupta cuptaque nemporio moluptur. Latur as

dolor sum dusae pa pel illa conet quat ex ex exces errorit.

Nist, volupidus ipsam natet et offi ci offi cil iditiorum veliate num quaturi ut

et alic tem. Faciis audam ni nobis venient, alique cus sit aut ero iur magnatur mod

modisse et prores nam im quo di bersper erroviti beat.









es et, omnimus sit vellore pudandem quat. Rae nim eruptum qui ipis nonseceatur

sit qui dolor audipit, ommoluptam, consequis molupta voluptate exerum qui cus, ut

qui doloreic temosaperae dem raes milibus solupta cuptaque nemporio moluptur.

Latur as dolor sum dusae pa pel illa conet quat ex ex exces errorit, simet lanisqu

assusap eritia nonseque venimus as mo inimust, cor rere apit fugia nientia turera qui

doluptionem excerit exerferit ullo volesciet es et, omnimus sit vellore pudandem quat.

Rae nim eruptum qui ipis nonseceatur sit qui dolor audipit, ommoluptam, consequis

molupta voluptate exerum qui cus, ut qui doloreic temosaperae dem raes milibus

solupta cuptaque nemporio moluptur. Latur as dolor sum dusae pa pel illa conet quat

ex ex exces errorit, simet lanisqu assusap eritia nonseque venimus as mo inimust,

cor rere apit fugia nientia turera qui doluptionem excerit exerferit ullo volesciet es

et, omnimus sit vellore pudandem quat. Rae nim eruptum qui ipis nonseceatur sit



dolor sum dusae pa pel illa conet quat ex ex exces errorit.

Foreword

a word from h. e. the ambassador of italy

Mr. Giuseppe Morabito

54

Aknowledgements

Nist, volupidus ipsam natet et offi ci offi cil iditiorum veliate num quaturi ut et alic tem.

Faciis audam ni nobis venient, alique cus sit aut ero iur magnatur mod modisse et

prores nam im quo di bersper erroviti beat.









es et, omnimus sit vellore pudandem quat. Rae nim eruptum qui ipis nonseceatur sit



dolor sum dusae pa pel illa conet quat ex ex exces errorit, simet lanisqu assusap eritia

nonseque venimus as mo inimust, cor rere apit fugia nientia turera.

Nist, volupidus ipsam natet et offi ci offi cil iditiorum veliate num quaturi ut et alic tem.

Faciis audam ni nobis venient, alique cus sit aut ero iur magnatur mod modisse et












es et, omnimus sit vellore pudandem quat. Rae nim eruptum qui ipis nonseceatur sit



dolor sum dusae pa pel illa conet quat ex ex exces errorit, simet lanisqu assusap eritia

nonseque venimus as mo inimust, cor rere apit fugia nientia turera.

76

8 Introduction | Anna Dal Maso

22 The Tomb of Tyre | Anne-Marie Mala Afeiche

42 From Tyre to Beirut | Isabelle Doumet Skaf

86 The Museography | Antonio Giammarusti, La Captan

48 The Restoration | Giorgio Capriotti, Caterina Michelini Tocci, Ghada Salem & Badr Jabbour Gdon

2 Foreword

5 Acknowledgements

106 Bibliography & Credits

98

Anna Dal Maso

| 11Anna Dal MasoIntroduction10 |

why do we preserve cultural heritage?

Why do we preserve our cultural heritage? Why do we commit ourselves to the protection of the cultural heritage? These are the questions that often come to mind, especially when the protection of cultural heritage is applied to specific areas of the world. When we mention countries

like Afghanistan, Sudan or Haiti and the conflicts or catastrophic events that occurred

there and that dramatically affected those countries, considering and being committed

to cultural heritage activities or to the preservation of cultural objects sometimes seems not

completely understandable and reasonable, compared to the gravity of the overall situation.

Nevertheless, it is too often forgotten that most of the time, humanitarian

emergencies are also cultural emergencies, as

Culture is the cement that holds a society together. Cultural heritage comprises physical

constructions (tangible culture) as well as all the traditions, customs, values and ways

to ensure the survival and continuity of a community (intangible culture). They reflect

rules of existence, survival, development and progress. 1

The concept of culture as a basic need for the different societiesalthough at

times difficult and neglectedis important and gives one of the best answers to the

previous question: Why do we preserve cultural heritage? We do protect the cultural

properties because we value what they represent, the message they bring forward from

our past roots and that is our task to deliver to the generations to come. We protect the

cultural heritage because culture is necessary for the development of any society and

with the common belief that knowing our past may lead to a better future.

Close to this perspective, the Italian Development Cooperation of the Italian

Ministry of Foreign Affairs included the protection of cultural heritage in its strategy

and among its field of intervention since the very beginning of its mandate. Considered

as a tool to fight poverty while raising awareness among the local communities, the

protection and valorisation of cultural heritage has proven to be in more than one

context and occasion an effective strategy to emphasize common roots, origins

and patrimony and therefore an important mean to facilitate the dialogue and the

communication among different social parties. The commitment to support culture

as a significant component for the sustainable and comprehensive development of

a country and its social community, made Italy one of the most reliable counterparts

in the implementation of cultural projects in more than a country. Moreover, the

conservation and restoration best practices promoted by the Italian conservators,

while putting into practice the guidelines provided by the International Council for

Monuments and Sites (icomos), and the International Centre for the Study of the

Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property in Rome (iccrom), contributed

also, more than once, to the establishment of interesting cultural and methodological

debates within the countries where the Italian Cooperation interventions took place.

Enjoying the support of a well established tradition in the conservation of Italian

cultural heritage and of the results achieved so far in this field, the Italian Cooperation

is presently carrying out several projects aimed at enhancing the local cultural

patrimony and promoting cultural tourism in Lebanon (Figure 1): the initiative for the

reconstruction of Chamaa Castle in South Lebanon (Figure 2), the one dedicated to the

re-qualification of Khan El Echle in Old Sidon (Figure 3) as well as the activities aimed

at supporting the tourism development in Baalbek and North Bekaa are some of the

projects presently financed by the Italian Cooperation in Lebanon. Among all these

different initiatives, the Cultural Heritage and Urban Development (chud) Program,

and namely its activities in the most important archaeological sites (Baalbek, Tyre,

Sidon and Tripoli) (Figures 4 and 5), can truly be considered among the key interventions

Knowing our past to understand our present

The cultural significance and background of the conservation project for the Tomb of Tyre Roman frescoes

Anna Dal Maso

Italian Cooperation Officer

1 | Tomb of Tyre detail of the Tombs funerary chamber after restoration and museographic interventions.

2 | Chamaa Castle, South Lebanon.

3 | Khan El-Echle, Sidon.

4 | Bacchus Temple, Baalbek.

5 | El-Bass, Tyre.

1 | Cultural Emergency

Response, Culture

is a Basic Need:

Responding to Cultural

Emergencies, 2006.

Summary presented

in the website of the

Governance and

Social Development

Resource Center.

Introduction | 13Anna Dal Maso

of the Italian Development Cooperation for the protection of the cultural patrimony of

this Country.

Although smaller in scale, the Project for the restoration of the Roman frescoes

of the Tomb of Tyre, hosted in the National Museum of Beirut, can be considered an

important and successful story that effectively shows the fruitful collaboration with the

Lebanese Ministry of Culture and the Directorate General of Antiquities.

the project origins

This outstanding example of ancient art, now better known as the Tomb of Tyre,

dates back to the 2nd century ad: the beautiful frescoes, now restored and clearly visible

in the basement of the National Museum of Beirut, deeply reflect the art of the Roman

imperial period with some interesting connection to the Pompeian style. They show

local innovations in iconography as well as the exquisite skills and techniques reached

by the unknown artist who created them.

At the time of discovery, in 1937, the Tomb had preserved the original architectural

structure with a monumental staircase carved in the rock (Figure 6), an entrance, a main

funerary chamber and two additional chambers all in fairly good state of conservation.

The main chamber was richly decorated with frescoes depicting several myths related

to the netherworld and namely the restitution of Hectors spoil to his father Priam,

the story of the abduction of Proserpina by Pluto, the myth of Hercules and Alcestis,

Tantale, the episode of the 12th labour of Hercules with Cerberus.

The fortunate discovery of this painted Tomb in the Region of Tyre, in Bourj El-

Shemali, and the quality of the monument clearly drew the attention of the Lebanese

Directorate General of Antiquities that decided, in 1939, to detach the frescoes and

transfer the funerary chamber to the National Museum of Beirut in order to better

protect this excellent example of their cultural patrimony. The main funerary chamber

with the lifted frescoes and the entrance were thus re-settled in the basement of the

National Museum, whereas the staircase and the secondary chamber were not moved.

The frescoes conditions were very good and the work done by the English

architect, Henry Pearson, responsible of the transportation, was carried out in an

excellent manner: the accurate and thorough design of the structure for the frescoes

detachment enabled safe transportation from the region of Tyre to the National

Museum of Beirut .

The dramatic event of the outbreak of the Lebanese civil war, which lasted from

1975 to 1991, forced the Museum to close its doors while leaving deep scars and traces

on part of its cultural relics: the unfortunate position of the National Museum of Beirut,

located along the so-called Green Line, namely the battle line that divided East and

West Beirut, caused several damages to the main structure and to part of its exhibits.

The incredibly wise measures taken by the then Director General of Antiquities, Emir

Maurice Chhab, who managed to hide and protect many cultural items and most

6 | Monumental staircase from the Tomb of Tyre, original location, BMB, pl. 1.2, 1965.

12 |

Introduction14 | | 15Anna Dal Maso

of the collections, helped in preserving many artefacts and antique relics that could

have been surely looted or vandalized.2 Nevertheless, the prolonged misuse of the

Museum for military purposes, led to major damages to the structure and to part of the

collection that was protected in situ: the rooms in the basement were in fact extensively

flooded with the result that the Tomb and the frescoes remained in a wet and damp

environment for an incredibly long time.

At the end of the war, activities aimed at securing the Museum as well as

assessing damages were carried out by the Directorate General of Antiquities: the

objects to be consolidated or restored were identified and works started accordingly.

The situation of the basement was also carefully evaluated, as some of the basement

rooms showed high water marks of nearly 1 meter, with silt and mud covering part of

the shelves and the objects.3 Needless to say, the frescoes also presented clear traces

of the prolonged unhealthy conservation conditions.4 Microbiological and chemical

alterations were clearly visible to the eyes of the local professionals and left their traces

on the colours of the Tomb beautifully decorated scenes (Figure 7). As it happens after

a war that deeply affects the overall conditions of a country and its society, the financial

resources to carry out all the necessary activities were not enough and an international

support was thus requested to unesco, iccrom and several European countries, which

cooperated, in different manners, to design the rehabilitation plan for the Museum

structure, for the laboratories and collaborated in some conservation activities mainly

related to the Museum items.

For the Tomb of Tyre, a special mission was organized by iccrom in April 1997.

Headed by Mr. Werner Schmid5 in order to evaluate the state of conservation and the

level of decay of the frescoes and of the Tomb delicate structure, the mission delivered

to the Directorate General of Antiquities a first conservation project that included the

description of the main activities needed, the human resources necessary to carry out

the overall restoration, and the estimation of a

global budget for the required interventions.

In order to identify the correct

restoration methodology, the conservation

project recommended the execution of some

preliminary diagnostic interventions and

cleaning tests that were carried out by an

Italian restorer, Mr. Giorgio Capriotti, who

was selected by iccrom due to his great

experience and skills in the field of Roman

frescoes restoration. The mission was financed

by the National Heritage Foundation. The

preliminary cleaning tests, performed later

on, were focused on two samples of the front

and left wall and resulted in a very good work

that enabled to understand and highlight the

beauty of the decorations. The powerful portrait of Hercules rescuing Alcestis and one

particular of Plutos chariot started to emerge after the removal of the chemical and

microbiological substances (Figure 8).

Eventually, in 2009, the Directorate General of the Antiquities and namely,

the then Director General, Mr. Frdric Husseini, and the then curator, Ms. Suzy

Hakimian, considering Italy as a reliable counterpart for Cultural Heritage projects

given the qualified expertise of Italian restorers and the strong tradition in the cultural

patrimony conservation, requested the support of the Italian Embassy in Beirut, in

order to implement a project aimed at restoring and valorizing the Tomb of Tyre Roman

Frescoes. The project proposal submitted by the dga was evaluated and approved in

the second half of 2009, and a total financing of 256.000 Euro was thus allocated in

order to jointly achieve the conservation and valorisation of the exquisite frescoes of

the Tomb of Tyre.

the project implementation

During late 2009 - early 2010, the project activities started with the selection of

the restoration team: the experience of Mr. Giorgio Capriotti and the results achieved

during the preliminary cleaning action led the dga to request him as senior restorer

in charge of the overall conservation plan6. Ms. Caterina Michelini Tocci, an Italian

restorer experienced in frescoes conservation, was asked to assist him during the

major works. Ms. Isabelle Doumet Skaf, Ms. Badr Jabbour Gdon and Ms. Ghada

Salem were eventually proposed by the dga as the local team in charge of cooperating

at the various phases of the restoration due to their previous extensive collaboration

with the dga in several conservation activities in Lebanon, namely in mural painting

and frescoes. 7 | The Tomb of Tyre after the civil war damages caused by humidity and dampness.

8 | Cleaning sample carried out by Mr. Capriotti in 19978, detail of Plutos chariot.

2 | The Director General of

Antiquities, Emir Maurice Chhab,

managed to protect in situ most

of the collection of the National

Museum of Beirut. When the

galleries were subsequently

transformed into military barracks

and bunkers, the larger objects,

too heavy to be removed, had to

be hastily shielded with concrete

caissons built around them. [...]

in Skaf, I., War and conservator:

4. Recovery operations at the

National Museum of Beirut,

in Museum management and

curatorship, Vol. 16, N. 2, p. 173,

1997.

3 | In these rooms, the water level

at the time the photographs were

taken stood at about 12 cm. Silt and

mud brought about by rising waters

have been deposited all over the

shelves and the objects. In Skaf, I.,

Ibidem, p. 177, 1997.

4 | Capriotti, G., Conservation

of the Tomb of Tyre: 1st diagnostic

campaign, National Museum, Beirut,

Lebanon, 920 July 1997. Mission

report, iccrom, Rome, Italy, 1997,

and Conservation of the Tomb of Tyre:

2nd diagnostic campaign & emergency

treatments, National Museum,

Beirut, Lebanon, 815 February

1998, Mission report, iccrom,

Rome, 1998.

5 | Schmid, W., Lebanon:

survey of needs and draft action plan

for the preservation of

archaeological and historic mural

paintings, Mission report,

iccrom, Rome, 1997.

6 | Capriotti, G., Ibidem,

1997 and 1998.


The project financed by the Italian Development Cooperation was divided into

three restoration campaigns, of two months each, aimed at ensuring the adequate

conservation of the painted surfaces. The first campaign started in February 2010

and was mainly dedicated to the right side wall, whose structure appeared to be more

damaged and was temporarily covered by a protective fence supported by props

(Figure 9). The shoring structure was thus removed and a preliminary consolidation

and restoration work was executed. In the meantime, the team of restorers proceeded

also with the removal of salts resulted from the prolonged exposition

of the frescoes to a very humid environment, re-establishing the

cohesion and adhesion of the painted layers, the fillings of the lacunae

with respect for the authenticity of the work of art and with other

relevant interventions in compliance with the updated methodologies

developed by the Italians and included in the unesco and icomos

recommendations and guidelines. All in all, these activities resulted

in the conservation of the right wall with the main scenes of Hercules

overpowering Cerberus to bring him out of Tartarus (the 12th labour

of Hercules according to mythology) and the story of Priam begging

Achilles for the restitution of the spoil of Hector, his son, as described in the Iliad

(first restoration campaign) (Figure 10). The front wall with the exceptional artistic

masterpiece of the abduction of Proserpina by Pluto, god and ruler of the underworld

that was meant by the antiques to illustrate the changing of seasons was the main

objective of the second restoration campaign, whereas the conservation of the left wall

with Hercules rescuing Alcestis from Hades, Tantaluss punishment and the external

part of the entrance side with Psyche were conducted during the last restoration

campaign.

The restoration and conservation works improved the conditions of the frescoes

and, by eliminating the cause of deterioration, prevented further decay. The beauty

of the main mythological scenes together with the minor, but not less beautiful,

particular of winged Eros, sirens, architectural details and trompe-lil effects, could

thus be visible again and the message from the past could be delivered to us and to the

generations to come.

Within the project framework, the opportunity to provide an adequate setting

and presentation for the Tomb of Tyre was also deeply evaluated. A museological

strategy for the basement of the National Museum of Beirut was going to be defined by

the Directorate General of Antiquities and the Tomb of Tyre was therefore the first step

towards the creation of a new exhibition area dedicated to the funerary art and relevant

cultural objects along the centuries and different cultures.

The results delivered by the restoration process showed, both to the dga and

to the Italian Cooperation officers, the evidences that it was not enough to limit the

intervention of this Project to the frescoes, the main funerary chamber and its inner

layout, but that it was highly recommended to proceed with a more comprehensive

museological approach that could adequately showcase the value and the meaning of

this exquisite artistic masterpiece.

The prompt response of the Directorate General for Development Cooperation

(dgcs) enabled the participation of Arch. Antonio Giammarusti to the project and

the elaboration of a specific museographic design aimed not only at improving the

presentation of the funerary chamber, but also at providing a new museographic

perspective to the area facing the Tomb of Tyre. The museological study carried out by

the Italian architect together with the dga and namely with the constant support of the

Museum Curator, Ms. Anne-Marie Mala Afeiche, took into consideration the overall

story of the Tomb, from its fortunate discovery to the transportation to the Museum,

and in the perspective of the future opening to the public. The main objective of the

museological strategy was thus to ensure the safe and secure access of the visitors to

9 | Detail of the right

side wall of the funerary

chamber with the shoring

structure.

10 | February 2010: first restoration campaign, detail of the right side wall intervention.


the chamber, to keep the adequate conservation condition for the frescoes and, at the

same time, to enable the visitors to reach a correct interpretation of the netherworld

myths while having a clearer picture of the Roman funerary rituals and traditions

(Figure 11).

The documentation produced by Mr. Maurice Dunand describing the Tomb at

the time of the discovery, his drawings and pictures provided the necessary information

for the elaboration of the museographic project and put the basis for the intervention

carried out in the interior of the funerary chamber as well as for the external and access

part 7. Reflecting the original plan of the Tomb as carefully described by Dunand, the

design proposed by Arch. Giammarusti and agreed to by the then Minister of Culture,

Mr. Selim Warde and the dga, introduced a different concept of space in the basement,

in an attempt to bring back the spatial significance of the Tomb that was partially lost

7 | Dunand, M., Tombe

peinte dans la campagne

de Tyr, in Bulletin du

Muse de Beyrouth,

Beyrouth, p. 151.

11 | The Tomb of Tyre after the restoration and the museographic interventions.

with the transfer from Tyre to Beirut. Architectural quotations of the original settings

were reproduced in the modern reinterpretation of the ancient vestibule area: this

new space similar in structure and dimensions to the original drawn by Dunand,

was meant to have a double purpose (Figures 1213). It was aimed at introducing the

perspective of the original architectural layout of the Tomb when descending from

the monumental staircase now lost, while providing a functional area where visitors

can receive information on the Tomb, the frescoes, the restoration etc through the

video documentary and the didactic panels. At the same time, the new vestibule

allows the visitors to wait their turn of visit and to respect the carrying capacity of

the painted funerary chamber: the restorers established in fact in 10 the maximum

number of visitors allowed to see the frescoes at a time in order not to dramatically

modify the relative humidity of the funerary chamber and to enable the complete

vision of the painted surfaces in a narrow area. The access to the frescoes was also

modified in order to re-establish the concept of the descent to the Tomb through

the original steps.

The design and execution of the museographic project requested nearly four

months of constant and painstaking works directed by Arch. Giammarusti and with

the collaboration of the young Lebanese architect La Captan. The execution of the

floors, the ceiling and the new vestibule were carried out with thorough attention to the

architectural details and with a specific care for the material selection.

The various phases of the conservation works that brought about the excellent

results achieved by the restorers and the elaboration and execution of the new

museographic display were all documented and are now included in the didactic

panels presenting the Tomb of Tyre in the vestibule area, in the brochures for visitors

and in a short documentary prepared in three languages (Arabic, English and French)

where the historical, archaeological background, as well as the long path that led to

the restoration of the frescoes are thoroughly described. A dedicated website was also

designed and set up in order to increase accessibility to the information regarding this

important instance of ancient art: a 360 view of the funerary chamber with relevant

information on the frescoes subjects and details is available on the website (and

downloadable on most used smart phones) enabling people from different part of the

world to admire the beauty of the frescoes8.

Although not opened to the large public as of September 2011, but only to

small groups upon reservation, due to other works that need to be carried out in the

basement, the project achievements were nevertheless presented during an official

ceremony in April, 2011: in the presence of h.e. the then Minister of Culture, Mr.

Selim Warde, and h.e. the Ambassador of Italy, Mr. Giuseppe Morabito, the restored

Roman frescoes of the 2nd century ad and the new museography for the Tomb of Tyre

were in fact shown to the representatives of Lebanese cultural institution, universities,

local authorities and scholars and to many European authorities.

8 | The official website of the

Tomb of Tyre is the following:

www.culture.gov.lb/tomboftyre.


conclusion

The beauty of the restored frescoes is the message generously sent to the future

by the ancient artist. The myths, the concept of the netherworld, the idea of life are

finally delivered to us through the paintings, the stories and myths narrated along the

walls, thanks to the ability of curators, restorers, architects, the Lebanese and Italian

authorities and all the different actors who cooperated, at various levels, to make this

project possible and the life of this monument and its message to be prolonged and

passed on to the generations to come.

The importance of the restoration work, the profound respect for the authenticity

of the piece of art, the significance of this project and of the opportunity to protect a

part of the heritage that reminds to Lebanon and Italy their common roots, represented

a fruitful opportunity for cooperation.

Culture is a basic need and is an effective mean of communication and, in many

occasions, a source of hope for people.

A nation stays alive when its culture stays alive. 9

This is one of the powerful messages that the Tomb of Tyre and its significance

for the Lebanese cultural heritage brought forward: the glorious past of this Country

is effectively witnessed by the exquisite beauty of the frescoes, by the concept of hope

and life which is delivered to us through the represented myths, by the records of the

transportation and the great efforts made along history by archaeologists, restores,

curators and authorities in order to prevent all this to be lost.

This is the answer to the initial question, the source of our strategy and the

cultural significance of this project. This is the reason why we should always commit

ourselves to protect our cultural patrimony.

13 | The architectural quotation of the pillars in the museographic display.

9 | Inscription at the entrance

of the National Museum of Kabul,

in Afghanistan.

12 | The pillars in the original architecture, in BMB, XVIII, p. 23, 1965.

2322

Anne-Marie Mala Afeiche

| 2524 | Anne-Marie Mala Afeiche

In May 1937, a providential and unexpected discovery in the Tyre region uncovered a 2nd century Tomb decorated with magnificent frescoes. Scenes from Greek mythology, bright images of vegetation and illusionistic architectural similes were depicted in great detail on the four Tomb walls. Intended

to provide visual distraction thus contributing in comfort to the subterranean space,

these paintings also carry the suggestion of symbolic meanings.

This Roman Tomb, carved in rock near the village of Burj el-Shemali in the El

Awatin region and about 3 km from Tyre (South Lebanon) was discovered by a peasant

digging in his field. What made the find unusual were the well-preserved paintings

running along the Tombs or hypogeums four inner walls. Lively coloured frescoes

depict a variety of scenes in a no less remarkable choice of composition. The deliberate

selection and grouping of images expresses a comprehensive theme related to funerary

practices and the belief in the afterlife. In fact, the iconographical arrangements

reveal the religious affiliations of the inhabitants of nearby Tyre and its region during

the Roman period. The subject matter of the frescoes reflects the ornamental taste

commonly used to decorate a 2nd century ad house of the dead.

Although we may never know the identity of the Tomb of Tyres owner, his wealth

and erudition can be confidently adduced from the finesse of its appointment.

This is the story of the discovery of an exceptional Roman Tomb in Lebanon.

It tells the story of the excavation of this extraordinary monument by archaeologist

Maurice Dunand soon after its discovery and of the decision in 1939 to detach the

frescoes from their original location and relocate them to the National Museum. It tells

of their unfortunate degradation during the Lebanese Civil war, which raged between

1975 and 1991, and finally it describes the conservation program, which began in 2010

that rescued this outstanding Roman Tomb and restored it to public viewing in 2011.

For a number of years, particular attention has been aimed at the refurbishment

and repair of the National Museum of Beirut but more recently the focus of this has

turned to the Tomb of Tyre hosted in its basement. The rehabilitation program that

was started in 1996, with Dr. Camille Asmar former Director General of Antiquities

successfully allowed the reopening of the National Museum after more than 20 years

of closure, due to a time of civil unrest between 1975 and 1991. The newly refurbished

ground floor and first floor gallery were inaugurated in 1999 while the underground

area remained closed. The overhaul of the basement was however undertaken in 2004

under the guidance of the then Director General of Antiquities, Mr. Frdric Husseini

and the then curator Ms. Suzy Hakimian. The Museums permanent collection exhibit

should eventually be opened to the public upon completion of the museographic works.

Meanwhile, the inauguration of one of the museums major masterpieces namely the

Tomb of Tyre, took place in April 2011.

Thanks to the commitment, the technical and the financial support of the

Embassy of Italy in Lebanon and to the Cooperation Development Office in Beirut

and more specially to Ms. Anna Dal Maso, the restoration of this monument began

in February 2010 under the guidance of Giorgio Capriotti. The degradation of the

frescoes was largely due to the upwelling of water, the high level of humidity and the

inadequate environmental conditions that plagued the National Museums basement

throughout the war years.

A team of Italian (Mr. Giorgio Capriotti, Ms. Caterina Michelini Tocci) and

Lebanese restorers (Ms. Isabelle Doumet Skaf, Ms. Badr Jabbour Gdon and Ms.

Ghada Salem) participated in this operation that came to an end in November 2010.

Furthermore, appropriate presentations program display for the Tomb was

designed by the architect Mr. Antonio Giammarusti, assisted by Ms. La Captan, in order

to ensure the long term protection of the monument well beyond the completion of the

restoration process whilst at the same time affording visitors a clear view of the Tomb.

the discovery

In 1938, the then Director of Antiquities Maurice Chhab, wrote in the Bulletin du

Muse de Beyrouth 10:

Lvnement capital de lanne coule a t, au Liban, la dcouverte dun hypoge

peint dans la ncropole romaine de Tyr []. Toutes les parois sont recouvertes de

peinture dune vive polychromie [].

transl.: The most notable event of this past year in Lebanon was the discovery

of a painted hypogeum in the Roman necropolis of Tyre [...]. All the wall surfaces

are covered in a bright polychromy [].

He then goes on to describe the hypogeum whose incomparable and unique artistic and

historic importance he recognized straight away. The region of Burj el-Shemali near

Tyre was well known for the ancient necropolis nestling in its limestone rocky hills.

The discovery of the Tomb dates back to 1937 when a Tyrian peasant, Hajj Hassan,

reported his find to the Service des Antiquits in Beirut and upon his insistence a

A Roman painted Tomb from Tyre in the

National Museum of Beirut

Anne-Marie Mala Afeiche

Curator of the National Museum of Beirut

10 | Chronique,

BMB, II, p. 109111, 1938.

The Tomb of Tyre

26 | | 27Anne-Marie Mala Afeiche

member of the scientific team from the Department of Antiquities, Lon Albanse

was sent to inspect the site. His four-page report recorded what he found (Figure 14).

In his somewhat emotional but acuminous account he describes the first time he

investigated the site:

Nous dplaons, non sans peine quelques-unes de ces grosses pierres et nous parvenons

nous glisser lintrieur du monument. La circulation y est particulirement difficile,

le sol est jonch de quartiers de rocs provenant de la vote effondre par endroits, de

plus un amas considrable de terre, rendue boueuse par les eaux dinfiltration recouvre

toute la surface, a et l des fragments de sarcophages en terre cuite briss []

transl.: We shifted, with no small effort, some of the large boulders and managed

to slip inside the monument. There was very little room to manuvre; fallen

pieces of rock from where the vault had collapsed were scattered everywhere, a

significant amount of earth turned to wet mud by seeping water covered the floor

which was strewn here and there with broken pieces of terracotta sarcophagi...

It seems that the Tomb had been looted in antiquityas evidenced by the dispersed

human remainsby thieves searching for gold jewellery. However, Albanses

attention was focused on the painted wall decoration.

In October 1937, the excavation inside the Tomb began directed by the archaeologist

Maurice Dunand. The description of the dig encompassing sketches, plans, and

pictures was published by Dunand in 1965 11, many years after the excavation was

completed and after the frescoes were moved from their original location in Tyre to

a specially built chamber in the basement of the National Museum of Beirut. A more

in-depth account of the discovery as well as the interpretation of the painted scenes

can be found in volume xviii of the Bulletin du Muse de Beyrouth. Hence Dunands

article remains the essential reference work on the state of this Tomb in situ and proved

to be a great help during the recently undertaken restoration works. The inscriptions

painted inside the Tomb were translated and interpreted by Jean-Paul Rey-Coquais 12.

In a note also published in the Bulletin du Muse de Beyrouth, Maurice Chhab

explains that the decision in 193913 to dismantle and move the frescoes was based on

the fact that the paintings were found to be saturated with water when the Tomb was

first opened, it was therefore not possible to keep them in situ due to the humidity

that would eventually have destroyed them completely. Consequently, the decision was

taken to reconstruct the Tomb in the basement of the National Museum of Beirut and

to recompose the mural paintings on its new walls. This very ambitious and delicate

operation was successfully undertaken and completed at the time by the architect

Henry Pearson.

the description

Dating back to the 2nd century ad, the Tomb is composed of a rectangular funerary

room with two additional secondary chambers. A monumental 26-step staircase led

down to the Tomb. The chamber itself consists of an underground rectangular area

measuring 6.30 m x 5.40 m and is 3.40 m from the floor to the ceiling at its highest

point. When discovered, the Tombs ceiling was some 2.25 m below the surface. Inside

chamber benches run along the walls; fourteen loculi (or cavities) were built into the

malleable limestone of the rock thus creating a depth of about 2 m intended to house

the sarcophagi. The loculi were blocked with flagstones. Two secondary tombs were

found, one on the left side of the vestibule and the other to the left side of the entrance

(Figure 15). On the right side of the entrance, two large arches resting on two stone

pillars measuring 70 cm x 72 cm were built, probably because at that time the ceiling

was most likely about to collapse.

The excavations brought to light numerous findings which, apart from 43 human

remains, included some terra cotta oil lamps and coins. Indeed, the latter were used to

date the Tomb to the 2nd century ad.

The Tomb of Tyre is certainly exceptional from a pictorial point of view as well as

from the high quality of its frescoes and their state of conservation. However, painted

11 | Dunand, M., Op. cit.,

in BMB, XVIII, p. 551, 1965.

12 | Note additionnelle, Ibidem,

p. 4951.

13 | Chronique, in BMB, II,

p. 109111, 1938.

14 | From the dga Archives, Ministry of Culture / dga.

The Tomb of Tyre

28 | | 29Anne-Marie Mala AfeicheThe Tomb of Tyre

tombs are not exceptional in this area and era. Many examples of Roman tombs were

discovered in Lebanon, although so far, no global study has been published to identify

and document this type of monument14. In South Lebanon, several tombs are recorded

as being in the vicinity of the village of Helalieh where a large necropolis with many

tombs carved inside the limestone hill was found at the beginning of the 20th century.

Renan in his Mission de Phnicie refers to this type of sepulchre15. There were well

known to the inhabitants of the areas villages and were often looted and left open,

consequently leading to a bad conservation state. Lately, in collaboration with the

Directorate General of Antiquities, a conservation mission by Nara University, was

undertaken in Tyre in the Burj el-Shemali region and focused on a Roman painted

hypogeum16. Elsewhere in the region several similar tombs have been recorded like

that of a large necropolis discovered in Jordan in the ancient city of Tell Abil17 which

contains about twenty richly painted tombs. This type of hypogeum, often built for

families, is attested since the Hellenistic period. In 1938, the hypogeum of Ain Zelhefeh,

about 2 km north of Sidon, as described by Meurdrac and Albanse18 presents the same

architecture with funerary rooms accessible through a deep stairway, carved in the rock

and comprising lateral loculi.

The taste for ornament and fl oral decoration originates from a Hellenistic

concept aimed at eliminating sinister ideas of death19. Consequently, decorating

houses of eternity became widely spread during the Roman period.

14 | A research study in the

framework of a doctoral thesis

is being undertaken by Mr. Gaby

Maamari.

15 | Renan, E., Mission de

Phnicie, p. 367368, pl. 44.

16 | The mission was carried

out under the direction of

Prof. Mishiyama Yioichi

(unpublished report).

17 | Barbet, A., Vibert-Guigue, C.,

Les peintures des ncropoles

romaines dAbila et du nord de la

Jordanie, Bibliothque Archologique

et Historique, CXXX, IFAPO, 1994.

18 | Meurdrac, M.,

Albanse L., A travers les

ncropoles grco-romaines de

Sidon,BMB, II, p. 76, 1938.

19 | Ibidem, p. 9697.

The stairway

The vestibule

The entrance

The loculi

The secondary tombs

The pillars

The frescoes

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

15 | Plan from Dunand, BMB, XVIII, pl. 22, 1965.

0 1 2 3(m)

n s

w

e

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

The Tomb of Tyre30 | | 31Anne-Marie Mala Afeiche

the iconography

A rich fl oral decoration composed of red and green interlacing branches starts at

the entrance of the Tomb. Often used in Roman graves, an ornamentation consisting

of ivy branches and grapes is associated with a wine cult and thus comprises typical

Dionysiac symbols20. Flanking the doorway, the decoration has faded away, mainly

because of the continuous movement of people passing through the door. The

goddess Psyche, often depicted with wings, appears in the middle of the foliage as the

representation of the human soul (Figure 16).

Mural paintings of outstanding quality cover the four sides of the Tomb, except

for the ceiling. Red ochre, yellow ochre, green, light brown, black and white are the

main colours used. A winged Eros appears fl anked with garlands in the middle of

the side of each wall, a reference to Phosphorus, the morning star, who accompanies

the dead in the afterworld (Figure 17). Another representation of young boys masks is

depicted in the middle of the foliage. It is probably the image associated with the soul

of the deceased, or eidlon, reproduced here in order to preserve him from permanent

extinction (Figure 18). Commonly represented with the mask is the garland ornament21,

a wreath made of fl owers, pomegranates, peaches and leaves which is repeated on

three walls marking the partition between the different themes.

Two musician mermaids are painted on either side of the entrance wall.

One holds a four-string harp while the other plays a double fl ute (Figure 19). These

instruments are commonly used in funerary ceremonies. These enchanting sirens

also represented celestial birds intended to guide, with their music, the soul of the

deceased to the world beyond.

On the lower parts of the walls, there are painted trompe-lil architectural

compositions imitating columns, capitals and double wing doors (Figures 20 and 21).

This artistic technique of providing an illusion of windows, doors or porticos is typical

of the Pompeian Second Style which began in the early 1st century bc. Four Pompeian

styles of painted wall decoration were identifi ed by August Mau, in the late 19th century.

Without ascribing the Tomb of Tyres pictorial style to any one group, it is likely that our

frescoes can be compared, in some aspects, to the Pompeian style of mural paintings in the

Villa Livia at Prima Porta or the Villa of Publius Fannius Synistor at Boscoreale.

The developed scenes are inspired from the fabulous world of the Greek myths.

Two compositions appear on the northern wall: Tantalus in the infernal gardens and

Alcestis and Heracles, while two others are depicted on the southern one: The return

of Hectors body and Heracles and Cerberus. A unique theme, The abduction of

Proserpina is divided into two sequences painted on the western wall facing the entrance

and consequently occupies the prime spot of the Tomb.

17 | Northern wall, detail of Phosphorus.

21 | Door. 20 | Column. 19 | Mermaids.18 | Eidlon.

16 | Entrance, Psyche representation.

20 | Dunand, M., Ibidem,

in BMB, XVIII, p. 12,

1965.

21 | Like the garland

from Room L of the villa

of P. Fannius Synistor

at Boscoreale, in The

Metropolitan Museum

of Art, New York.


22 | Northern wall, detail of tantalus scene. 23 | Northern wall, detail of Alcestis and Heracles scene.

tantalus in the infernal gardens

Represented as a modest man, Tantalus appears in a well-composed scene dressed

in a skirt and wearing a hat. He is standing in a pond bound by olive and pomegranate

trees replete with fruit. Tantalus is serving a sentence imposed by the Gods to whom he

offered his childs flesh during a meal. His punishment was therefore to live in a rich

and prosperous environment in which he could never partake.

An inscription with his name is painted above his bent back. The theme of Tantalus

in the infernal gardens is evocative of what can be expected by the deceased in the

afterworld. The cultivation and widespread existence of both olive and pomegranate

trees were an essential feature in the Mediterranean region. They also have symbolic

connotations with the olive representing a fundamental and life-supporting fruit whilst

the pomegranate is associated with death.

alcestis and heracles

This funerary scene depicts the hero Heracles holding his mace. He is bringing

Alcestis back from the hereafter to the world of the living. Alcestis is wearing a plain

sleeveless greenish chiton with a red brown scarf; her pale look, hesitant walk and

bowed head make it clear she is coming cautiously back from the world beyond.

Beneath them is the Greek inscription: Be courageous, no one is immortal.


22 | Meurdrac, M.,

Albanse L., Ibidem,

BMB, II, p. 96, 1938.

24 | Eastern wall, detail of Proserpina scene. 25 | Southern wall, detail of Achilles scene.

the abduction of proserpina

The frescoes on the wall facing the entrance depict the myth of Proserpinas abduction.

To the right, recognizable by their inscribed names used to stand the goddesses Athena

and Artemis. To the left is Pluto abducting Proserpina. His chariot is carried away

by four horses led by Hermes, identified by his winged ankle. The ascending horses

symbolize the moment the soul passes to the hereafter. In one of the Helalieh tombs22,

as in the Tomb of Tyre, Hermes appears holding a stick without any ornament as if it

was an enchanted twig. This most certainly refers to Homers Hermes or Cyllenius as

mentioned in the Odysseus (xxiv, 15) gently leading souls to the underworld.

the return of hectors body

This scene from Homers Iliad (xxiv, 477505) reveals the importance of funerary

rituals to the souls survival in the afterlife. Priam is kneeling in front of Achilles,

begging him for the return of his son Hectors body. The names of Priam, Achilles and

Hector are written in red characters whilst Hectors body is depicted on a weighing

scale, his left arm hanging down.


heracles and cerberus

Heracles is represented holding his mace in his left hand while gripping Cerberus

chain in the other. Cerberus the dog is the mythical guardian of the hereafter and only

became docile when Heracles tamed him at the gates of hell. This second appearance

of Heracles in the Tomb refl ects the devotion Tyres inhabitants had for their hero.

human expressions

Homeric cycle theme, Greek mythology, and heroic fi gures are present in this Tomb

yet each of the human fi gures is depicted in a realistic pose. Expressions of sorrow,

melancholy, fear, or resignation (Tantalus), strength (Heracles) and supplication (Priam)

emanate from the frescoes.

26 | Sothern wall, detail of Heracles scene. 27 | Eastern wall, detail of eidlon.


vegetal and geometric motifs

Vegetal decoration, geometric patterns, garland and foliage, trees, fl owers and fruit appear

in delicate colours, mainly red and green declinations.

animal representations

The same realistic approach is given to the animals: graceful birds, furious horses

being pushed by the wicked Pluto or the representation of the dreadful Cerberus.

29 | Northern wall, detail of a pomegrenate.28 | Eastern wall, detail of a horse.


conclusion

Some issues raised by the iconography developed in the Tomb of Tyre emerge:

What are the socio-economic and cultural backgrounds of the owner of the Tomb?

What concept might have guided him in the choice of the painted subjects?

What is the significance beyond the decorative role of the scenes?

One of the answers that could be given promptly is that this Tomb witnesses

the taste of Tyrians for mural frescoes. The painter successfully reaches his realization

with realism in depicting human figures and nature representations.

Drawn from Greek mythology, religious beliefs can be discerned. In the case

of the Tantalus scene for example, it is a glimpse of what awaits the deceased in

the underworld. Condemned to thirst, punished with ceaseless food beyond reach,

Tantalus symbolizes punishment, frustration and suffering. Represented twice in the

Tomb of Tyre, Heracles is associated with Melqart, god of Tyre, where a particular cult

was devoted to him. The scene depicting Alcestis and Heracles alludes to Heracles who

experienced the awakening (Egersis). His revival every spring identifies him as a god

who dies and is resurrected or reborn either literally or symbolically. The presence of

Heracles twice in the Tomb associated with Alcestis on the one hand and to Cerberus on

the other, reflects this particular devotion. Very similar to this is the myth of Proserpina

with the scene of the abduction by Pluto who took her to the Underworld to become his

queen. But it also symbolizes hope as Proserpina returns regularly to live six months of

each year on Earth, thus embodying the changing of the seasons.

What makes the Tomb of Tyre unique are the mythical themes underlining the

painted frescoes, the fact that it is a creation that was elaborated in the 2nd century ad

in Tyre and the result of an erudite milieu acknowledging a deep spirituality.

architectural elements

However, a clear dissimilarity appears in the lower parts of the four walls, mainly

surrounding the loculi intended to house the sarcophagi. The colours here are bright

yellow ochre and deep red, as well as black and white. The architectural elements as

designed amplify the theatrical general setting.

30 | Western wall, detail of a door.

42 43

Isabelle Doumet Skaf

From Tyre to Beirut44 | | 45Isabelle Doumet Skaf

T he site was excavated by Maurice Dunand in October 1937 and the paintings detached and moved to the National Museum in Beirut in 1939. The detachment and transfer of the paintings was unavoidable as the paintings suffered from constant water infiltration through the rock and survived

in a situation of severe flooding (1.25 m of water accumulated in the Tomb) following

heavy rains. The situation was brought under control following the intervention of the

French army (Parc du gnie de lArme du Levant)23.

The Yale architect Henry Pearson (Figure 31) who had worked on the conservation and

transfer of the Dura-Europos Synagogue paintings in 1933 and 1934 was put in charge

of the project. The task was in fact rather difficult, as it was commented at that time:

This delicate task, fraught with difficulties, has been entrusted to the architect

Henry Pearson, who has already successfully achieved the reconstruction of the

painted synagogue of Dura Europos in Damascus.24

To this date we have no document on the detachment and conservation

methodology followed by Pearson on the Tomb of Tyre frescoes. The only document

remaining is of an administrative nature and consists of a receipt signed by Pearson

for the amount of one hundred and forty one Lebanese pounds, in return for the

reconstruction of the Tomb at the National Museum in Beirut between December 1

and 15, 1939 (Figure 32).

Henry Pearson trained

briefly with George Stout and

Rutherford Gettens at Harvard

Universitys Fogg Art Museum

Department of Conservation

and Technical Research, which

provided scientific and technical

assistance for the Dura-Europos

project. The institution also

provided Pearson with a kit for

transferring and conserving wall

paintings along with a Preliminary

report on the transfer of the Asiatic

Type of wall paintings, which drew

on Italian techniques and applied

them to wall paintings from the

Fogg Museums expeditions to

Dunhuang, China. The report

included an addendum entitled

Materials for Emergency Use 25.

Information on Henry Pearsons

work in Dura-Europos was

provided by Carol Snow from the

Yale University Art Gallery. She has

recently published some of the Yale

archives related to the architects

work on the wall paintings of

the Synagogue26. Interventions

on the Dura-Europos paintings

(which were detached in 1933

and remounted in the National

Museum in Damascus in 1936) are

well documented. A careful reading

of the documents could give us useful information on the methodology followed by

Pearson a few years later when he undertook the detachment and restoration of the

Tomb of Tyre wall paintings.

From Tyre to Beirut: the work of Henry Pearson

Isabelle Doumet Skaf

Conservator

25 | Snow, C.,

Preservation

of the Dura-Europos

Synagogue wall paintings,

in Conservation and

the Eastern Mediterranean,

Contributions to

the Istanbul Congress,

International Institute

for Conservation

of Historic and

Artistic Works,

2024 September

2010, p. 272.

26 | Ibidem,

Conference poster.

23 | Chronique,

Op. Cit., in BMB, II,

p. 109111, 1938.

24 | Ibidem.

31 | Henry Pearson (at the right) in front of the Mithraeum of Dura Europos, Syrian Arab Republic, late 1920s

(courtesy of Ms. Alice Pearson).

32 | From the dga Archives, Ministry of Culture / dga.

From Tyre to Beirut46 | | 47Isabelle Doumet Skaf

detachment and lifting

In order to consolidate the surface of the paintings, Pearson advocates spraying

several coats of cellulose nitrate or vinyl ester adhesives diluted in alcohol. Taking into

consideration the fragility of the painted surface he writes: It is better to leave dirt

rather than remove paint.27

It is not clear if a facing cloth with organic glue was applied on the surface of

the wall paintings during the detachment process; however, in Dura-Europos, Pearson

developed a technique to support the standing wall paintings from the front with wood

as they were being lifted. He writes:

Should it be necessary to use Plaster of Paris in the backing, for want of better

material or by necessity, size all surfaces and wood with gum dammar (in which

beeswax has been cut). The task is to seal the fragment from moisture. It will be

necessary to employ a retardant to the setting of Plaster of Paris. Hemp fibre used

as a binder, wood used as a lattice. Allow it to dry very thoroughly in the sun [...]. 28

In Tyre the walls of the Tomb were not mud brick as in Dura-Europos, but

calcareous rock. The use of Plaster of Paris mixed with hemp fibres to reinforce the

panels while they were being detached was a method used in Syria and adapted for

the Tomb of Tyre: during the dismantling of the gypsum fillings and examination of

the support stratigraphy the presence of Plaster of Paris panels reinforced by wooden

latticework was noted in some areas. The flexible rope segments used as tie bridges

were also rigidified by impregnation with gypsum. Furthermore, in 1997, scientific

investigations made by iccrom on fragments of the panels showed the presence of

purified beeswax or paraffin. The wall paintings conservator Giorgio Capriotti confirms

that during drilling operations on the panels, the heat generated by the drill heads

melted a material very similar to wax.

The cutting joints between the panels in the Tomb of Tyre are rectilinear and

could have been obtained by the use of a long sharp knife as in Dura-Europos. Pearson

recommends in his notes to consolidate the edges of the cutting lines with a 25%

solution of vinyl ester before cutting through the wall.

gap-filling and reintegration

In his notes on the Dura-Europos intervention regarding final presentation,

Pearson states clearly the rules he followed:

Restore with transparent colour the backgrounds when they are of one colour

and restore the system of decoration so that it is self-explanatory. That is, the

whole chamber must present a unified whole without any shock of white plaster,

bare spots, joints, etc., yet the original painting must not be touched [...]29.

Pearson stated that the restorations were on top of varnish and could be removed

with alcohol.

The approach to the Tomb of Tyre seemed to follow these principles: all the lacunae

filled with Plaster of Paris were painted with a yellowish base colour. Missing areas of

the painting were reconstituted only by outlining shapes with lighter or darker hues

than the original colours.

surface treatment

The surfaces of the Dura-Europos paintings were varnished with egg yolk in

water30. The use of organic materials of this nature on the surface of the Tomb of Tyre

paintings is very likely. Capriotti mentions the presence of considerable quantities of

organic adhesives in the roughness of the plaster, which could have been used for the

facing during the detachment, or simply as a surface consolidant.

The work undertaken by Pearson in 1939 is still, by todays standards, a huge and

challenging task, and it was executed with great skill and rigor. As described by joint articles

in this publication, the reconstitution of the hypogeum in the basement of the Beirut National

Museum is extremely faithful to the original and is based on a very accurate and precise

architectural survey. In his notes on the Dura-Europos project Pearson writes:

I wish there were more definite ethics on restorations, but there are several

schools so that one will take a beating no matter what school he belongs to

[...]. Our principles have been to restore entirely whatever we ourselves have

destroyed since the building was found. 31

Through the work he undertook in Lebanon and Syria one can consider Pearson

a true pioneer in the field of wall paintings conservation. His notes in the Yale

archives show his belief in the necessity of following specific and systematic rules

of conservation intervention, and his awareness of the importance of preserving the

authenticity and integrity of the discovery.

27 | Snow, C., Ibidem.

28 | Ibidem.

29 | Ibidem.

30 | Ibidem.

31 | Ibidem.

4948

Giorgio Capriotti, Caterina Michelini Tocci, Ghada Salem & Badr Jabbour Gdon

The Restoration50 | | 51Giorgio Capriotti

The restoration of the frescoes

Giorgio Capriotti

Conservator

previous intervention: study of the support structure

The wall paintings of the Tomb of Tyre were detached from the original site in the late 30s and reassembled in the early 40s in the lower level of the National Museum of Beirut by the English architect Henry Pearson. The aim of that project was to display the recreation of the original hypogeum.

The area of the basement on which the Tomb was reconstructed is a rectangular

space, outlined by four concrete pillars, about 30 cm in diameter.

The support structure consists of a cage in reinforced concrete, formed by a

sequence of 26 vertical rigid ribs (section of 15 cm and height of 320 cm) along the

outside perimeter which starting from a platform at floor level, is anchored to the

ceiling and the four concrete pillars of the basement (Figure 32). A series of horizontal

concrete ribs of the same strength put a belt round the entire rectangular perimeter.

The choice of concrete for this structure is justified by both its mechanical resistance

and by the facility of shaping it during the casting phase. As a matter of, the ribs

follows the curved surface of the painting, reproducing faithfully the original irregular

configuration of the rock support in the Tomb, which, as it is documented by old

photographs taken before the detachment, were not well squared and showed the

characteristic features of a directly carved calcareous rock (slight tapering off the walls

towards the ceiling, rounding of corners, ellipsoidal surfaces twisting). It is likely that

the system used for the reconstruction of the chamber - which reproduced almost

faithfully with regard to vertical sections and floor plan - was based rather on a precise

architectural survey of the irregular shape of the walls than on the use of complex

moulds. It appears that the design for the rib structure, forming a cage, and the building

of the supporting walls, which are fixed on it, were made on the basis of a very accurate

measured drawing of the hypogeum. The junction on the corners matches so perfectly

that even at a macroscopic level no reductions or losses, which might have occurred

as a result of the detachment, can be noted. The only exception is in the entrance (low

left corner), where the discontinuity of a red strip shows an evident mistake occurred

during the reassembling phase.

The construction of the walls, erected against the rib structure and tied to it,

was made from the bottom to the top by means of direct manual shaping with Plaster

of Paris (semi-hydrated calcium sulphate) mixed with fine stone dust and chemical

additives (barium) to harden the plaster. During the dismantling of the gypsum

fillings it was possible to examine the in-depth stratigraphy of the support. A flexible

latticework in wood was used as an internal, reinforcing element and guide. The direct

shaping of the walls modeled with the intention of reproducing faithfully the curved

state of the surfaces was thus regulated by a flexible internal grid, which is anchored

to the concrete ribs by means of ties composed of cord. However, the hundreds of tie

bridges, rather than a structural role provide regular reference points for the definition

of the irregular contours of the wooden lattice

work used for the construction of the wall. These

reference points were defined by measuring the

length of the various ropes in tension. Once the

precision of the various lengths on one horizontal

level was verified, the rope segments were made

rigid by impregnating them with Plaster of

Paris, supplying an exact reference for the final

modelling of the walls which never exceed the 10

cm of thickness. Except for the right hand wall,

all the back of the structure, including these rigid

cords are coated with a layer of bitumen, aiming at

the protection/water-proofing of the gypsum.

After the completion of the reconstruction of

the wall with its rectangular perimeter, it became

a statically autonomous system. The stability of which is insured by the cross-bonding

of the concrete ribbing.

The re-mounting of the paintings, detached in 36 squared panels (maximum

1 square meter each) and reduced to a small thickness from the back (nearly 1 cm),

was carried out by direct bedding (Figure 34). During the dismantling of the previous

gap fillings, traces of beeswax were noticed and further confirmed by the analysis

carried out by iccrom in 1997. The presence of beeswax was most probably applied

for the backing of the panels to avoid risks that may come from moisture. Numerous

differences in level, visible under raking light, indicate that the alignment of the

33 | Outside anchoring system and details of the original structure by H. Pearson. 34 | Detail of the revealed original panels.


rectilinear joints created difficulties. These joints between two sections are contiguous,

without substantial loss of material, but the alignment is not always correct resulting

in differences in level, which were compensated by pointing.

For the extremely fragmentary areas in between the loculi, separated panels were

executed: on top of them, the remaining fragments of a geometric decoration were

applied, following the graphic record.

The treatment of the large lacuna, which already existed at the moment of the

discovery, were presented by means of a plaster reintegration made of gypsum and

filling the lacuna up to the level of the original surface. Moreover, large portions of the

missing painting, like in the right part of the front wall (Abduction of Proserpine) were

invented, by suggesting the shapes of missed figures (Athena and Artemis) and the

sequence of the painted architecture at the dado with colour glazes, using hues slightly

lighter than the originals. In some places, the original was over-painted to emphasize

figurative details.

The votive bench along the walls, built with modern masonry materials according

to the site record, rests directly on the ground. It is not structurally connected to the

concrete ribbing and is not acting as a foundation for the walls.

Panels of Plaster of Paris reinforced with wood latticework were used for the small

entrance, imitating the surface of the carved calcareous bedrock.

state of conservation

Water rising from the underground occurring accidentally during the civil

war years, when the museum remained closed, caused alarm for the static of the

structure and large degradation to the surfaces. In such stressful conditions (Relative

humidity equal to 100% and temperature to 30C), the structure projected by Pearson

in the 40s performed anyway quite efficiently. Despite the general environmental

decay that occurred in the whole basement of the museum, the system guaranteed

a substantial static capacity as confirmed by the two assessment missions held

by iccrom in 199798 and focused on the rescue of the structure. In 1997 the

microclimatic conditions of the entire basement, including the area where the Tomb

was reconstructed, were prohibitive and totally incompatible with the conservation of

the paintings. Persisting conditions of relative humidity close to saturation in the space

enclosed by masonry wall and with the entrance sealed until April 1997, were the main

source of decay of the painted surfaces.

The general conditions of decay were mostly related to two different aspects: the

bio-deteriogenic decay and the chemical-physical decay.

1. the bio-deteriogenic decay

The unfavourable environmental conditions inside the enclosed room of the Tomb

led to an exceptionally extended and severe growth of heterotrophic microorganisms

(e.g. fungi, streptomyces). Abundant quantities of substrata were provided by organic

adhesives used for the detachment and never completely removed, and by the fixative

applied in the larger reintegrated lacuna. Laboratory analysis also revealed the presence

of sulphides, probably produced- from sulphates (gypsum) migrated to the surface by

sulphur-reducing bacteria. A direct effect of the bio-deterioration of organic matter was

the decay of the wooden structure of the ceiling that followed its collapse.

On the painted surfaces, products of the metabolic activity caused the formation

of extended, powdery and variously coloured stains (brown on residues of fixative

and whitish on adhesives used for the detachment). The action of bio-deteriogens,

in addition to the detrimental effect on the legibility, also contributed to the loss of

cohesion of some pigments.

2. the chemical-physical decay

A major source for the migration of pollutants towards the surface is the gypsum

support. The high water content in the room started a process of solubilization,

migration and re-crystallization of soluble salts (sulphates). The capillarity raised

from the ground was absorbed by the votive bench and by the panels in between the

loculi, leading to a total impregnation of the constituent materials up to a level of about

one meter. Here the re-crystallization of soluble salts was particularly destructive,

with the plaster edges of the fragments completely plagued by efflorescence, with

lack of adhesion and advanced loss of cohesion. The thickness of these fragments is

generally less than that of the paintings above. This, together with the fact that they

were applied on the panels in direct contact with the gypsum, might have contributed

to a stronger effect of the salt decay. Also the salt efflorescence on the higher part of

the walls appeared to be made up almost exclusively of calcium sulphate. They were

concentrated mainly in the areas close to gypsum fills, forming macroscopic crystals,

which however were much less invasive than in the lower part.

Restricted areas of the back wall and the right hand-wall showed the lack of adhesion of

the original plaster from the gypsum support. Also in this part, the destructive thrust of

sulphates appears to be directly proportional to the thickness of the original fragment.

During the cleaning and upon removing the sedimentation, the biological growth

and the soluble salts, which were covering the paintings, it was possible to identify

calcareous incrustations and incrusted soil, which were never removed completely

during the previous intervention of the 40s. Moreover, considerable quantities of

organic adhesives, which were applied on the surface of the painting during the

detachment, could be found in the roughness of the plaster.

3. intervention

The restoration project, executed in six months along the year 2010, was focused

at two main aspects: preventive and conservative actions.

The preventive actions were aimed at achieving the reestablishment of a

correct stability of temperature and relative humidity in the environment of the Tomb

(Temperature around 2025C and Relative Humidity equals to 5565%), whereas


conservative actions consisted mainly in facing the complete treatment of the wall

paintings, including the consolidation of the structure, fixing renderings and paint

layers, cleaning the surfaces from microbiological growths and salts, removing

previous interventions, and preparing a new esthetical presentation (Figure 35).

Based on the positive evaluation of the stability of the supporting structure

and recognizing the high level of fidelity achieved in the reconstruction of the Tomb

using Pearsons survey, it was decided not to replace the supports and to maintain

the structure as an historical evidence of the conservative approach of the Near East

archaeology in the first half of 20th century. Excluding the possibility of transferring the

paintings, which would have been traumatic for the already weary painted surfaces,

thoughts turned towards problems related to the preservation of the overall system.

The strategy was first directed to prop and reinforce the structure wherever

necessary, and then to achieve the complete de-humidification and water proofing

of the basement, in order to establish a compatible microclimate, suitable for the

conservation of the detached mural painting.

The different phases of interventions were articulated as follows:

d Execution of a temporary facing for the right-side wall and reinforcement of its

stability applying new series of steel tension wires;

d Removal of the microbiological growth;

d Re-establishment of the cohesion and adhesion of the paint layer;

d Removal of salt efflorescence, calcareous incrustations and insoluble salt veils;

d Removal of the old residues of the organic glue (protein) used in the detachment

process during the 40s;

d Adsorption of dark stains;

d Partial detachment and correct re-alignments of the differences in level;

d Mechanical removal of the gypsum fills in the deep lacuna;

d Fillings of the lacuna, using a plaster with similar characteristics to the original in

terms of mineralogical compositions, granulometry, colour and morphology.

According to the type of lacuna the plaster was then applied in three different levels:

a. Flush with the original surface for the re-constructible levels;

b. At the level of the abraded original plaster in worn areas;

c. Slightly below the level of the original surface for lacuna that could not be

reconstructed;

The esthetical presentation of lacuna was eventually based on:

a. Tone lowering of the superficial abrasions of the paint layer with water colour

glazes;

b. Reintegration in tratteggio technique (Italian word for cross-hatching) of the

re-constructible lacuna already filled flush with the originals surface (Figure 36).

The theoretical principles of this esthetical presentation were aimed at ensuring

neither to hide the passage of time over the surfaces, and therefore including their

decay, or to deny gaps and abrasions that occurred in the past. Even the interruption

of the painted text (lacuna), indeed has to be achieved as a part of the history of the

monument and thus linked with the value of its authenticity (Figure 37).

The case of the Tomb of Tyre, emblematic for the presence of such an extensive system

of losses, reveals how the interpretation of ancient paintings is directly related to an

issue of visual perception, in other words, it is a question of close relationship between

gaps and original areas, even if severely fragmented.

According to this, the intervention focused mainly on the search of a new balance

between the original parts and the lacuna, avoiding any attempt of vast reconstruction,

fake imitation or didactic hypothesis, but achieving, at the same time, a satisfactory

level of readability.

35 | Restoration interventions.36 | Tratteggio technique. 37 | During the intervention.


38a | Northern wall, detail of Alcestis scene, before restoration. 38b | Northern wall, detail of Alcestis scene, after restoration.


39a | Eastern wall, detail of Hermes, before restoration. 39b | Eastern wall, detail of Hermes, after restoration.


40a | Western wall, musician mermaid, before restoration. 40b | Western wall, musician mermaid, after restoration.


41a | Eastern wall, detail of Heracles, before restoration. 41b | Eastern wall, detail of Heracles, after restoration.


42a | Northern wall, detail of Tantalus, before restoration. 42b | Northern wall, detail of Tantalus, after restoration.

The Restoration66 | | 67Caterina Michelini Tocci

The mural paintings which are decorating the four walls of the Tomb of Tyre and its faade are executed in fresco, according to the classical Roman technique developed during the first centuries of the Christian Era across the Roman Empire and its provinces (1st 2nd century ad).

The term fresco is an Italian word which means fresh and it refers to those

mural paintings in which colours, made by pigments dissolved in water, are applied

on a wet plaster. During the drying and hardening of the plaster a chemical reaction,

called carbonatation, occurs between the lime content in the plaster and the carbon

dioxide content in the air, fixing the pigments particles to the plaster, so that the colours

are perfectly bound to the wall.

The technique used to paint frescoes, as practiced in Classical times, has been

handed down to us by Vitruvius and Pliny the Elder: the wall was prepared by applying

at least three rough coats of mortar made by lime mixed with sand, followed by three

more coats of mortar made by lime mixed with finely powdered marble, with thinner

and smoother layers close to the surface. The base for the paintings had to be perfectly

clean and smooth, therefore the uppermost layer, sometimes enriched by clay, was

carefully pressed in order to obtain a polished surface.

Coloured pigments, usually characterized by a high content of clay or mixed with

kaolin (a natural clay) to allow the final polishing, were applied while the mortar was

still damp and absorbed by the compact but porous surface, becoming a permanent

part of it. In most cases the finished paintings would then be polished to a shiny finish,

probably using a special tool.

The artist had to be extremely skilled, as mistakes could not be rubbed out but only

scraped out and re-plastered; he also had to be very quick in order to complete the plastered

area before it dried out. As a result, only one section of the wall would be plastered and

painted at a time, and the resulting joints would have to be perfectly matched up and

hidden through carefully pressing of the edges. Plastering and painting were normally

executed in horizontal sections due to the space occupied by the scaffoldings (pontate),

starting from the top of the wall. Sometimes, these scaffoldings spaces were divided, by

vertical lines, in areas that required a day of work (in Italian referred to as giornate),

whereas in some smaller areas, which demanded a more complex execution, the plaster

was cut out and plastered at a later moment. The described technique can be found in the

Pompeian mural paintings (2nd century bc 1st century ad), from which derive most of our

knowledge of Ancient Roman paintings.

The Roman frescoes technique in the Tomb of Tyre

Caterina Michelini Tocci

Restorer

However, some later evidences can be found in catacombs in Rome (Early

Christian Roman Empire, 1st 2nd century ad), which are executed in a form that can be

compared, both in terms of style and technique, to the paintings of the Tomb of Tyre.

These wall paintings, belonging to the funerary context, were spreading in the same

form into the imperial provinces of that period.

Assuming that in the Anc

the tomb of tyre

Documents